<p>Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.</p>



<p>This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



<p>In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.</p>



<p>For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. </p>



<p>If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. </p>



<p>The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.</p>



<p>In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



<p>Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. </p>



<p>Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.</p>



<p>In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<p><a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. </p>



<p>They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.</p>



<p>About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. </p>



<p>"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



<p>Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.</p>



<p>With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. </p>



<p>Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.</p>



<p>"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.</p>



<p>Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



<p>Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. </p>



<p>"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.</p>



<p>Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. </p>



<p>All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.</p>



<p>The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. </p>



<p>This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



<p>Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. </p>



<p>They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.</p>



<p>The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



<p>"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."</p>



<p>Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. </p>



<p>Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.</p>



<p>Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Forest Ecology and Management</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

<p>A new study led by Professor Bryan Fry at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> offers interesting insights into how lizards have adapted to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-blue-tongue-lizard-evolved-resistance-to-deadly-snake-venom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survive</a> snake venom attacks.</p>



<p>Lizards and snakes have been locked in a remarkable evolutionary battle for millennia. Venomous snakes wield a powerful weapon, but their reptilian cousins have developed fascinating ways to stay alive.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lizards-snakes-and-evolution">Lizards, snakes, and evolution</h2>



<p>Australia serves as a dynamic arena for an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snake-evolution-legless-lizards-into-slithering-snakes-100-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary</a> face-off. On one side are the venomous snakes, including the lethal death adder, equipped with venom powerful enough to kill a human. </p>



<p>On the other side, lizards, ranging from the imposing Komodo dragon to the smaller goannas, are locked in a survival struggle.</p>



<p>Professor Bryan Fry and his team, partnering with museums across Australia, dove deep into this epic conflict. Their research reveals a riveting arms race. </p>



<p>They discovered how some lizards have cleverly evolved to resist the deadly neurotoxins of Australia's venomous snakes. </p>



<p>“Australian snakes have developed potent venoms to counteract the lizards’ defenses, highlighting an intense predator-prey dynamic," said PhD candidate Uthpala Chandrasekara. "Once the lizards evolve, the snakes fire back with even more potent toxins. It's a biological arms race where the only constant is change."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lizard-s-defense-against-snake-venom">Lizard's defense against snake venom</h2>



<p>"Evolution has equipped these giant lizards with the ability to combat venoms, but not all shield themselves in the same way," says Professor Fry. That's where it gets really interesting.</p>



<p>In the battle for survival, lizards have developed some fascinating defenses against venomous snakes. Their first line of defense? A unique form of chemical resistance. </p>



<p>Many of these large, predatory lizards have evolved an immunity to the neurotoxins in snake venom. This venom is deadly, designed to paralyze prey by attacking the nervous system. </p>



<p>But for these lizards, it's as if they've been granted a superpower. They can face off against venomous snakes without fearing the lethal effects of their bites.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-komodo-dragon">Komodo dragon</h2>



<p>But, not all lizards play the game of chemical warfare. Enter the heavyweights: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/all-about-the-mysterious-komodo-dragon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Komodo dragon</a> and the perentie, Australia's own giant lizard. </p>



<p>These behemoths take a different approach to defense. According to Professor Bryan Fry, they rely on sheer physical strength. </p>



<p>Their defense doesn't come from within but from their armor. Thick, bone-filled scales act as a natural shield against snake bites. And if a snake does get too close? </p>



<p>These lizards use their massive teeth to quickly neutralize the threat, treating the snakes like "fettuccini" to be swiftly cut and dispatched. In this case, brute force trumps biochemical resistance.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-small-size">Advantages of small size</h2>



<p>Now, not all lizards are titans. What about the little ones? Smaller species, like tree monitors, have found a different path to survival. By taking to the trees, they escape the ground-dwelling predators armed with deadly venom.</p>



<p>This arboreal lifestyle led to an interesting shift: tree monitors gradually lost their chemical defenses against snake venom. High above the dangers of the forest floor, the need for this resistance dwindled.</p>



<p>But evolution is a winding road. Some of these small lizards eventually ventured back to the ground, becoming burrowers. This return exposed them to lurking dangers – the same venomous snakes their ancestors had escaped.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-lizards-and-snakes">History of lizards and snakes</h2>



<p>The evolutionary relation between lizards and snakes is a riveting chapter in Earth's history, a testament to the intricate web of predator-prey relationships that shape the biosphere. </p>



<p>This ongoing saga, rooted in the distant past, reflects the relentless adaptation, survival, and natural selection.</p>



<p>Millions of years ago, the ancestors of modern lizards and snakes diverged from a common lineage. This split set the stage for a journey marked by incredible diversity. </p>



<p>Lizards, in their myriad forms, colonized habitats from forests to deserts. Snakes, losing their limbs, became masters of stealth and deadly precision. As these paths crossed, a dynamic predator-prey relationship ignited.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



<p>The struggle between snakes and lizards isn't simply about survival – it's an engine of evolution. Venomous snakes wield potent toxins to subdue their prey, including lizards. </p>



<p>In response, some lizards evolved sophisticated defenses like neurotoxin resistance, a testament to the power of natural selection in shaping biological arms races. This isn't a one-sided battle, but a constant back-and-forth, innovation met with counter-innovation.</p>



<p>This intricate interplay influences the broader ecosystem. Predator-prey dynamics are crucial for ecological balance, regulating populations and driving biodiversity. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-never-dull">Nature's never dull</h2>



<p>The biggest takeaway from this study? "This complex dance of adaptation has resulted in a Russian doll-like nesting of gains and losses over time and suggests that the evolutionary battle doesn't always head in one direction," said Chandrasekara . </p>



<p>Just when you think you've got nature figured out, it throws a curveball. Lizards gain resistance, then lose it, then gain it back. It's proof that evolution is messy, unpredictable, and incredibly fascinating.</p>



<p>While there's still more to unravel in this ongoing snake-lizard duel, remember: the next time you see a lizard basking in the sun, it might be a tiny survivor packing far more secrets and evolutionary tricks than you could ever imagine.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25052628" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Molecular Sciences</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Some lizards have evolved to resist deadly snake venom

A new study led by Professor Bryan Fry at the...

Red,Ants,Army,Fighting,With,Queen,Black,Ant

<p>Your work environment shapes your job, and guess what? It's the same for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/there-are-2-5-million-ants-for-each-human-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a>. A new study discovers that ant queens aren't born destined to be egg-laying machines -- they actually change their behavior based on who's around them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-queen-s-job-description">Ant queen's job description</h2>



<p>The traditional view of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-build-higher-nests-when-there-are-no-visible-landmarks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant colonies</a> has always painted a clear division of labor: the queen, as the reproductive engine, solely dedicates herself to egg-laying, while the worker ants buzz around performing all the other necessary tasks to maintain and expand the colony. </p>



<p>This almost industrial efficiency, with roles seemingly assigned at the genetic level in some species, underscores the perceived rigidity of social insect societies. But what if this understanding is more of a generalization than a universal truth?</p>



<p>Dr. Romain Libbrecht and his research team from <a href="https://international.univ-tours.fr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tours</a> have thrown a wrench into this neatly sorted mechanism. Their research suggests that the roles within ant colonies, particularly that of the queen, may not be as fixed as once thought. </p>



<p>Through their detailed observations and experiments, they have shown that the queen's behavior and role can significantly change depending on the social environment of the colony.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-of-ant-queen-behavior">Shifting of ant queen behavior</h2>



<p>The scientists studied the common black garden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-have-a-communications-system-that-closely-resembles-mental-telepathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant</a> (Lasius niger). Here's the wild part: When a new queen starts a colony, she's a Jill-of-all-trades. She takes care of the brood herself at first, ensuring those first precious workers hatch. </p>



<p>But, once those workers arrive on the scene? She transforms. Suddenly, egg-laying becomes her sole focus, and the workers take over everything else.</p>



<p>If you take an established, egg-laying queen <em>away</em> from her workers, she switches back to all-purpose mode.</p>



<p>"With regard to the ant species we studied, it is social factors that control whether queens become specialized or not. Our findings challenge the widely accepted notion of social insect queens as inherently specialized egg-laying machines," Dr. Libbrecht said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-ant-queen-the-boss">Is ant queen the boss?</h2>



<p>This discovery flips the script. We thought queens were in charge, giving orders to the workers. Now, it looks like workers might subtly control the queen's behavior, shaping the whole colony's division of labor.</p>



<p>Why would this system evolve? Scientists are still working that out. Maybe a queen that can help out when the colony is tiny has a better survival chance. </p>



<p>Or, maybe a colony can respond better to food shortages or danger if the queen isn't <em>always</em> tied to egg-laying duties.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



<p>This isn't just about ant trivia. "If social environment shapes such a fundamental aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-ants-art-science-sustainable-food-source-ant-cuisine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant</a> colonies, what else might it influence?" Dr. Libbrecht wonders. It turns out, studying critters with seemingly simple lives can teach us profound lessons. </p>



<p>Perhaps the way genes and environment interact is far more flexible than we ever thought. This has potential implications for all kinds of biological systems -- maybe even ourselves!</p>



