Science is often influenced by the unseen world of bacteria that coexist with us. These microscopic organisms play a crucial role in our bodies, affecting everything from digestion to mood.



Researchers at the University of Galway recently introduced a collection of 247,092 computer models of these bacteria, marking the largest digital microbe library ever created.



Their project, known as APOLLO, provides a fresh way to study the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-play-a-big-role-in-shaping-the-health-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a> without relying on slow laboratory work.



This ambitious effort is led by Professor Ines Thiele, a principal investigator with <a href="https://www.ucc.ie/en/apc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APC Microbiome Ireland</a>, housed at University College Cork.



She also directs the University of Galway’s Digital Metabolic Twin Centre, where this vast model collection was born.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digital-microbes-changed-the-game">Digital microbes changed the game</h2>



APOLLO comprises detailed computer models that capture the metabolic operations of each bacterium. These operations include the ways in which microbes convert nutrients into energy and byproducts that can influence our bodies.



The library also features 14,451 community simulations based on real samples from various age groups and continents. By analyzing these combined communities, scientists can look for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> linked to different diets, life stages, and disease risks.



“APOLLO marks a major milestone in personalized microbiome modeling on a global scale,” said Dr. Cyrille Thinnes, project scientist at the University of Galway. 



Dr. Thinnes noted that examining our bacteria is crucial for discovering how they shape conditions across the body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-microbes-and-health">Bridging microbes and health</h2>



The <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/science/microbiome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a> is a vibrant collection of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature06244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> have long suspected that these living companions influence immune health, nutrient absorption, and many chronic illnesses.



One highlight of this new library is its potential to uncover specific neurotoxins or beneficial molecules. By simulating bacterial activity in the gut, researchers can better understand metabolic signals that may affect mental health and brain-related conditions.



Evidence suggests that imbalances in gut flora can influence Parkinson’s disease. Exploring these subtle connections may open the door to new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-your-mouth-multiply-in-a-very-unique-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diagnostic tools</a>.



More broadly, this software-based approach speeds up research. Instead of dealing with slow-growing microbes and tricky lab conditions, scientists can test ideas in silico, allowing for rapid insights and next-level collaboration across institutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-diseases-with-personalized-tools">Targeting diseases with personalized tools</h2>



Some of the digital communities in this library reveal potential links to illnesses like <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12328-017-0813-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Crohn’s disease</a>. The researchers found metabolic markers that may help in creating new ways to detect or track this inflammatory condition.



APOLLO can also simulate how bacteria behave in malnourished children. This could be especially relevant for global health efforts to tackle the impacts of child undernutrition.



By identifying specific bacterial strains or metabolites tied to a condition, treatments can be developed. Doctors might adjust a person’s diet or prescribe specialized probiotics to help rebalance the gut.



“The human microbiome is a vital player in health and disease, dynamically interacting with its host,” explained Professor Thiele. She emphasized that these digital models allow a closer look at how microbes might respond to different interventions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-gut">Beyond the gut</h2>



Although most people associate gut bacteria with digestion, microbes also dwell in the mouth, skin, and other areas of the body. APOLLO’s data spans multiple body sites, reflecting the wide geographic and demographic diversity of modern populations.



Non-westernized communities often have distinct bacterial profiles that may hold clues about resilience to certain diseases. Studying these variations could inform public health measures on antibiotic use and dietary guidelines.



This wider perspective helps researchers see how different living conditions shape microbial ecosystems. By comparing many populations, scientists hope to pinpoint patterns linked to better health outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digital-microbe-models-for-healthcare">Digital microbe models for healthcare</h2>



These digital models represent an evolving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-microbes-found-in-the-driest-desert-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resource</a> for personalized healthcare. By merging patient data with microbiome simulations, doctors may soon propose more targeted treatments.



Human trials will still be necessary, but computational work helps refine the most promising ideas. Instead of wasting time on broad guesses, specialists can quickly identify strategies that show the most potential in digital tests.



Experts see a future where <a href="https://healthtechmagazine.net/article/2024/01/what-are-digital-twins-and-how-can-they-be-used-healthcare" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digital twins of patients</a> can predict interactions between diet, medicine, and the microbiome. This may cut down on trial and error, bringing more precise treatments to the public.



APOLLO proves that large-scale modeling can work outside of a typical lab. It offers a step toward making these simulations more comprehensive and accessible.



Teams around the world can now tap into this resource and discover new health connections. The research may ultimately lead to breakthroughs in diagnostics, drug development, and nutritional science.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-systems/fulltext/S2405-4712(25)00029-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Systems</a>.



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Largest digital microbe archive could transform health research

Science is often influenced by the unseen world of bacteria that coexist with us. These microscopic organisms play a crucial role in our bodies, affecting everything from digestion to mood. Researchers at the University of Galway recently introduced a collection of 247,092 computer models of these bacteria, marking the largest digital microbe library ever created. Their project, known as APOLLO, provides a fresh way to study the microbiome without relying on slow laboratory work. This ambitious effort is led by Professor Ines Thiele, a principal investigator with...