<p>Dr. Libbrecht is fascinated by how critters adapt to their environment. He used to work at<a href="https://www.uni-mainz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz</a> and now digs into insect mysteries at the <a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a> in France. He wants to know what makes insects change their behavior and even their bodies in response to the world around them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparison-with-other-insects">Comparison with other insects</h2>



<p>When we peer into the miniature societies of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/matabele-ants-produce-antibiotics-to-treat-wounded-nestmates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a>, bees, and wasps, we witness marvels of cooperation and efficiency. Each group displays a unique social system that shapes its survival and success. </p>



<p>By exploring their differences, we gain a deeper understanding of the fascinating diversity of the natural world.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-adaptable-and-resilient">Ants: Adaptable and resilient </h3>



<p>Ant colonies are renowned for their rigid division of labor. The queen presides as the sole egg-layer, while workers diligently forage, care for the young, and defend their home. </p>



<p>Yet, as researchers like Dr. Romain Libbrecht reveal, even within this structure, there's room for flexibility. Ant queens may adapt their roles based on their colony's needs, adding a surprising layer to their complex society.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-masters-of-specialization">Bees: Masters of specialization </h3>



<p>Unlike ants, honeybee societies exhibit extreme specialization. The queen's sole purpose is reproduction, while sterile female workers handle all other tasks. </p>



<p>Male drones exist only to mate with a queen. These unyielding roles enable remarkable efficiency and productivity within the hive.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wasps-a-balance-of-structure-and-flexibility">Wasps: A balance of structure and flexibility </h3>



<p>Wasp societies bridge the gap, with queens, workers, and males performing fairly distinct roles. However, a key difference lies in their adaptability. </p>



<p>If a wasp queen dies, worker wasps may step into the reproductive role -- a flexibility rarely seen in bees or ants. This underscores the importance of adaptability within a social structure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-principles-across-insect-species">Shared principles across insect species</h2>



<p>Despite their differences, ants, bees, and wasps rely on some shared principles. Communication, via intricate methods like pheromones or dances, is vital to their coordination. </p>



<p>Their division of labor, whether rigid or fluid, demonstrates how specialization promotes a thriving community.</p>



<p>Exploring these insect societies reveals incredible diversity, adaptability, and the undeniable benefits of cooperation. Ants teach us about resilience within a strict order, while bees exemplify unwavering specialization. Wasps showcase the value of flexibility in social roles. </p>



<p>These insect empires offer potent lessons for understanding our own world, potentially inspiring better organizational structures and technology.</p>



<p>The study is published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.14536" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Functional Ecology</a>.<br>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Ant queen behavior changes based on their social environment

Your work environment shapes your job, and guess what? It's...

Triceratops,Horridus,Group,,Herd,Of,Dinosaurs,Enjoying,The,Beach,(3d

<p>Fans of Jurassic Park might remember the iconic scene where Dr. Alan Grant and the kids encounter a sick Triceratops -- a gentle, social giant of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-rocks-reveal-new-details-about-earths-climate-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric world</a>. </p>



<p>These herbivorous dinosaurs, with their massive three-horned heads and protective frills, have long captured our imaginations. </p>



<p>But did these impressive creatures roam the earth alone, or did Triceratops have a complex social structure, as Spielberg seemed to suggest?</p>



<p>New research from the <a href="https://www.naturalis.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Naturalis Biodiversity Center</a> in the Netherlands provides tantalizing clues that these titans of the Cretaceous period might have been more than solitary wanderers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-behaviour-from-triceratops-fossils">Social behaviour from Triceratops fossils</h2>



<p>The discovery begins with a team of paleontologists led by Jimmy de Rooij. Back in 2013, the team ventured to Wyoming with hopes of unearthing a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dinosaur-species-tyrannosaurus-mcraeensis-discovered-in-new-mexico/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus</a>. Instead, they hit the paleontological jackpot -- stumbling across a treasure trove of Triceratops fossils.</p>



<p>What began as a routine expedition transformed into a decade-long project. Over 1200 bones and fragments emerged from the dig site, meticulously removed and analyzed. </p>



<p>This wasn't just about finding cool fossils -- it was about reconstructing the lives (and deaths) of these magnificent creatures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-triceratops-characteristics">Triceratops characteristics </h2>



<p>The key discoveries that led de Rooij and his team to this herd hypothesis includes:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-and-steady-growth">Slow and steady growth</h3>



<p>"The material is of very good quality. This enabled us to show that these triceratops grew really slowly, for instance," noted de Rooij. </p>



<p>Similar to tree rings, the growth patterns trapped in the fossilized bones reveal that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triceratops-horns-attract-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triceratops</a> likely didn't reach full size for many years. </p>



<p>This extended growing period hints at social structures where adults potentially cared for and protected younger members.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-swamp-of-doom">The swamp of doom</h3>



<p>The fossils were clustered within a thin layer of rock with no other species present. It's possible that these unlucky Triceratops became bogged down in a swamp -- a tragic but revealing mass death that preserved their remains together.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-and-tales-of-travel">Teeth and tales of travel</h3>



<p>"Research into the physical and chemical properties of the hundreds of triceratops teeth tells of a migratory existence - one that was the same for all five of the dinos," de Rooij explained. </p>



<p>Like tiny time capsules, the chemical makeup of their teeth suggests that the entire group roamed together, seeking out food or perhaps seasonally moving to better grounds.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-behavior-of-triceratops">Social behavior of Triceratops</h2>



<p>While not conclusive proof, the evidence strongly suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-triceratops-relative-two-feet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triceratops</a> formed groups for various reasons. Maybe strength in numbers provided protection from predators. </p>



<p>Perhaps they banded together for long migrations, relying on collective knowledge of routes and resources. Some experts even speculate that there might have been complex social structures within the herd.</p>



<p>"And that of course leads to all kinds of new questions. How complex was this social behavior, exactly?" de Rooij wondered. It's an exciting new chapter in our understanding of dinosaur behavior. </p>



<p>Did they share parenting duties? Engage in play-fighting like young elephants? Did they have leaders to guide them? The possibilities are thrilling and inspire a whole new range of research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-landmark-discovery">A landmark discovery</h2>



<p>The impact of this research is undeniable. Prof. Anne Schulp, de Rooij's supervisor, declares: "Naturalis, the national natural history museum of the Netherlands, now has the biggest triceratops find in the world, and <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a> has the first Dr Triceratops in the Netherlands."</p>



<p>But the story doesn't end in the lab. This October, the Naturalis Museum will unveil an exhibition showcasing the Triceratops herd in all its glory. </p>



<p>The exhibit aims to recreate their lives and ill-fated end, giving visitors a glimpse into the social world of these ancient giants before they embark on a world tour.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-social-characteristics-of-triceratops">Beyond social characteristics of Triceratops</h2>



<p>As discussed above, Triceratops is a name that stirs images of ancient forests and the thunderous roar of dinosaurs. They have fascinated scientists and enthusiasts alike for over a century. </p>



<p>This magnificent creature, whose name means "three-horned face," roamed the Earth around 68 to 66 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous period. </p>



<p>Its most striking features were its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-john-had-a-skull-injury-from-fighting-another-triceratops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large skull</a>, adorned with two impressive horns above the eyes and a smaller one on the nose, and its massive neck frill.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-discovery">First discovery</h3>



<p>First discovered in the late 19th century, Triceratops quickly became a subject of intrigue and study. Paleontologists have unearthed numerous fossils, primarily in North America, where this dinosaur once thrived. Over the years, these discoveries have shed light on the life and habits of Triceratops.</p>



<p>Interestingly, Triceratops was a herbivore. It used its beaked mouth to clip off leaves and plants. Its teeth, arranged in groups called batteries, were perfectly adapted for shredding tough plant material. </p>



<p>Scientists believe this diet played a crucial role in its large size, with some adults reaching over 9 meters in length and weighing up to 12 tons.</p>



<p>Moreover, the structure of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triceratops-horns-attract-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horns</a> and frill suggests they were not just for show. They likely served multiple purposes, including defense against predators like the fearsome Tyrannosaurus rex. </p>



<p>Additionally, these features may have been used in mating rituals or to establish dominance within their herds, indicating a complex social structure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-triceratops-as-a-social-creature">Implications of Triceratops as a social creature</h2>



<p>This research adds a fascinating wrinkle to the way we view the prehistoric world. Finally, the continuous discovery and study of Triceratops fossils are not just about piecing together the past. </p>



<p>They inspire questions and curiosity about life on Earth, its diversity, and evolution. Each bone, each fragment tells a story of a world long gone but still deeply connected to our own. </p>



<p>Our understanding of dinosaurs is constantly evolving, and discoveries like this hint at far more intricate behaviors and relationships than we once imagined. </p>



<p>Who knows, those classic images of dinosaurs we grew up with might someday feature entire herds thundering across the landscape.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Triceratops dinosaurs seem to have developed complex social structures

Fans of Jurassic Park might remember the iconic scene where...

<p>A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a> has uncovered a fascinating aspect of bird communication. The study reveals that the Japanese <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-tits-are-nesting-earlier-due-to-climate-change/">tit</a> (<em>Parus minor</em>) utilizes wing gestures to communicate a polite "after you" to its mate.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This discovery challenges the prevailing assumption that complex gestural communication, akin to the symbolic gestures observed in humans and great apes, was beyond the capacity of birds. </p>



<p>The findings mark a significant advancement in our understanding of non-verbal communication mechanisms in the animal kingdom, particularly among birds.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gestures-and-communication-nbsp">Gestures and communication&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-gestures-we-see-can-change-what-we-hear/">communication</a> heavily relies on gestures, such as giving a thumbs up, waving goodbye, or pointing to convey messages without the use of words. This mode of communication was once thought to be exclusively human until observations of great apes like chimpanzees and bonobos demonstrated their ability to use body movements to express themselves nonverbally.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Further studies extended this understanding to other animals, including ravens and fish, which exhibited simple gestural behaviors like pointing to indicate objects or interests.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symbolic-gesturing-in-a-non-human-species-nbsp">Symbolic gesturing in a non-human species&nbsp;</h2>



<p>However, the concept of symbolic gesturing, which implies a higher level of cognitive processing - such as a human showing an open hand to signal "after you" - had not been definitively observed in non-human species until now.</p>



<p>“In our latest discovery, we revealed that the Japanese tit uses gestures to communicate with their mate,” said study lead author Toshitaka Suzuki, an assistant professor of animal communication at the University of Tokyo.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“For over 17 years, I have been engaged in the study of these fascinating birds. They not only use specific calls to convey particular meanings, but also combine different calls into phrases using syntactic rules. These diverse vocalizations led me to initiate this research into their potential use of physical gestures.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-form-of-gestural-communication">Unique form of gestural communication</h2>



<p>Observations conducted during the breeding season provided valuable insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-is-not-the-only-thing-changing-the-behavior-of-birds/">behavior</a> of Japanese tits. These birds, which form mating pairs and construct their nests within tree cavities, displayed a unique form of gestural communication.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers focused on 16 parent birds across eight pairs, closely monitoring their interactions during nest visits. Notably, when arriving at the nest with food, the birds would often perch nearby, and one would flutter its wings toward the other, signaling for its mate to enter the nest first.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This wing-fluttering gesture, primarily exhibited by females, effectively determined the order of nest entry, mirroring the human ‘after you’ gesture.</p>



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="f5lSezLM83-3513477-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinctive-wing-gestures">Distinctive wing gestures </h2>



<p>“We were surprised to find that the results were much clearer than we had expected. We observed that Japanese tits flutter their wings exclusively in the presence of their mate, and upon witnessing this behavior, the mate almost always entered the nest box first,” Suzuki said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers concluded that this behavior satisfies the criteria for a symbolic gesture, as it is aimed at the mate rather than the nest box, distinguishing it from deictic gestures that indicate the location of an object of interest.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-evolution-of-gestures">Understanding the evolution of gestures</h2>



<p>Suzuki also touched on the broader implications of their findings for understanding the evolution of gestures, drawing parallels between the freed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-wing-shape-is-driven-by-environment-and-behavior/">wings</a> of perching birds and the mobility of human hands due to upright posture and bipedalism.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"There is a hypothesis that walking on two legs allowed humans to maintain an upright posture, freeing up their hands for greater mobility, which in turn contributed to the evolution of gestures. Similarly, when birds perch on branches, their wings become free, which we think may facilitate the development of gestural communication," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-and-cognition-across-species">Communication and cognition across species</h2>



<p>As scientists continue to unravel the complexities of avian communication, their work not only sheds light on the rich tapestry of animal languages but also offers key insights into the origins and evolution of language itself.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This research underscores the importance of expanding our perspective on communication and cognition across species, bridging the gap between human and animal non-verbal interactions.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.01.030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Current Biology</em></a><em>. </em>A video of the ‘after you’ gesture in Japanese tits can be found <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6DtO8hXBmzM">here</a>.</p>



<p>Video Credit: Suzuki and Sugita, 2024/ Current Biology</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Wild bird uses wing gestures to politely say, 'after you'

A team of researchers led by the University of Tokyo...

<p>Younger adults, specifically those 35 to 45 years old, might face a heightened risk of suffering a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-a-higher-risk-of-stroke/">stroke</a> - not from the widely recognized traditional risk factors such as hypertension - but rather from nontraditional risk factors, including migraines. This is the conclusion of a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.123.010307" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes</em></a>.</p>



<p>The research shifts the narrative towards the substantial role that these less conventional factors play in stroke risk among younger adults, challenging the established understanding of stroke etiology.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traditional-stroke-risk-factors">Traditional stroke risk factors</h2>



<p>Historically, the medical community has pinpointed a series of traditional risk factors responsible for the majority of stroke cases. These include, but are not limited to, high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, Type 2 diabetes, smoking habits, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, excessive alcohol consumption, and coronary heart disease.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, a disturbing trend has been observed with a rising number of stroke incidents reported among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cigarette-smoking-stroke-risk/">young adults</a> who do not exhibit these conventional risk factors, pointing towards the significant influence of environmental and lifestyle factors in stroke occurrence.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contributors-to-stroke-among-young-adults">Contributors to stroke among young adults</h2>



<p>“We wanted to understand which risk factors were the top contributors to stroke risk among young adults,” said lead author Michelle Leppert, an assistant professor of neurology at the <a href="https://medschool.cuanschutz.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado School of Medicine</a> in Aurora, Colorado. To achieve this, the researchers utilized a robust administrative database encompassing health insurance claims within Colorado. </p>



<p>The team meticulously compared the data of over 2,600 individuals who had experienced strokes against a control group of more than 7,800 individuals without stroke history to pinpoint the predominant risk factors leading to strokes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nontraditional-stroke-risk-factors">Nontraditional stroke risk factors</h2>



<p>The investigation revealed a significant association between nontraditional stroke risk factors - including migraines, blood clotting disorders, kidney failure, autoimmune diseases, and malignancy - and the development of strokes in individuals aged 18 to 44 years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Notably, this association was even stronger among adults younger than 35 years, highlighting the disproportionate impact of these nontraditional risk factors on the younger population.</p>



<p>Specifically, the analysis indicated that within the 18 to 34-year-old demographic, strokes linked to nontraditional risk factors constituted 31% in men and approximately 43% in women, surpassing those attributed to traditional risk factors.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migraines-emerged-as-a-critical-nontraditional-risk-factor">Migraines emerged as a critical nontraditional risk factor</h2>



<p>Remarkably, migraines emerged as a critical nontraditional risk factor, responsible for 20% of strokes in men and nearly 35% in women within this age group. While the relevance of traditional stroke risk factors seemed to peak among adults aged 35 to 44, the influence of nontraditional risk factors remained substantial across different age groups.</p>



<p>“These findings are significant because most of our attention has been focused on traditional risk factors. We should not ignore nontraditional stroke risk factors and only focus on traditional risk factors; both are important to the development of strokes among young people,” Leppert said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“In fact, the younger they are at the time of stroke, the more likely their stroke is due to a nontraditional risk factor. We need to better understand the underlying mechanisms of these nontraditional risk factors to develop targeted interventions.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-association-between-migraines-and-stroke-risk">Association between migraines and stroke risk</h2>



<p>Furthermore, the study brought to light the unexpected prominence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/women-migraines/">migraines</a> in the etiology of strokes among young adults - a connection previously noted in the medical literature but not quantified to this extent.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“There have been many studies demonstrating the association between migraines and strokes, but to our knowledge, this study may be the first to demonstrate just how much stroke risk may be attributable to migraines,” Leppert explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-study-limitations-nbsp">Possible study limitations&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Derived from data spanning 2012 to 2019 from the Colorado All Payer Claims Database, the study's robust dataset allowed for an in-depth analysis, although it acknowledged certain limitations such as the reliance on administrative databases which might influence the accuracy in risk factor identification, and a lack of comprehensive data on race and ethnicity for a sizable portion of participants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In addition, the research was focused on metropolitan areas one mile or more above sea level, so altitude may create unique conditions which are not applicable to individuals living at other altitudes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-stroke-risk-assessment-studies-are-needed">Further stroke risk assessment studies are needed</h2>



<p>By casting a spotlight on the crucial role of nontraditional risk factors in stroke development among younger populations, this research enriches our current understanding of stroke risk factors, while calling for further risk assessment studies.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These future endeavors should aim to clarify the full spectrum of influences contributing to stroke risk, ultimately paving the way for more effective prevention strategies tailored to the needs of younger adults.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Young adults with migraines have a greater stroke risk 

Younger adults, specifically those 35 to 45 years old, might...

Reconstruction,Of,The,Human,Dwelling,Of,The,Stone,Bronze,Age.