Earth,At,Night,Was,Holding,In,Human,Hands.,Earth,Day.

According to a new report by an international team of scientists led by the <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> (OSU), our planet’s vital signs have reached “code red” and “humanity is unequivocally facing a climate emergency.” The experts argue that 16 out of 35 planetary vital signs that they use to track climate change are currently at record extremes, including heatwaves, rising global tree cover loss due to wildfires, a greater prevalence of mosquito-borne infectious diseases, and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels (which have now reached 418 parts per million – the highest ever recorded).



“Look at all of these heat waves, fires, floods and massive storms,” said report lead author William Ripple, a professor of Ecology at OSU. “The specter of climate change is at the door and pounding hard.”&nbsp;



“As we can see by the annual surges in climate disasters, we are now in the midst of a major climate crisis, with far worse to come if we keep doing things the way we’ve been doing them,” added co-author Christopher Wolf, a postdoctoral fellow in Global Change and Biodiversity Conservation at the same university.



The report authors point out that in the three decades since over 1,700 scientists signed the original “World Scientists’ Warning to Humanity” in 1992, global greenhouse emissions have increased by 40 percent. However, as co-author Saleemul Huq – an expert in climate change at the <a href="http://www.iub.edu.bd/">Independent University of Bangladesh</a> - put it, global warming is not a standalone issue. “To avoid more untold human suffering, we need to protect nature, eliminate most fossil fuel emissions, and support socially just climate adaptations with a focus on low-income areas that are most vulnerable,” he said.



“As Earth’s temperatures are creeping up, the frequency or magnitude of some types of climate disasters may actually be leaping up. We urge our fellow scientists around the world to speak out on climate change,” concluded co-author Thomas Newsome, an expert in Ecology and Conservation at the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a>.



The “World Scientists’ Warning of a Climate Emergency 2022” is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biac083">BioScience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change has pushed Earth to “code red”

According to a new report by an international team of...

A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> (ICL) has recently discovered an unexpected river under the Antarctic ice sheet which affects the flow and melting of ice, potentially accelerating ice loss as the climate warms. This 460 kilometers-long river collects water at the base of the Antarctic ice sheet from an area the size of Germany and France combined – a worrisome aspect suggesting that the base of the ice sheet has more active water flow than previously thought, which could make it more susceptible to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-pushed-earth-to-code-red/">climate change</a>.



“When we first discovered lakes beneath the Antarctic ice a couple of decades ago, we thought they were isolated from each other. Now we are starting to understand there are whole systems down there, interconnected by vast river networks, just as they might be if there weren’t thousands of meters of ice on top of them,” said study co-author Martin Siegert, a glaciologist at ICL.



“The region where this study is based holds enough ice to raise the sea level globally by 4.3 meters. How much of this ice melts, and how quickly, is linked to how slippery the base of the ice is. The newly discovered river system could strongly influence this process.”



Water can form between ice sheets in two ways – from surface meltwater flowing down through deep crevasses, or by basal melting, caused by the natural heat of the Earth and friction as the ice moves over land. While in the Arctic, the surface experiences stronger melting during summer, in Antarctica the summers are too cold to cause such phenomena. Scientists have long thought this means that there was relatively little water at the base of the Antarctic ice sheet.



However, the discovery of this vast underground river contradicts this assumption, showing there is sufficient water from basal melt alone to create massive river systems under kilometers-thick ice.&nbsp;“Previous studies have looked at the interaction between the edges of ice sheets and ocean water to determine what melting looks like. However, the discovery of a river that reaches hundreds of kilometers inland driving some of these processes shows that we cannot understand the ice melt fully without considering the whole system: ice sheet, ocean, and freshwater,” explained study co-author Neil Ross, a senior lecturer in Physical Geography at <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk/">Newcastle University</a>.



The existence of large under-ice rivers has to be taken into account when predicting the consequences of global warming on this region. For instance, if temperatures are high enough to cause surface melt, pushing water at the base of the ice sheet, these river systems could be significantly affected, potentially tipping Antarctica to a Greenland-like state, where ice-loss is much faster. Moreover, if the ice starts to flow faster than the water accumulated at the base, then this will increase friction where the ice runs over dry land, which could in turn increase the amount of basal melting and water produced.



In future studies, the scientists aim to gather more data about these mechanisms and to apply their models to other regions, in order to better understand how a changing Antarctica could possibly change our entire planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-01059-1">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Massive river found beneath the Antarctic ice sheet

A team of researchers led by the Imperial College London...