<p>Scientists have revealed the Persian Plateau as a crucial crossroads for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-cooling-event-caused-extinction-of-first-early-humans-in-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early <em>Homo sapiens</em> </a>during their migration out of Africa. This discovery challenges prior theories about human expansion into Eurasia and provides a clearer picture of this pivotal era in human history.</p>



<p>The study meticulously combined genetic analysis, paleoecological data, and archaeological findings to pinpoint the Persian Plateau as a significant settlement area. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pivotal-role-in-human-migration-out-of-africa">Pivotal role in human migration out of Africa</h2>



<p>Between approximately 70,000 to 45,000 years ago, a time previously marked by gaps in our historical understanding, this region served as the starting point for populations that eventually spread across Eurasia.</p>



<p>Key insights from this research include the identification of the Persian Plateau as not only a major hub for early human settlement but also as a region that could support larger populations compared to other West Asian areas. This suitability was likely a factor in its role as a cradle for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-early-humans-survived-the-eruption-of-toba-supervolcano/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human dispersal</a> across the continent.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthals-and-humans-on-the-persian-plateau">Neanderthals and humans on the Persian Plateau</h2>



<p>Leonardo Vallini, the study's first author from the <a href="https://www.unipd.it/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Padova</a>, Italy, remarked on the significance of the findings. </p>



<p>“The discovery elucidates a 20,000 year long portion of the history of <em>Homo sapiens</em> outside of Africa, a timeframe during which we interacted with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-may-belong-to-the-same-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthal populations</a>, and sheds light on the relationships between various Eurasian populations.” </p>



<p>Vallini's comments underscore the study's role in bridging the knowledge gap regarding our species’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-humans-almost-went-extinct-as-population-declined-to-1280-individuals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">demographic history</a> across Europe, East Asia, and Oceania.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-analysis-helps-unravel-human-history">Genetic analysis helps unravel human history</h2>



<p>The genetic analysis part of the study unveiled a distinct genetic signature present in both ancient and modern populations within the Persian Plateau. </p>



<p>This signature, which was uncovered through a new method that separates 40,000 years of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-how-neanderthal-dna-got-diluted-in-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic mixing</a> and other complex events, highlights the long-standing significance of the Persian Plateau in human evolutionary history. It suggests that this area was a linchpin for early human settlement and later migrations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-out-of-africa-and-into-eurasia">Out of Africa and into Eurasia</h2>



<p>Professor Michael Petraglia, a co-author of the study and Director of <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/australian-research-centre-human-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a>’s Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution, emphasized the importance of this multidisciplinary research. </p>



<p>“Our multidisciplinary study provides a more coherent view of the ancient past, offering insights into the critical period between the Out of Africa expansion and the differentiation of Eurasian populations,” Petraglia explained. “The Persian Plateau emerges as a key region, underlining the need for further archaeological explorations."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-persian-plateau-s-legacy-in-human-migration">The Persian Plateau's legacy in human migration</h2>



<p>Professor Luca Pagani, the senior author, echoed the sentiments of his colleagues, pointing out the Persian Plateau's newfound importance. </p>



<p>“The revelation of the Persian Plateau as a hub for early human migration opens new doors for archaeological exploration, enriching our understanding of our species' journey across continents and highlighting this region's pivotal role in shaping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-arrived-in-the-americas-10000-years-earlier-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human history</a>.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-chapter-in-the-early-human-prehistory">New chapter in the early human prehistory</h2>



<p>This important study places the Persian Plateau at the center of early human migration discussions while opening new doors for archaeological and genetic research. </p>



<p>By unveiling the region's pivotal role in the dispersal of <em>Homo sapiens</em> from Africa to Eurasia, the research challenges previous understandings and enriches our knowledge of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human history</a>. </p>



<p>This discovery highlights the importance of the Persian Plateau, both as a hub for early human settlements and as a launching point for populations that would eventually populate continents far and wide. </p>



<p>As scientists continue to explore this key region, our understanding of human evolution and migration is set to deepen, revealing more about our shared past and the journeys that shaped the diversity of humanity today.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-persian-plateau">More about the Persian Plateau</h2>



<p>As discussed above, the Persian Plateau is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-preferred-mosaic-landscapes-with-diverse-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vast expanse</a> of land enveloping much of Iran and extending into parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan.</p>



<p>This region, characterized by its rugged mountains, vast deserts, and fertile valleys, has been a cradle of civilization for thousands of years, nurturing societies that have significantly influenced the course of human history.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographical-overview">Geographical overview</h3>



<p>The Persian Plateau is defined by its diverse topography, which ranges from the lofty peaks of the Zagros Mountains to the arid expanse of the Iranian Desert. </p>



<p>This unique landscape has played a crucial role in the development of the region's societies, providing both challenges and opportunities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-of-large-prey-drove-evolutionary-changes-in-early-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient settlers</a>. </p>



<p>The Zagros Mountains, in particular, have served as a natural barrier and a source of water, fostering the growth of agriculture and the rise of early settlements.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-significance-of-the-persian-plateau">Historical significance of the Persian Plateau</h3>



<p>The plateau has witnessed the rise and fall of many empires, including the Medes, Achaemenids, Parthians, and Sassanids, each leaving behind a rich tapestry of cultural and architectural achievements. </p>



<p>The Achaemenid Empire, known for its tolerance and efficient administration, built the famous Persepolis, a symbol of Persian architectural and cultural sophistication. </p>



<p>These civilizations contributed significantly to various fields, including art, science, and governance, influencing neighboring regions and beyond.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-heritage">Cultural heritage</h3>



<p>The Persian Plateau is a living, breathing landscape that continues to sustain a rich tapestry of cultural traditions. The region's music, poetry, and art have deep roots that stretch back centuries, embodying the spirit and resilience of its people. </p>



<p>Persian literature, epitomized by poets like Hafez and Rumi, continues to inspire and enchant readers worldwide with its profound insights into the human condition.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-implications">Modern implications</h3>



<p>Today, the Persian Plateau remains a region of geopolitical and economic significance. Its rich natural resources, including oil and gas, play a crucial role in the global economy. </p>



<p>Moreover, the plateau's strategic location, bridging East and West, adds to its geopolitical importance. Despite modern challenges, the region retains its cultural richness, drawing visitors eager to explore its ancient ruins and vibrant traditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stopping-point-during-early-human-migration">Stopping point during early human migration</h2>



<p>The Persian Plateau, with its rugged landscapes and rich historical tapestry, remains a symbol of human resilience and cultural achievement. </p>



<p>From its ancient empires to its modern significance, the region offers a fascinating glimpse into the complexities of human history and the enduring power of culture. </p>



<p>As we continue to explore and understand this ancient cradle of civilization, the Persian Plateau reminds us of the intricate connections between geography, history, and the human spirit.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46161-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a></em>.</p>



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The Persian Plateau fills a 20,000-year gap in early human history

Scientists have revealed the Persian Plateau as a crucial crossroads...

<p>The health of our oceans is a barometer for the planet's overall environmental condition, with ocean currents playing a critical role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ripple-effects-of-climate-change-have-created-a-new-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regulating Earth's climate</a>. </p>



<p>A recent study has shed new light on the impact of rising ocean temperatures on one of these vital current systems. </p>



<p>This significant research provides the first documented evidence of a significant slowdown in the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) -- a key player in the ocean's climate-regulating conveyor belt.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amoc-the-pulse-of-our-planet-is-slowing-down">AMOC: The pulse of our planet is slowing down</h2>



<p>Alexey Mishonov and his team dive deep into the decades of data compiled in NOAA's <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/world-ocean-atlas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Ocean Atlas</a> to trace the AMOC's performance over time. </p>



<p>Their findings reveal a startling shift: from 1955 to 1994, the AMOC's flow was stable and consistent. </p>



<p>However, starting in the mid-1990s, a marked decline in its strength was observed, coinciding with a notable reduction in its speed. </p>



<p>The researchers attribute this slowdown to the ocean surface's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-arctic-dipole-the-atmospheric-pattern-shaping-our-future-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">continued warming</a> and resultant changes in the upper layers' salinity.</p>



<p>The AMOC is instrumental in transporting warm water towards higher latitudes and returning cooler waters to the tropics -- a cycle that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/additional-heat-is-being-transferred-to-the-arctic-ocean-as-the-climate-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">redistributes heat</a> across the ocean. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-consequences-of-climate-science">Real-world consequences of climate science</h2>



<p>Mishonov explains the implications of weakening circulation in Atlantic ocean currents, stating, "If AMOC slows down, the heat exchange will be reduced, which in turn will affect the climate, causing hot areas to get hotter and cold areas to get colder." </p>



<p>This imbalance could have far-reaching effects on global <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/how-the-ocean-and-climate-influence-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate patterns</a>, potentially leading to more extreme weather conditions, rising sea levels, disruptions to marine ecosystems, and a cascade of other climate feedbacks.</p>



<p>Mishonov's research also touches on the cultural zeitgeist, referencing the dramatic portrayal of a similar scenario in the 2004 disaster movie "The Day After Tomorrow." </p>



<p>While he clarifies that the film's depiction is highly exaggerated and not supported by the scientific community, the underlying message -- that a significant slowdown in the AMOC could lead to unpredictable and profound <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clues-from-the-last-ice-age-help-predict-oceans-response-to-continued-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate changes</a> -- resonates with many experts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-amoc-dynamics">Science behind AMOC dynamics</h2>



<p>The study utilized an extensive array of data, including climate reanalysis data on decadal wind stress and sea surface height fields from UMD's <a href="http://soda.umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Simple Ocean Data Assimilation</a> project, to analyze the North Atlantic's ocean current patterns and AMOC dynamics. </p>



<p>The findings underscore the complex nature of the ocean's climate trajectory and the diverse climate patterns within different subregions of the North Atlantic. </p>



<p>Despite systematic warming across the entire North Atlantic, regional decadal variability suggests a range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-paradox-ocean-current-collapse-could-plunge-europe-into-cold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate responses</a>, underscoring the unpredictable nature of future AMOC behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowing-ocean-currents-and-earth-s-future">Slowing ocean currents and Earth's future</h2>



<p>As the scientific community continues to unravel the mysteries of our oceans, the significance of Mishonov and his colleagues' work cannot be overstated. </p>



<p>Their research contributes to our understanding of the intricate relationship between ocean currents and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/relationship-between-ocean-currents-and-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global climate</a> and highlights the importance of monitoring these critical systems as we navigate the challenges of a warming world.</p>



<p>The team is already planning further studies to explore similar patterns in long-term temperature and salinity variability across other global ocean regions, emphasizing the ongoing need for robust climate research and observation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-ocean-currents">More about ocean currents</h2>



<p>As discussed above, ocean currents play a pivotal role in shaping the climate, marine ecosystems, and human activities around the globe. </p>



<p>These vast, continuous movements of seawater are driven by various factors, including wind patterns, the Earth's rotation, salinity levels, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-substantially-changing-the-seasons-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature differences</a> in the water.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-ocean-currents">Defining ocean currents</h3>



<p>Ocean currents are large-scale movements of seawater that flow in complex patterns across the Earth's oceans. </p>



<p>They can occur at the surface, influenced by wind, or in the deep ocean, driven by density differences resulting from variations in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature and salinity</a>. </p>



<p>These currents are essential for distributing heat around the planet, supporting marine life, and influencing weather patterns and climate.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-driving-forces-behind-ocean-currents">Driving forces behind ocean currents</h3>



<p>Several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-circulation-is-key-to-climate-change-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">key factors</a> work together to create and shape ocean currents:</p>



<p><strong>Wind Patterns</strong>: The primary force that drives surface currents is the wind. The interaction between wind and the ocean's surface causes water to move, creating currents that can travel vast distances. The Coriolis effect, a result of the Earth's rotation, also influences the direction of these currents, causing them to veer to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.</p>



<p><strong>Temperature and Salinity</strong>: Differences in water density, affected by temperature and salinity, are the main drivers of deep ocean currents. Colder, saltier water is denser and tends to sink, while warmer, less salty water is less dense and rises. This process creates a global conveyor belt of deep ocean currents that plays a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate.</p>



<p><strong>The Earth's Rotation</strong>: The Coriolis effect, caused by the Earth's rotation, significantly impacts the direction of ocean currents. This force deflects the path of moving water and air across the planet, shaping the flow of currents and influencing their speed and direction.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-ocean-currents">Types of ocean currents</h3>



<p>Earth has two main types of ocean currents: surface currents and deep ocean currents.</p>



<p><strong>Surface Currents</strong>: These currents make up about 10% of all the water in the ocean. These currents are primarily driven by wind and are influenced by the Earth's rotation and the shape of the ocean basins. They play a vital role in weather patterns and marine ecosystems, transporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-has-nearly-doubled-in-the-last-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warm water</a> from the equator towards the poles and cold water from the poles towards the equator.</p>



<p><strong>Deep Ocean Currents</strong>: Also known as the thermohaline circulation, deep ocean currents move slowly and are driven by differences in water density. These currents are crucial for moving nutrients and oxygen deep into the ocean and play a key role in regulating the Earth's climate by distributing heat.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-ocean-currents">Impact of ocean currents</h3>



<p>Earth's ocean circulation system has a profound impact on the planet, influencing climate, weather patterns, marine ecosystems, and human activities.</p>



<p><strong>Climate Regulation</strong>: Ocean currents act as a global conveyor belt, distributing heat from the equator to the poles and vice versa. This process helps to regulate the Earth's climate, making some regions warmer or cooler than they would be otherwise.</p>



<p><strong>Marine Ecosystems</strong>: Currents transport nutrients and oxygen, supporting diverse marine ecosystems. They also influence the distribution of marine species by carrying larvae and plankton along their paths.</p>



<p><strong>Human Activities</strong>: Ocean currents affect human activities such as shipping, fishing, and recreational boating. Understanding these currents is crucial for navigation, safety, and maximizing fishing yields.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-study-and-climate-implications">Future  study and climate implications</h3>



<p>In summary, ocean currents are a dynamic and vital component of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's system</a>. They regulate our climate and support marine life while simultaneously impacting human activities in numerous ways. </p>



<p>By understanding the forces behind these currents and their effects, we can better appreciate the intricate balance of our planet's ecosystems and work towards their preservation.</p>



<p>This research was led by <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Alexey Mishonov, in collaboration with Dan Seidov and James Reagan from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="https://www.noaa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a>). The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2024.1345426/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a></em>.</p>



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Ocean currents, the pulse of our planet, are slowing as water temperature rises

The health of our oceans is a barometer for the...

<p>A collaborative effort involving 25 scientists from around the globe has put forth a comprehensive plan aimed at preventing future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/to-avoid-future-pandemics-we-must-protect-nature/">pandemics</a> through the conservation of natural habitats and the enhancement of biodiversity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This initiative seeks to ensure animals have access to sufficient food, safe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-ecosystems-are-needed-to-prevent-future-pandemics/">environments</a>, and enough space to reduce interactions and the subsequent transmission of pathogens to humans.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-encounters-between-humans-and-disease-carrying-animals">Encounters between humans and disease-carrying animals</h2>



<p>Pandemics often originate from close encounters between humans and disease-carrying animals like bats, which can transmit new pathogens directly or indirectly to people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The viruses responsible for outbreaks such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-way-transmission-of-coronavirus-confirmed-between-humans-and-minks/">SARS-CoV-2</a>, SARS-CoV-1, Nipah, Hendra, and possibly Ebola, have all been traced back to bats, highlighting the danger of spillover events.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-the-focus-to-preventing-future-pandemics">Shifting the focus to preventing future pandemics </h2>



<p>“The world is focused on how can we detect and then contain a novel pathogen once it is circulating in humans, rather than how can we prevent that pathogen from entering the human population in the first place,” said lead author Raina Plowright, a professor of public and ecosystem health at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>.</p>



<p>Drawing on findings from two studies conducted in 2022, which investigated the transmission of the Hendra virus from bats to horses and humans, the team's prevention strategy emphasizes the importance of maintaining natural habitats for wildlife.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stressed-bats-linked-to-higher-pathogen-exposure-risk">Stressed bats linked to higher pathogen exposure risk</h2>



<p>The studies revealed that habitat loss and diminished winter food sources lead to bats migrating into agricultural and urban areas, where stressed conditions cause them to excrete more of the virus.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This chain of events facilitates the transfer of viruses from bats to horses, and from horses to humans. Conversely, when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-carry-viruses-infect-people/">bats</a> have access to sufficient natural food sources, their migration patterns normalize, significantly reducing virus shedding.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupting-the-pathogen-transmission-pathways">Disrupting the pathogen transmission pathways</h2>



<p>The proposed roadmap outlines a series of ecological interventions and policy recommendations aimed at disrupting the pathways through which pathogens are transmitted from animals to humans.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Key measures include ensuring consistent food availability for wildlife throughout the year, especially during critical periods such as reproduction and migration; protecting natural habitats where animals roost or gather in large numbers; and establishing buffer zones between human populations and wildlife to minimize contact.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minimizing-the-risk-of-pathogen-exposure-nbsp">Minimizing the risk of pathogen exposure&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The experts emphasize the rarity of disease transmission under natural conditions, discussing the multitude of barriers that typically prevent pathogens from reaching humans. However, they stress the importance of protective measures for communities that interact closely with wildlife, to minimize the risk of pathogen exposure.</p>



<p>Highlighting the need for a dedicated international body to oversee pandemic prevention, preparedness, and response, the scientists advocate for the creation of an agency or panel capable of evaluating data on ecological integrity, landscape intactness, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/">biodiversity</a> as key factors in preventing future pandemics.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This approach marks a significant shift towards proactive measures designed to safeguard public health by preserving the natural environment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-future-pandemics-nbsp">Predicting future pandemics&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Predicting the next pandemic's specifics, such as its pathogen, origin, or timing, is difficult. However, understanding the facts and trends can help in developing strategies to mitigate the impact of future pandemics.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zoonotic-diseases-are-a-major-threat">Zoonotic diseases are a major threat</h3>