According to a recent study led by <a href="https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/">Lancaster University</a>, we should stop thinking of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-struggle-to-adjust-to-high-temperatures/">insects</a> as creepy crawlies and focus instead on the multiple benefits they bring to humans and nature. The widespread and deeply ingrained negative cultural perception of insects is a major factor holding back the public’s appreciation of the critical roles they play in ecosystems. Unfortunately, this perception is also partly reflected in government biodiversity policy inaction worldwide.



Despite three decades of intergovernmental reports highlighting biodiversity targets, global insect biomass, abundance, and diversity continues to decline. “Biodiversity, including insect, declines are often unintended consequences of human activities with human wellbeing nearly always trumping nature conservation, and this is likely to continue until we reach a point where we see flat-lining ecosystems are detrimental to our own species,” said study lead author Phillip Donkersley, an expert in Invertebrate Biology and Conservation Policy at Lancaster.



&nbsp;“Intergovernmental action has been slow to respond, kicking in only when change becomes impossible to ignore. If we are to see political attitudes and actions change, then first societies’ perception of insects needs to be addressed.”



Dr. Donkersley and his colleagues highlight the various benefits that insects bring, including their fundamental role in ecosystems (such as pollinating plants, or being a food source for animals and people in many parts of the world), and their contribution to wellbeing, culture, and innovation (such as the mental health benefits people derive from seeing butterflies in parks and gardens, their inclusion in poetry and literature, or their use in a range of technologies, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals).&nbsp;



In addition, the scientists outlined several strategic priorities in their action plan to help support the conservation of insects, including: proactively and publicly addressing governmental inaction; highlighting the technological developments we owe to insects; aligning with plant, mammal, and bird conservation groups to stress the interdependency of various species and the knock-on benefits insect conservation could have for other species; and engaging pupils and students with the wonders of the insect world to counter ingrained perceptions of insects as threatening creepy crawlies.



“The benefits we gain from the insect world are broad, yet aversion or phobias of invertebrates are common and stand firmly in the path of their conservation,” said Dr Donkersley. “We need to move beyond this mindset and appreciate the huge role they play in ecosystems, food chains, mental health, and even technological innovation.”



“This perception change is a crucial step, alongside other measures we outline in this paper. Immediate and substantial actions are needed to protect insect species in order to maintain global ecosystem stability,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.9417">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Insects play important roles in ecosystems

According to a recent study led by Lancaster University, we...

Scientists have long pondered why humans are such chatty, musical animals. Evolutionary biologists believe that our capacities for speech and music may be linked, since only animals that can learn new vocalizations, such as humans or songbirds, appear to have a sense of rhythm. 



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.mpi.nl/">Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics</a> has tested the rhythmic abilities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harbor-seals-use-vocal-learning-to-sound-larger-than-they-appear/">harbor seals</a>, a species of animals known to be capable of rhythmic learning. The analyses revealed that seals also have a sense of rhythm, being able to discriminate between rhythmic and non-rhythmic sequences early in life, without any training or rewards.



The researchers tested 20 young seals from a rehabilitation center in the Netherlands, before they were released in the wild. First, the team created several sequences of seal vocalizations which differed in three rhythmic properties: tempo (fast or slow, such as beats per minute in music), length (short or long, like the duration of musical notes), and regularity (regular or irregular, as in the case of a metronome versus the rhythm of improvisational jazz). Then, by using a method derived from human infant studies, the scientists recorded how many times the seals turned their head to look at the sound source – a behavior indicating whether animals find a stimulus interesting.



The seals looked at the stimulus more often when vocalizations were longer, faster, or rhythmically regular. This suggests that one-year-old seals can spontaneously discriminate between regular (metronomic) and irregular (arrhythmic) sequences, as well as between sequences with short versus long notes, and sequences with fast versus slow-paced tempo.



“Another mammal, apart from us, shows rhythm processing and vocalization learning,”&nbsp;said study lead author Laura Verga, a postdoctoral fellow in Comparative Bioacoustics at Max Planck. “This is&nbsp;a significant advance in the debate over the evolutionary origins of human speech and musicality, which are still rather mysterious.&nbsp;Similarly to human babies, the rhythm perception we find in seals arises early in life, is robust and requires neither training nor reinforcement.”



In future studies, Dr. Verga and her colleagues aim to explore whether seals perceive rhythm in vocalizations of other animals, or even when hearing abstract sounds, as well as whether other mammals have similar capacities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2022.0316">Biology Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seals can perceive rhythm early in life

Scientists have long pondered why humans are such chatty, musical...

A new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.add3726">Science Advances</a> has found that extreme <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-are-fueling-more-extreme-heatwaves/">heatwaves</a> caused by anthropogenic global warming have already caused the world economy trillions of dollars since the 1990s. The experts report that the globe’s poorest - and lowest carbon-emitting nations - have suffered the most.



A team of scientists from <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/">Dartmouth College</a> combined recently available, in-depth economic data for various regions worldwide with the average temperature for the hottest five-day period (a widely used measurement of heat intensity) for each region in each year. The analysis revealed that, from 1992 to 2013, heatwaves statistically coincided with variations in economic growth, and that approximately $16 trillion was lost due to the effects of high temperatures on human health, productivity, and agricultural output.



These findings stress the urgent need for policies and technologies to protect people during the hottest days of the year, especially in the world’s warmest and most economically vulnerable nations.&nbsp;



“Accelerating adaptation measures within the hottest period of each year would deliver economic benefits now,” said study lead author&nbsp;Christopher Callahan, a doctoral student in Geography at Dartmouth. “The amount of money spent on adaptation measures should not be assessed just on the price tag of those measures, but relative to the cost of doing nothing. Our research identifies a substantial price tag to not doing anything.”



“Our work shows that no place is well adapted to our current climate,” added study senior author Justin Mankin, an assistant professor of Geography at the same university. “The regions with the lowest incomes globally are the ones that suffer most from these extreme heat events. As climate change increases the magnitude of extreme heat, it’s a fair expectation that those costs will continue to accumulate.”



Thus, the economic costs of extreme heat, along with the expenses of adaption to such temperatures, have been and will be disproportionately borne by the world’s poorest nations in the tropics and the global South. Ironically, most of these countries have contributed the least to global warming. For instance, the scientists found that, while economic losses due to extreme heatwaves averaged 1.5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita for the world’s wealthiest nations, low-income regions suffered a loss of 6.7 percent of GDP per capita.



“We have a situation where the people causing global warming and changes in extreme heat have more resources to be resilient to those changes, and, in some rare cases, could benefit from it. It’s a massive international wealth transfer from the poorest countries in the world to the richest countries in the world through climate change - and that transfer needs to be reversed,” Mankin concluded.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Extreme heatwaves have cost the global economy trillions

A new study published in the journal Science Advances has...

The ozone hole is an area in the stratosphere over the North Pole, where the thickness of the ozone layer is reduced for part of each year due to the presence of ozone-depleting substances. Since this layer effectively protects life on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-pushed-earth-to-code-red/">Earth</a> from excessive exposure to harmful UV-B radiation from the sun, it is important to keep track of the size of the hole on a regular basis. It is monitored by satellites and scientists from NASA in Maryland, as well as from NOAA, the United States’ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. In the latest report from NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Centre, statistics indicate that this hole has continued on its overall path to becoming smaller during 2022.



Ozone is a colorless gas with the molecular formula O3. It is very active chemically and forms bonds with many other substances. Near the Earth’s surface, those reactions cause rubber to crack, hurt plant life, and damage people’s lung tissues. However, ozone in the stratosphere absorbs UV-B radiation, thus protecting the living things below from its harmful effects.&nbsp;



Each year, active forms of chlorine and bromine from man-made chemical compounds accumulate and attach to the high-altitude polar clouds during the southern Hemisphere winter. As soon as the sun rises at the start of Antarctica’s spring, the chlorine and bromine undergo chemical reactions that break down ozone. Thus, satellites measure the extent and thickness of the ozone layer during the spring months between July and October each year, in order to assess the extent to which these chemical reactions have negatively affected the ozone layer.&nbsp;



This year,&nbsp;instruments aboard the<a href="https://aura.gsfc.nasa.gov/">&nbsp;Aura</a>,<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/NPP/mission_overview/index.html">&nbsp;Suomi NPP</a>,&nbsp;and<a href="https://www.jpss.noaa.gov/mission_and_instruments.html">&nbsp;NOAA-20</a>&nbsp;satellites recorded that the maximum size of the ozone hole (present on Oct. 5, 2022) was 10.2 million square miles (26.4 million square kilometers), which was slightly larger than last year, but smaller than was recorded in 2015.&nbsp;



In addition, scientists from NOAA used a <a href="https://gml.noaa.gov/ozwv/dobson/">&nbsp;Dobson Spectrophotometer</a>, an optical instrument that records the total amount of ozone between Earth’s surface and the edge of space. The global average column ozone is around 300 Dobson units, and this year the lowest value was recorded on Oct. 3, when only 101 Dobson units were present over the South Pole. At that time, ozone was almost completely absent at altitudes between 8 and 13 miles (14 and 21 kilometers) – a pattern very similar to what was recorded last year.&nbsp;