<p>A significant proportion of new infectious diseases that affect humans originate in animals (zoonotic diseases). Changes in human activity, such as deforestation, wildlife trade, and intensified agriculture, increase the risk of zoonotic diseases spilling over to humans.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-globalization-and-mobility-increase-spread">Globalization and mobility increase spread</h3>



<p>The high level of global interconnectedness through travel and trade means that infectious diseases can spread more rapidly and widely than in the past. A disease that emerges in one part of the world can reach distant countries within hours or days.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antimicrobial-resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</h3>



<p>The rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a significant concern. It could lead to a situation where common infections become untreatable, compounding the challenges of controlling a pandemic.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change">Climate change</h3>



<p>Climate change is altering patterns of disease transmission. It can expand the habitats of vectors like mosquitoes, leading to the spread of diseases like malaria and dengue to new areas. It also impacts food security, which can contribute to conditions favorable for the emergence of diseases.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technology-will-be-key-in-preventing-future-pandemics">Technology will be key in preventing future pandemics </h3>



<p>Advances in technology, such as genomic sequencing and artificial intelligence, will play a critical role in early detection and response to emerging pathogens. Improved surveillance and data sharing across borders can help identify and contain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-is-killing-thousands-of-seals-and-sea-lions-globally/">outbreaks</a> before they become pandemics.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparedness-and-response-plans">Preparedness and response plans</h3>



<p>The COVID-19 pandemic underscored the importance of having robust preparedness and response plans at global, national, and local levels. This includes stockpiling essential medical supplies, having flexible healthcare systems, and establishing protocols for vaccine development and distribution.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-investment-nbsp">Public health investment&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Sustained investment in public health infrastructure and systems is essential for detecting, preventing, and responding to pandemics. This includes strengthening healthcare systems, developing rapid diagnostic tests, vaccines, and treatments, and training healthcare workers.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-and-economic-disparities">Social and economic disparities</h3>



<p>Pandemics disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, exacerbating social and economic inequalities. Addressing these disparities is critical to reducing the overall impact of future pandemics.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46151-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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We can prevent future pandemics by protecting nature

A collaborative effort involving 25 scientists from around the globe...

<p>Did you know your brain is likely larger than your grandparents'? A fascinating new study from <a href="https://health.ucdavis.edu/welcome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis Health</a> shows that human brain sizes have been steadily growing over generations. </p>



<p>If you were born after the 1930s, your brain is significantly bigger than that of someone born earlier in the 20th century. But before you start bragging about your superior intellect, let's explore why this size difference matters.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-brain-size">Decoding the brain size</h2>



<p>The researchers delved into brain scans from thousands of participants in the Framingham Heart Study. This is a long-term project that has tracked health across multiple generations. This incredible study began in 1948. </p>



<p>The team discovered that people born in the 1970s had an average brain volume 6.6% larger and 15% more brain surface area than folks born in the 1930s.</p>



<p>"The decade someone is born appears to impact brain size and potentially long-term brain health," explained Dr. Charles DeCarli, lead author of the study and a distinguished professor of neurology at UC Davis. </p>



<p>"Genetics plays a major role in determining brain size, but our findings indicate external influences — such as health, social, cultural and educational factors — may also play a role.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-scientists-measure-brain-size">How do scientists measure brain size?</h2>



<p>Let's talk about two important ways scientists measure the brain's building blocks:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intracranial-volume-icv">Intracranial volume (ICV)</h3>



<p>Think of ICV as the total amount of space inside your skull – your brain's house. It also includes the fluid, blood vessels, and other tissues that keep your brain healthy. ICV can give clues about overall brain health. In some cases, a larger ICV might mean a larger brain, suggesting more brainpower. </p>



<p>However, brain size isn't the whole story - how efficiently your brain works matters too. Doctors and researchers use ICV measurements to track changes in the brain. This can help diagnose conditions like Alzheimer's disease, where brain tissue may shrink over time.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surface-area">Surface area</h3>



<p>Your brain's surface area is all about the outer layer, called the cerebral cortex. This part is incredibly wrinkly, with folds and grooves - imagine crumpling a piece of paper to fit more surface area into a small space. Those folds are packed with brain cells (neurons). </p>



<p>More folds mean more brain cells, boosting your thinking power. Different parts of the cortex do different jobs. Some handle your senses, others control how you move, and others tackle complex things like problem-solving and emotions.</p>



<p>Overall, ICV gives a sense of your brain's overall size and surface area focuses on how complex your brain's 'wiring' can be, like how many rooms are in that house and how they're connected. </p>



<p>Together, these measurements help us understand individual brain power, explaining why some people's brains might be better at certain tasks, and also track brain health as we age or if diseases affect the brain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-size-and-dementia-connection">Brain size and dementia connection</h2>



<p>So, why should we care about having a slightly larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-the-brain-stores-new-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>? Scientists believe it has to do with a concept called "brain reserve." Imagine your brain as a fortress protecting your mental well-being. </p>



<p>The bigger and stronger the fortress, the more resources (like healthy brain cells) you have to combat the assaults of age-related diseases like Alzheimer's dementia.</p>



<p>While the total number of people with dementia is growing because we're living longer, the percentage of the population affected by these diseases is actually decreasing. </p>



<p>"Larger brain structures like those observed in our study may reflect improved brain development and improved brain health," said Dr. DeCarli. "A larger brain structure represents a larger brain reserve and may buffer the late-life effects of age-related brain diseases like Alzheimer’s and related dementias.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-so-why-the-growth-in-brain-size">So, why the growth in brain size?</h2>



<p>Scientists have some intriguing theories:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-nutrition-and-health">Better nutrition and health</h3>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-healthy-diet-can-reduce-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nutrition</a> is the bedrock of brain development and function. The brain, especially during critical periods of childhood, depends on a healthy diet for growth. Essential nutrients like omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals directly support the creation of brain structures and new neural connections.</p>



<p>Adequate nutrition during pregnancy and throughout childhood is vital for proper brain development, affecting everything from brain size to function.</p>



<p>Moreover, access to quality healthcare is equally vital – it ensures that potential health issues that could hinder brain development are caught and treated early. Immunizations, check-ups, and managing illnesses create a healthier environment for young brains to thrive.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-amp-mental-stimulation">Education &amp; mental stimulation</h3>



<p>The power of education and mental stimulation in shaping our brains can't be underestimated. Complex learning tasks and challenges promote neural growth and reinforce the brain's plasticity – that amazing ability to adapt and form new connections throughout our lives.</p>



<p>Education helps build a "cognitive reserve," meaning that mentally engaging activities may make our brains more resilient to decline as we age.</p>



<p>Continuously exposing our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-gut-brain-communication-affect-emotional-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brains</a> to new information and challenges keeps them fit and flexible - just like exercise does for our bodies. This can lead to stronger brain networks and better overall cognitive function.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-amp-cultural-changes">Social &amp; cultural changes</h3>



<p>Our evolving social and cultural landscapes hold intriguing possibilities for brain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brain-development-aligns-closely-with-other-primates/">development</a>. Research suggests that changes in our society and lifestyles could also influence how our brains grow and adapt.</p>



<p>Digital technology and global connections expose us to a vast array of cultures, ideas, and ways of thinking. This could foster more adaptable brains, ready for a globalized world.</p>



<p>Shifts in how families function and what we value socially may nurture certain types of development. For instance, a focus on emotional intelligence and social skills could enhance the brain regions responsible for empathy and social thinking.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-on-brain-size-and-development">Future directions on brain size and development</h2>



<p>This discovery opens exciting possibilities for brain research. </p>



<p>By pinpointing the factors that promote healthy brain development, scientists can create targeted strategies to boost brain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-healthy-diet-can-reduce-brain-aging/">resilience</a> from a young age. Imagine interventions that enhance cognitive function throughout life.</p>



<p>Understanding how these factors contribute to larger and more complex brains could also lead to breakthroughs in treating dementia and other neurodegenerative diseases. </p>



<p>New approaches might include nutritional supplements, educational programs designed to stimulate the brain, and therapies that mimic the benefits of a rich social environment. These strategies could revolutionize how we prevent and manage these diseases.</p>



<p>In essence, this research is a game-changer. It challenges our understanding of the brain while offering exciting possibilities for extending cognitive health and improving quality of life as we age. It's a significant step forward in the fight against dementia, offering a glimmer of hope for a future with sharper minds and healthier brains.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2024.0469" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Neurology</a>.</p>



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Human brains are growing in size, possibly lowering dementia risk

Did you know your brain is likely larger than your...