Some scientists had been concerned about potential stratospheric impacts from the January 2022 eruption of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/tonga-eruption-blasted-unprecedented-amount-of-water-into-stratosphere">Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcan</a>o in the South Pacific Ocean. The&nbsp;<a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Volcano#:~:text=When%20Mount%20Pinatubo%20erupted%20in,and%20loss%20of%20human%20life.">1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption</a>&nbsp;released substantial amounts of sulfur dioxide that amplified ozone layer depletion. However, no direct impacts from Hunga Tonga have been detected in the Antarctic stratospheric data for the current year.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The Montreal Protocol, an international treaty signed in 1987, aims to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the use of reactive chlorine and bromine compounds in refrigerants and manufacturing processes. It was ratified by 198 nations and territories and has been in force since 1989. Since then, the atmospheric concentrations of the most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased, and the ozone hole has slowly become smaller.&nbsp;



“Over time, steady progress is being made, and the hole is getting smaller,” said Paul Newman, chief scientist for Earth sciences at&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a>. “We see some wavering as weather changes and other factors make the numbers wiggle slightly from day to day and week to week. But overall, we see it decreasing through the past two decades. The elimination of ozone-depleting substances through the Montreal Protocol is shrinking the hole.”



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory image by Joshua Stevens



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ozone hole has been slowly shrinking over two decades

The ozone hole is an area in the stratosphere over...

Honey,Bee,Collecting,Pollen,On,Purple,Flower.,Bumblebee,On,A

We are all familiar with the engaging antics of young mammals and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-are-crossbreeding-in-human-altered-landscapes/">birds</a> as they play. They undertake activities with no apparent immediate purpose, other than to bring enjoyment. But is it possible that insects may also have a sense of playfulness?&nbsp;



In previous research on bumble bees, scientists found that they could train bees to roll small wooden balls along in exchange for a sugary reward, but they also observed that the same bees went out of their way to visit the balls and roll them around, even when there was no reward involved. This led the researchers to wonder whether these bees were actually engaging in play.



According to behaviorists, play can be defined according to five criteria. It is activity that has no immediate adaptive outcome, is voluntary and spontaneous, is different from usual functional behavior, is often repeated but not stereotyped, and is initiated when an animal is in a relaxed, unstressed state. With these criteria in mind, a research team led by <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University</a> set out to test whether the bumble bee behavior of rolling balls around fulfilled the definition of play.&nbsp;



Their initial experiment followed 45 novice bumble bees as they made their way from a nest to a feeding area where ‘nectar’ and pollen were available. On the way there, the bees could choose a direct path or could deviate into areas where either mobile or immobile wooden balls were available on the floor. The balls were all 15 mm in diameter and were either painted yellow or purple, or left the natural wood color. The experiment ran for 3 hours each day, over 18 days, and video recordings were made of all the bee movements.



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.08.013">Animal Behaviour</a>, reported a total of 910 ball-rolling actions by the 45 bumble bees. Individual bees rolled balls between 1 and 44 times on an experimental day, and between 1 and 117 times across the whole duration of the experiment. In addition, individual ball-rolling actions lasted between 0.4 and 31&nbsp;s, and for distances between 2 and 601&nbsp;mm. Statistical analysis showed that, after a bee’s first ball-rolling experience, it was more likely to enter the area of mobile balls than the area of fixed balls. As no food reward was associated with visits to the balls, the researchers concluded that the bees were choosing to visit the balls for reasons not related to foraging or any other functional purpose.&nbsp;



The study also found that younger bees (less than 7 days since emergence) rolled more balls than older bees, mirroring the more playful behavior of young humans and other juvenile mammals and birds. Furthermore, although male and female bees rolled comparable numbers of balls, male bees rolled them for longer time periods than their female counterparts.&nbsp;For female bees the ball-rolling behavior peaked at the age of 3 days while for males it peaked at the age of 5 days.&nbsp;



In a subsequent experiment, the researchers first gave 42 bumble bees access to two chambers, each of a different color. One chamber always contained movable balls and the other had no objects inside it. Once the bees were accustomed to finding balls in a chamber of a particular color, they were tested and given a choice between the two chambers, this time though, neither one contained any balls. The bees showed a striking preference for the color of the chamber previously associated with the wooden balls. These results again suggest that bumble bees find ball rolling rewarding and seek to repeat the experience.



The set-up of the experiments removed any notion that the bees were moving the balls for any greater purpose other than play. Rolling balls did not contribute to survival strategies, such as gaining food, clearing clutter, or mating and was done under stress-free conditions.&nbsp;The researchers concluded that the seemingly functionless ball-rolling activity is analogous to object play in mammals, and fulfils all the criteria of play behavior.&nbsp;



“It is certainly mind-blowing, at times amusing, to watch bumble bees show something like play. They approach and manipulate these ‘toys’ again and again," said study first author Samadi Galpayage. "It goes to show, once more, that despite their little size and tiny brains, they are more than small robotic beings. They may actually experience some kind of positive emotional states, even if rudimentary, like other larger fluffy, or not so fluffy, animals do. This sort of finding has implications for our understanding of sentience and welfare of insects and will, hopefully, encourage us to respect and protect life on Earth ever more.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This research provides a strong indication that insect minds are far more sophisticated than we might imagine. There are lots of animals that play just for the purposes of enjoyment, but most examples come from young mammals and birds," said Professor Lars Chittka, author of the recent book The Mind of a Bee. “We are producing ever-increasing amounts of evidence backing up the need to do all we can to protect insects, that are a million miles from the mindless, unfeeling creatures they are traditionally believed to be."