<p>Did you know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/collective-sensing-electric-fish-can-see-through-others-eyes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> have lessons to teach us about group dynamics? It turns out even physicists are getting in on the action, studying the schooling patterns of these underwater creatures. </p>



<p>A recent study found something quite remarkable – it might only take three fish to shift from individual movement to a full-fledged school.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-schooling">What is schooling?</h2>



<p>Schooling is a fascinating and complex behavior observed in various species of fish, where individuals move together in a coordinated manner, forming what is commonly referred to as a "school." </p>



<p>This collective behavior is not merely a random aggregation of fish but a highly organized and dynamic formation that provides numerous benefits to the individuals within the school. Some of schooling characteristics include:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coordination-and-synchronization-in-fish-school">Coordination and synchronization in fish school</h3>



<p>One of the hallmarks of schooling is the high degree of synchronized movement exhibited by its members. Fish within a school change direction and speed almost simultaneously. </p>



<p>This coordination often occurs in the absence of a designated leader, suggesting that individuals rely on visual cues and potentially hydrodynamic signals (water movement) from their neighbors to maintain alignment.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polarization">Polarization</h3>



<p>Fish in a school exhibit a tendency to orient their bodies in the same direction. This polarization is crucial for maintaining group cohesion and facilitating efficient collective movement, particularly when the group needs to make rapid turns or adjustments.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-density">Density</h3>



<p>Schools of fish are characterized by relatively high density, with individuals maintaining a specific distance from each other. </p>



<p>While not packed to the point of immobility, this closeness is a crucial factor in optimizing the school's ability to confuse predators and potentially improve foraging success.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-magic-number-three">The magic number: Three</h2>



<p>A team of scientists from Germany and the UK decided to investigate the minimum "cast of characters" required for schooling behavior. They focused on zebrafish, a popular species both in research labs and home aquariums. </p>



<p>Using specialized 3D cameras, the researchers tracked and analyzed the movements of different-sized fish groups. Some of the interesting findings of the study include:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-fish-just-a-dynamic-duo-nbsp">Two fish: Just a dynamic duo&nbsp;</h3>



<p>When only two zebrafish are together, they tend to adopt a simple yet effective leader-follower pattern. This allows them to navigate their surroundings and stay connected with one another. </p>



<p>While this dynamic serves practical purposes like basic social interaction and potentially keeping an extra eye out for danger, it lacks the intricate coordination and collective behavior that defines a true school.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-fish-the-schooling-spark-nbsp">Three fish: The schooling spark&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Adding a third <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-evolution-takes-place-in-decades-not-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> to the mix creates a dramatic change, marking the beginning of true schooling behavior. This trio displays a strong preference for swimming side-by-side, a pattern also seen in much larger schools. This shift away from the leader-follower model is significant. </p>



<p>It suggests a collective decision-making process and a level of coordination that simply doesn't exist with just a pair of fish. The presence of a third individual seems to unlock a more complex set of social interactions, laying the foundation for the impressive synchronized movements we associate with schooling.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture-nbsp">The bigger picture&nbsp;</h3>



<p>What's particularly fascinating is how this behavior scales up. Even within a large group of 50 fish, the researchers observed a consistent pattern: subgroups of three maintaining their side-by-side swimming preference. </p>



<p>This suggests that the fundamental principles of schooling - formation, coordination, and cohesion - are established at the most basic level, within those small groups of three. These simple rules then scale up remarkably, allowing for the mesmerizing displays of coordinated movement we see in massive schools of fish.</p>



<p>"Practically, three fish form a school, but two are not enough," said Dr. Alexandra Zampetaki from the <a href="https://www.tuwien.at/en/phy/iap" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Applied Physics</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rule-of-three-a-universal-pattern">The "rule of three" – A universal pattern?</h2>



<p>The magic number three isn't just a fishy fluke. This pattern pops up in surprising places throughout science and the natural world:</p>



<ul>
<li>Primary colors:&nbsp;Red, yellow, and blue – the foundational building blocks of every other color we see.</li>



<li>Spatial dimensions:&nbsp;Our world has three dimensions – length, width, and height.</li>



<li>Fundamental particles:&nbsp;Protons and neutrons, the core of atoms, are made up of trios of even smaller particles called quarks.</li>
</ul>



<p>Could this suggest some underlying principle in how groups and complex systems organize themselves?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-fish-school">Beyond fish school</h2>



<p>The researchers believe their findings could have implications far beyond the aquarium:</p>



<p>"These include schools of other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-confirms-that-fish-can-recognize-themselves-in-a-mirror/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> such as goldfish or sardines, as well as flocks of birds such as starling murmurations and swarms of insects such as dancing mosquitos," said Professor Dr. C. Patrick Royall, the study's corresponding author.</p>



<p>There's even the potential for human applications! Imagine a crowd of people dispersing at a concert. Could analyzing the behavior of groups of three help us predict and manage crowd flow in potentially dangerous situations?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-physics-and-fish-school-connect">How physics and fish school connect</h2>



<p>This groundbreaking research emerges from a fascinating intersection of physics and biology. Scientists are using the principles of many-body physics to explore animal groups. This field usually studies how inanimate particles behave together. Now, it's providing new insights into how animals form schools.</p>



<p>Many-body physics investigates systems made up of a multitude of interacting particles. The complexity comes from how those interactions give rise to behaviors that you couldn't predict by studying individual particles alone. The researchers applied this same lens to animal groups, seeking the underlying rules that shape how creatures move.</p>



<p>Additionally, Dr. Alexandra Zampetaki, bridging the gap between physics and biology, created sophisticated computer simulations of zebrafish movement. These weren't just animations – they were models designed to capture the core principles behind how fish swim and interact. </p>



<p>By tweaking these models to align with real-world data, the team could test theories about why fish group the way they do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-school-dynamics">Fish school dynamics</h2>



<p>The simulations mirrored the experimental findings: "three constitute a school." This is crucial. It strengthens confidence in the original findings, and it proves the power of computer models in biology. Simulations allow scientists to play out scenarios that would be difficult, or even impossible, to test solely in a real-world lab.</p>



<p>The research celebrates the value of crossing traditional boundaries in science. Blending the rigor of physics with the fascinating complexity of biology opens doors to understanding group dynamics across species – maybe even including us humans. </p>



<p>The study hints at a set of universal principles at play, whether we're talking about particles or people, suggesting there's a shared logic in how complex systems organize and behave.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-things-to-think-about">Things to think about</h2>



<p>This research opens up a world of fascinating questions:</p>



<ul>
<li>Do different fish species have varying thresholds for "schooling" behavior?</li>



<li>Could these findings shed light on how other animals, like herds of antelope or flocks of migrating birds, coordinate their movements?</li>



<li>Might this new understanding of groups help us build better models for things like traffic flow and the spread of information, especially in the age of social media?</li>
</ul>



<p>The next time you're mesmerized by a school of fish, remember – there's more going on than meets the eye. Scientists are unraveling the secrets of their synchronized swimming, and who knows where their discoveries might lead.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46426-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.</p>



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Can three fish make a school? Study offers surprising insights

Did you know that fish have lessons to teach us...

<p>Whales are the oceans' own social butterflies. Their clicks, whistles, and haunting songs fill the deep. But imagine trying to follow a conversation in a room where everyone is talking at once, and you don't even speak the language. </p>



<p>That's been the challenge for scientists studying whale communication. Now, thanks to ingenious research, we are finally getting a fascinating peek inside of whale communication</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humpback-whales">Humpback whales</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-reproduction-is-linked-to-krill-abundance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humpback whales</a>, the acrobatic giants of the ocean, are essential to maintaining healthy marine ecosystems. These whales, celebrated for their breathtaking breaches and haunting songs, travel the globe, contributing to the well-being of our oceans. </p>



<p>By understanding their crucial ecological roles, we gain a deeper appreciation for the importance of protecting these incredible animals. As apex predators, humpback whales regulate populations of krill and small fish, preventing these species from overgrazing on plankton, the vital foundation of the marine food chain. </p>



<p>Additionally, whale movement and nutrient-rich waste promote phytoplankton growth, which is key to supporting marine food webs and absorbing massive amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide. </p>



<p>Humpback whales also showcase intelligence and influence fish behavior with their cooperative "bubble net feeding" techniques. Beyond their ecological roles, humpback whales support complex marine ecosystems, and the study of these whales expands our knowledge of the oceans. Furthermore, whale watching provides sustainable, non-lethal economic benefits to coastal communities. </p>



<p>However, humpback whales are vulnerable to entanglement in fishing gear, ship strikes, noise pollution, and the long-term effects of climate change. Proactive solutions include regulations to reduce human impacts, the creation of protected areas to safeguard critical habitats, and continued research, such as acoustic tagging, to inform the most effective conservation strategies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-suction-cup-tags">Suction cup tags</h2>



<p>For years, whale researchers relied on techniques like dropping giant microphones into the ocean. It revealed a vast soundscape, but left an important question unanswered: Which whale is singing which part of this underwater opera?</p>



<p>Then, about twenty years ago, biologists invented suction cup tags. These gadgets stick right onto a whale, recording its movements and any sounds it makes. </p>



<p>Recently, a team of biologists at <a href="https://www.syracuse.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Syracuse University</a>, led by Professor Susan Parks, has taken this technology to the next level. The goal was to understand not just what whales say, but how their communication networks function. This new knowledge could be key to protecting these awe-inspiring giants. </p>



<p>Their secret weapon? Tagging lots of whales in the same pod at the same time. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-acoustic-tagging-and-whale-communication">Acoustic tagging and whale communication</h2>