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bumble bees can "play" with objects for fun

We are all familiar with the engaging antics of young...

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a> has recently released a set of topography maps providing new evidence for an ancient northern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-in-eastern-china-linked-to-ocean-warming/">ocean</a> on Mars. This is the strongest case yet that the red planet once experienced sea-level rise caused by a prolonged warm and wet climate, starkly different from the harsh, frozen landscape of today’s Mars.



“What immediately comes to mind as one the most significant points here is that the existence of an ocean of this size means a higher potential for life,” said study lead author Benjamin Cardenas, an assistant professor of Geosciences at Penn State. “It also tells us about the ancient climate and its evolution. Based on these findings, we know there had to have been a period when it was warm enough and the atmosphere was thick enough to support this much liquid water at one time.”



By using topography data, the researchers were able to show definitive evidence of a 3.5-billion-year-old shoreline with substantial sedimentary accumulation, at least 900 meters thick, and covering hundreds of thousands of square kilometers.



“The big, novel thing that we did in this paper was think about Mars in terms of its stratigraphy and its sedimentary record,” Cardenas explained. “On Earth, we chart the history of waterways by looking at sediment that is deposited over time. We call that stratigraphy, the idea that water transports sediment and you can measure the changes on Earth by understanding the way that sediment piles up. That’s what we’ve done here — but it’s Mars.”



With the help of state-of-the-art software developed by the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">United States Geological Survey</a>, the experts discovered over 6,500 kilometers of fluvial ridges that are likely eroded river deltas or submarine-channel belts – the remnants of an ancient Martian shoreline. Elements of rock formation – including ridge-system thickness, elevations, locations, and possible sedimentary flow directions – helped the scientists understand the evolution of the region’s paleogeography.&nbsp;



“The rocks in Aeolis Dorsa [the area that was once an ocean] capture some fascinating information about what the ocean was like,” he said. “It was dynamic. The sea level rose significantly. Rocks were being deposited along its basins at a fast rate. There was a lot of change happening here.”



Since, on Earth, the ancient sedimentary basins contain the stratigraphic records of evolving climate and life, if scientists want to find a record of life on Mars, an ocean as big as that once covering Aeolis Dorsa would be the logical place to start.



“A major goal for the Mars Curiosity rover missions is to look for signs of life. It’s always been looking for water, for traces of habitable life. This is the biggest one yet. It’s a giant body of water, fed by sediments coming from the highlands, presumably carrying nutrients. If there were tides on ancient Mars, they would have been here, gently bringing in and out water. This is exactly the type of place where ancient Martian life could have evolved,” Cardenas concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2022JE007390">Journal of Geophysical Research Planets</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Traces of an ancient ocean found on Mars

A team of researchers from the Pennsylvania State University has...

Animal-based products constitute a major portion of an average American’s diet, and, as food systems in the U.S. become increasingly more complex and interconnected, these products often impact the environment in previously unknown ways. For instance, <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/scientists-cannot-fully-explain-the-behavior-of-water/">water</a> is heavily needed throughout the entire food supply. Now, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/">University of Pittsburgh</a> has designed a model to assess the beef industry’s impact on virtual water flows (the hidden movement of water in food production) by tracing beef supply chains from calf production to beef consumption at the county level.



“Understanding beef demands and the spatial distribution of both feed and cattle production are key for evaluating the environmental sustainability of food systems and developing improvement strategies,” said study senior author Vikas Khanna, an associate professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Pittsburgh.



According to the experts, all animal production requires large quantities of water, with the vast majority being used to produce feed. Since the irrigation process for feed requires “blue water” – water found in surface and ground reservoirs – it can lead to major environmental concerns such as water depletion, water logging, salinization, and soil degradation.



“To irrigate feed crops for each ton of boneless beef eaten in the U.S., we found that approximately 3.5 cubic meters of blue water is needed,”&nbsp;said study lead author Anaís Ostroski, a PhD student at Pittsburgh.&nbsp;“That’s equivalent to more than 900 gallons of water.”&nbsp;



By using an optimization-based framework, together with publicly available datasets on supply and demand, the researchers discovered that there is a large disconnect between consumption and production counties, with more than 22 billion cubic meters of virtual blue water being transferred in 2017 alone (more than the volume of the Great Salt Lake).