<p>"By simultaneously tagging all whales in a group, we were able to compare how loudly calls were recorded across tags to infer who was calling," explained study co-author Julia Zeh. "This, in turn, lets us look at individual and group-level communication in ways that we couldn't before."</p>



<p>The trick lies in the volume. Imagine each whale's tag is like its own personal megaphone. If Whale A hollers, its own megaphone picks up the loudest blast, while the sounds fade a little bit on Whale B and Whale C's megaphones. </p>



<p>Now, even though we're still hearing a chorus of whale songs, we can start to understand which whale is taking a solo, and who's harmonizing in the background.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-whale-communication">Decoding whale communication</h2>



<p>The Syracuse team analyzed nearly 50 hours of recordings - a massive task of figuring out which whale said what. While we still don't have a whale-to-English dictionary, scientists believe these calls might be about coordinating feeding, keeping the group together, or even just casual whale gossip.</p>



<p>"This information can give us insight into how whales coordinate behaviors, how their calls relate to what they're doing, what types of calls they use, and what information they might exchange in group communication," said Zeh.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-whale-communication-for-conservation">Understanding whale communication for conservation</h2>



<p>Of course, it's not just about satisfying our curiosity. Once we can pinpoint which whale is vocalizing, scientists can start analyzing differences between individuals. Do youngsters have a special "baby talk"? Do females and males have distinct calls?</p>



<p>This knowledge has massive implications for whale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-whale-shark-day-protecting-the-gentle-giants-of-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a>. It helps get more accurate population counts and track the health of individual whales.</p>



<p>"Having information from tag data about call rates and timing can improve count estimates," said Zeh. "For example, having 10 calls doesn't necessarily mean there are 10 whales, but potentially two whales calling back and forth, or one whale producing sequential calls."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions">Future directions</h2>



<p>By developing an accurate "caller ID" for humpback whales, scientists have set the stage to potentially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conversation-with-humpback-whale-gives-seti-team-ideas-on-how-to-talk-to-aliens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decipher</a> their intricate language.</p>



<p>The breakthrough research ignites a thrilling new era in marine biology. The ability to link whale vocalizations to specific actions opens the door to building a comprehensive whale language dictionary. </p>



<p>This extraordinary tool would fundamentally change how we understand these magnificent animals and bolster conservation efforts. By deciphering their communication, we could create targeted strategies to reduce threats and ensure the health of whale populations for generations to come.</p>



<p>This remarkable progress reflects the relentless pursuit of scientific exploration. From simple surface observations to deploying cutting-edge technology that tracks whales' movements and sounds, we continue to shed light on these enigmatic creatures. It's a testament to the tireless dedication of scientists driven by a deep sense of wonder and unwavering commitment to preserving the natural world.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.231608" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Acoustic tagging helps decode whale communication

Whales are the oceans' own social butterflies. Their clicks, whistles,...

Davy,Sound,On,The,Coast,Of,Northeast,Greenland.

<p>The 79° N Glacier in northeast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-a-greener-greenland-reveals-shocking-reality-of-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland</a>, is showcasing alarming signs of climate change with dramatic ice loss. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a> have observed dramatic glacier thinning, with a loss of over 160 meters (525 feet) since 1998.</p>



<p>This rapid decline is attributed to warm ocean currents eroding the glacier from beneath and elevated air temperatures forming surface lakes. These lakes intensify the melt as their waters drain through vast channels in the ice into the ocean. </p>



<p>Remarkably, one such channel found was 500 meters (1,640 feet) tall, standing under ice that was just 190 meters (624 feet) thick, starkly highlighting climate change's impact on this crucial glacier.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-79-n-glacier-in-greenland">Studying the 79° N Glacier in Greenland</h2>



<p>AWI scientists have conducted extensive research in this remote area of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-transformation-ice-melt-plant-growth-vegetation-cascading-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland</a>, establishing a base camp for operations. They used helicopters to deploy autonomous measuring devices to the glacier's most inaccessible parts.</p>



<p>Subsequently, ground, aircraft radar, and satellite data have informed a study in <em>The Cryosphere</em> journal, exploring the glacier's condition and how global warming impacts ice tongue stability. These findings are crucial for predicting the future of ice shelves in both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-absorbs-more-methane-than-it-emits-surprising-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland</a> and Antarctica.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-glacial-melt-dynamics">Understanding glacial melt dynamics</h2>



<p>Dr. Ole Zeising, an AWI glaciologist and study's lead author, described their approach.</p>



<p>“Since 2016, we have been using autonomous instruments to carry out radar measurements on the 79° N-Glacier, from which we can determine melt and thinning rates," Zeising explained. </p>



<p>“In addition, we used aircraft radar data from 1998, 2018 and 2021 showing changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-ice-shelves-have-lost-over-35-percent-of-their-volume/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice thickness</a>. We were able to measure that the 79° N-Glacier has changed significantly in recent decades under the influence of global warming," he concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-ocean-currents-and-atmospheric-conditions">Warm ocean currents and atmospheric conditions</h2>



<p>The study highlights the drastic effects of warm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-ocean-currents-slowing-as-water-temperature-rises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean currents</a> and atmospheric warming on the glacier's ice tongue. </p>



<p>It reveals high melt rates and the emergence of large channels beneath the ice, likely resulting from lake water draining through the glacier. Consequently, the glacier has significantly thinned over recent decades.</p>



<p>Interestingly, melt rates have declined since 2018, possibly from cooler ocean currents, highlighting glacier sensitivity to environmental shifts. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-the-collapse">Preparing for the collapse</h2>



<p>Prof. Dr. Angelika Humbert noted the glacier's unusually quick adaptation to these changes. Consequently, she emphasized the complexity of glacier dynamics.</p>



<p>“We expect that this floating glacier tongue will break apart over the next few years to decades. We have begun to study this process in detail to gain maximum insight into the course of the process," explained Humbert. </p>



<p>"Although there have been several such disintegrations of ice shelves, we have only been able to collect data subsequently. As a scientific community, we are now in a better position by having built up a really good database before the collapse," she concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-future-holds-for-greenland-s-79-n-glacier">What the future holds for Greenland's 79° N Glacier</h2>



<p>Looking ahead, scientists predict that <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mysterious-arc-joins-ice-on-a-fjord-in-western-greenland/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland</a>'s 79° N Glacier's floating tongue may break apart in the coming years or decades. </p>



<p>This study seeks to understand ice shelf disintegration dynamics, historically challenging to study in real-time. </p>



<p>Creating a comprehensive database beforehand will better prepare scientists to grasp and potentially mitigate the consequences of these environmental shifts.</p>



<p>The situation of the 79° N Glacier serves as a critical wake-up call regarding the urgent need to address climate change. It highlights the interconnectedness of our planet's systems. </p>



<p>Additionally, it underscores the profound impacts human activity can have on even the most remote and seemingly stable natural structures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-greenland-s-79-n-glacier">More about Greenland’s 79° N Glacier</h2>



<p>As discussed above, the 79° N Glacier, also known as Nioghalvfjerdsfjorden Glacier, stands as a sentinel at the frontier of climate research and glacial study. </p>



<p>This glacier, remarkable both for its size and its significance to the Arctic environment, continues to draw the attention of scientists and environmentalists around the globe.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-significance">Geological significance</h3>



<p>The 79° N Glacier is a prominent feature of Greenland's northeastern coast. It flows directly into the Arctic Ocean, making it one of the largest glaciers contributing to the North Atlantic's icebergs. </p>



<p>Along with its neighbor, the Zachariae Isstrom, it forms a critical part of the Greenland ice sheet's dynamics, playing a significant role in global sea-level rise projections.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-indicator">Climate change indicator</h3>



<p>As an active indicator of climate change, the 79° N Glacier has been under intense scrutiny. Scientists monitor its ice flow rates, melt patterns, and calving events to understand better the impacts of global warming on polar ice masses. </p>



<p>Recent studies, like the one discussed previously by AWI, have shown accelerated ice loss from this glacier, signaling significant environmental transformations in the Arctic.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-and-exploration">Research and exploration</h3>



<p>The glacier is a hub for cutting-edge research and exploration. Teams from various international institutions embark on expeditions to drill ice cores, deploy satellite technology, and use underwater robotics to study the glacier's behavior and its contribution to global sea level rise. These efforts are crucial for predicting future changes and developing strategies to mitigate climate impacts.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-of-greenland-s-79-n-glacier">Conservation of Greenland's 79° N Glacier</h3>



<p>The 79° N Glacier in Greenland is a critical piece of the puzzle in understanding global climate dynamics. Through the continued efforts of the scientific community, the glacier serves as both a barometer for the changing climate and a beacon for action against the global challenge of climate change. </p>



<p>As we move forward, the story of the 79° N Glacier will undoubtedly play a pivotal role in shaping our approach to environmental preservation and our understanding of the Earth's delicate balance.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/18/1333/2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Cryosphere</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Another massive Greenland glacier is rapidly melting

The 79° N Glacier in northeast Greenland, is showcasing alarming...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>



<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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