“Typically, real-world networks have a highly skewed degree of distributions with few highly connected intersections,” explained Khanna. “We observed this in our network, as the majority of counties have very few connections, while a small number of counties have a large amount of connections.”&nbsp;



In future research, the scientists aim to apply the framework they developed to clarify the environmental impact of other animal-based production practices and identify improvement opportunities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.2c03986">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What is the water impact of the U.S. beef industry?

Animal-based products constitute a major portion of an average American’s...

A new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-fossil-found-to-be-an-early-relative-of-pterosaurs/">fossil</a> specimen of a long-extinct lizard, discovered on the Isle of Skye, has given paleontologists insight into the earliest origins of this reptile group. The tiny vertebrate, Bellairsia gracilis, is only 6 cm long and dates from the Middle Jurassic, around 166 million years ago. It was found in 2016 by a team led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> and National Museums Scotland, and is one of several new fossil discoveries from the island that cast light on the early evolution of vertebrate groups, including amphibians, reptiles and mammals.&nbsp;



Details of the exceptional new fossil, which comprises the most complete skeleton of a fossil lizard anywhere in the world, have been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05332-6">Nature</a>. The research represents a joint project between scientists from the universities of Warsaw, Oxford and UCL, and it reports on the mixture of ancestral and modern features present in this early representative of the group known as the squamata – the largest group of living reptiles that includes lizards, chameleons and snakes.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This little fossil lets us see evolution in action. In paleontology you rarely have the opportunity to work with such complete, well-preserved fossils coming from a time about which we know so little. Bellairsia&nbsp;has some modern lizard features, like traits related to cranial kinesis – that’s the movement of the skull bones in relation to one another. This is an important functional feature of many living squamates," explained study first author Dr. Mateusz Tałanda.



"It was one of the first fossils I found when I began working on Skye. The little black skull was poking out from the pale limestone, but it was so small I was lucky to spot it. Looking closer I saw the tiny teeth, and realized I’d found something important, but we had no idea until later that almost the whole skeleton was in there," said study co-author <a href="https://palaeobiology.web.ox.ac.uk/people/dr-elsa-panciroli">Dr. Elsa Panciroli</a>.



As a group, the squamates show numerous specialized features of the skull and skeleton today, but fossil evidence of the origins of these features is rare. Although we know the earliest representatives were present some 240 million years ago, the lack of fossil evidence from the Triassic and Jurassic Periods has made it difficult to map out the evolution of their anatomy. Comparing the new fossil to other examples of living and extinct squamates confirms that Bellairsia&nbsp;belongs to the "stem" of the squamate family tree. This means that it split from other lizards just before the origin of modern groups.&nbsp;



The researchers used X-ray computed tomography (CT) to study the details of the Bellairsia fossil, in much the same way that medical CT methods produce 3D images of a human body without needing to enter within. The researchers were able to obtain images of the entire fossil without removing it from the rock in which it formed all those millions of years ago. Whereas medical scanners work at the millimeter scale, the Oxford University CT scanner revealed details of the little lizard’s skeletal anatomy down to a few tens of micrometers.



Parts of the skeleton were then imaged in even greater detail, including the skull, hindlimbs and pelvis, at the European Synchrotron (ESRF, Grenoble, France). The intensity of the synchrotron beam permits a resolution of 4 micrometers, revealing details of the very smallest bones in the skeleton.



“Fossils like this&nbsp;Bellairsia&nbsp;specimen have huge value in filling gaps in our understanding of evolution and the history of life on Earth," said study co-author <a href="https://www.earth.ox.ac.uk/people/roger-benson/">Professor Roger Benson</a>. "It used to be almost impossible to study such tiny fossils like this, but this study shows the power of new techniques, including CT scanning, to image these non-destructively and in great detail.”



Study co-author Professor Susan Evans (UCL) first described and named&nbsp;Bellairsia&nbsp;from a few jaw and skull bones from Oxfordshire 25 years ago. “It is wonderful to have a complete specimen of this tantalizing little lizard, and to see where it fits in the evolutionary tree," said Professor Evans. "Through fossils like&nbsp;Bellairsia&nbsp;we are gaining a better understanding of early lizard anatomy. Angus Bellairs, the lizard embryologist after [whom]&nbsp;Bellairsia&nbsp;was originally named, would have been delighted.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scottish fossil sheds light on early lizard anatomy

A new fossil specimen of a long-extinct lizard, discovered on...

The cognitive and memory decline observed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/alzheimers-risk-elevated-by-exposure-to-ddt/">Alzheimer’s</a> disease (AD) is caused by the accumulation of β-amyloid protein (Aβ), which leads to neural impairment. Previous studies have shown that oxytocin – a peptide hormone responsible for parturition, bonding, and lactation – could also regulate cognitive performance and behavior in the central nervous system of rodents. 



However, while research suggests that oxytocin could play an important role in reversing memory loss caused by cognitive disorders such as AD, until recently this hormone could only be efficiently delivered to the brain through intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration – an invasive technique that is impractical to implement clinically. 



Now, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.tus.ac.jp/en/">Tokyo University of Science</a> has explored the possibility of delivering oxytocin to the central nervous system via intranasal (IN) administration, a considerably less invasive method. The experts devised a technique to increase the efficiency of peptide delivery to the brain by introducing cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) and a penetration accelerating sequence (PAS) through structural modifications, and leveraged this approach to prepare an oxytocin derivative, PAS-CPPs-oxytocin.



“We have previously shown that oxytocin reverses amyloid&nbsp;𝛽&nbsp;peptide (25-35) (A𝛽25-35)-induced impairment of synaptic plasticity in rodents. We wanted to see if&nbsp;PAS-CPPs-oxytocin&nbsp;could be delivered more efficiently to the mouse brain for clinical application, and if it improved cognitive functional behavior in mice,”&nbsp;reported study senior author Jun-ichiro Oka, an expert in Neuropharmacology at Tokyo University.



After developing an A𝛽25-35 peptide-induced amnesia model by supplying A𝛽25-35 to the mouse brain via ICV delivery, the scientists assessed the spatial working and spatial reference memories of mice by using the Y-maze and Morris water maze (MWM) tests. After confirming that memory was affected in A𝛽25-35-impaired mice, the researchers administered PAS-CPPs-oxytocin and native oxytocin via an IN and an ICV route, respectively, in order to clarify whether learning and memory improved in the treated mice. Finally, they profiled the distribution of the IN-administered derivative in brain tissues by imaging of a fluorescent-tagged oxytocin derivative.



The tagged PAS-CPPs-oxytocin showed efficient distribution throughout the brain after its IN administration, and, while the ICV administration of native oxytocin improved test outcomes in both the Y-maze and MWM tests, the IN administration of PAS-CPPs-oxytocin led to better outcomes in the Y-maze test.&nbsp;



“My team is the first to show that the oxytocin derivative can improve the A𝛽25-35-induced memory impairment in mice. This suggests that oxytocin may help reduce the cognitive decline we see in Alzheimer's disease. The oxytocin derivative enters the brain more efficiently. Furthermore, since IN delivery is a non-invasive procedure, this modified version of the hormone could potentially be a clinically viable treatment for Alzheimer's disease,” Professor Oka concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/npr2.12292">Neuropsychopharmacology Reports</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The love hormone oxytocin may improve cognitive decline

The cognitive and memory decline observed in Alzheimer’s disease (AD)...

Over the past two centuries, human activities have led to global warming, a massive carbon imbalance, and biodiversity loss. However, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/">University of Sheffield</a>, there are certain cases where human stewardship appears to help remediate these damages. By examining tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-forests-are-more-resilient-and-productive/">forests</a> from Asia, Africa, and the Americas, the experts found that those located on protected Indigenous lands were the healthiest, highest functioning, most ecologically resilient, and most diverse.&nbsp;



“I’m looking at Indigenous lands to see how conservation outcomes on these lands are, instead of only focusing on protected areas, which are often state run, so that conservation policies might be designed to be more effective and equitable,” said study lead author Jocelyne Sze, an ecologist at the University of Sheffield.



To evaluate forest health, the scientists examined four types of lands: non-protected lands, Indigenous lands, protected areas that overlap Indigenous lands, and protected forests outside of Indigenous lands.



“We used a metric called forest integrity to measure the quality of the forest pertaining to its structure, its composition, and its function—it refers to how resilient and healthy a forest is. Our previous research found that across the tropics, deforestation and degradation rates were lower in Indigenous lands compared to non-protected areas, but deforestation and degradation rates are quite simple measures, so we wanted to look at forest integrity,” Sze explained.



The analysis revealed that forests in areas where protected and Indigenous lands overlapped had the highest integrity, with the Americas having the most land falling into this category, and Africa the least.&nbsp;



However, some of the findings surprised the scientists. “It was actually really interesting that it wasn’t all positive. We found that, in Asia and the Americas, within spaces that are only Indigenous lands - so outside of protected areas - the effect on integrity was actually worse than non-protected areas,” Sze reported.



This surprising feature may be explained by the fact that, in many parts of Asia, for instance, Indigenous lands and Indigenous rights were not recognized. Thus, although an area may be characterized as traditionally Indigenous, Indigenous people may actually have little control over their lands. Moreover, since many minerals, oil, and gas deposits are often found within Indigenous lands, these lands are often highly exploited.



In future studies, the researchers hope to clarify how Indigenous land rights and management fit into current conservation policies. “My research is very much inspired by what decolonial climate movements are trying to achieve, in trying to have Indigenous communities and local communities have more autonomy over these spaces,” Sze concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.09.040">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Forests in protected Indigenous lands are healthy and resilient

Over the past two centuries, human activities have led to...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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