For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men.



Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. 



The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys and girls start off nearly equal in math. But just four months into formal math instruction, a small gap appears - and it keeps growing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nationwide-study-tracks-the-math-gap">Nationwide study tracks the math gap</h2>



The research draws on a French government testing program that was launched in 2018. This nationwide effort tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reminiscing-can-boost-language-development-in-preschoolers/">language</a> and math skills of young students from first through sixth grade. 



Over five years and across four student cohorts, the program gave researchers an unmatched view of early math development.



At school entry, French girls scored slightly better than boys in language. Math scores, though, were essentially the same. 



"The headline conclusion is that the gender gap emerges when systematic instruction in mathematics begins," Spelke explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-gender-differences">Looking for gender differences </h2>



Spelke had already spent decades studying how young children understand numbers and shapes. Back in 2005, she wrote a major review for American Psychologist. The piece challenged the notion that boys are biologically wired for better math performance than girls.



"My argument was, 'OK, if there really were biological differences, maybe we would see them in the infancy period,'" said Spelke. 



She and her team always tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/">gender</a> in their studies, but they never found infant boys outperforming girls in math, or vice versa. Still, Spelke admitted that something could be happening later in development.



"The fact that there are no differences in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conscious-awareness-when-does-our-sense-of-purpose-emerge/">infants</a> could be because the abilities that show gender effects actually emerge during preschool," she proposed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-instruction-for-boys-and-girls">Math instruction for boys and girls</h2>



In recent years, Spelke has turned her attention to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-better-way-for-kids-to-learn-math/">children learn counting</a> and numbers in real classrooms. 



Spelke partnered with Nobel Prize-winning MIT economist Esther Duflo to advise the Delhi office of the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). The team is helping four Indian states create and test math lessons for children in preschool through first grade.



In France, she works alongside her longtime collaborator, neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene. Together, they serve on the French Ministry of Education's Scientific Council, which helped develop the EvalAide testing program. 



The idea was simple: measure where every child stands in math and language and use that data to guide better teaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-gap-emerges-in-math">Gender gap emerges in math</h2>



For this study, the team analyzed data from four full cohorts of first-graders entering school between 2018 and 2021. 



What they found was consistent: no math gap at the time of school entry, a small but significant gap favoring boys after four months, and a steadily widening gap by second, fourth, and even sixth grade.



"It was even bigger in fourth grade," Spelke said. "And in sixth grade it was bigger still."



Interestingly, the gender gap in language shrank slightly after the first few months of school and stayed relatively stable in later years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruling-out-old-explanations">Ruling out old explanations</h2>



So why does the math gap grow with time in school? The researchers ruled out several familiar theories.



"If there was really a pervasive social bias, and the parents were susceptible to it, we would expect boys to be more oriented toward spatial and numerical tasks when they first got to school," said Spelke.



But that didn’t happen. At school entry, there was no math gap. This points away from both biological and early social bias explanations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-experiment-during-the-pandemic">An experiment during the pandemic </h2>



The EvalAide dataset offered other insights. French first-graders can be nearly a year apart in age, depending on when their birthday falls. 



The team wondered if the older students were skewing results. They weren’t. The widening gender gap aligned more closely with time spent in school than with age.



Then came an unusual variable: COVID-19. The 2019 cohort missed the final 2.5 months of first grade due to lockdowns. That gap year created a natural experiment.



"With less time in school, the amount of the gender gap grew by less than it did in the other years where there wasn't a long school closure," said Spelke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-math-gender-gap">Confirming the math gender gap</h2>



The cohort also began school just after a national education crisis. In early 2019, French students had scored <a href="https://www.polytechnique-insights.com/en/braincamps/society/how-to-improve-the-relationship-between-education-and-employment/maths-an-essential-subject-whose-level-is-falling-in-a-majority-of-countries/#:~:text=In%202003%2C%2015%25%20of%20French,European%20average%20of%20527%20points.">lowest</a> among 23 European countries in math, according to international rankings. 



In response, the French Education Ministry - guided by its Scientific Council - called for more math teaching in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-pandemic-setbacks-reduced-kindergarten-readiness/">kindergarten</a>.



Sure enough, a tiny math gender gap appeared in fall 2019 among new first-graders. That gap hadn’t shown up in 2018 but was still present in 2020 and 2021.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problems-in-early-math-instruction">Problems in early math instruction </h2>



The study doesn't pinpoint a single cause, but its message is clear: differences in math achievement between boys and girls seem to grow as a result of what happens in early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schools-are-in-a-battle-with-cell-phones-to-keep-students-engaged/">school</a> instruction.



"We still don't know what that is exactly," Spelke said. "But now we have a chance to find out by randomized evaluations of changes to the curriculum."



The findings put pressure on education systems to ask hard questions about how math is taught in the early years - and what needs to change to make it fair for everyone.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09126-4">Nature</a>.



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Early math instruction may unintentionally favor boys

For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men. Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from Harvard University and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys...

Recent research by MIT physicists has led to an intriguing discovery regarding the motion of stars in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/milky-way-galaxy_outer-stars_travel-slower_annotated-image_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>. 



Their study suggests a possible revision in our understanding of the galaxy's composition, particularly in terms of its gravitational core and the elusive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-tools-gaia-and-apogee">Cosmic tools Gaia and APOGEE</h2>



Utilizing data from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Gaia_overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gaia space telescope</a> and the <a href="https://sites.krieger.jhu.edu/idg/instrumentation/ground-based-astronomy/the-apache-point-observatory-galactic-evolution-experiment-apogee/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APOGEE</a> ground-based survey, the team embarked on an extensive analysis of over 33,000 stars across the Milky Way. 



Gaia, an orbiting telescope, offers precise tracking of the location, distance, and movement of stars, while APOGEE complements this with detailed ground observations.



The focal point of the study was the "circular velocity" of the stars -- essentially, how swiftly each star orbits within the galactic disk relative to its distance from the galaxy's center. 



By plotting these velocities against their respective distances, the team constructed a rotation curve, a critical tool in astronomy for understanding the distribution of both visible and dark matter within a galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-odd-behavior-of-the-milky-way-s-outer-stars">Odd behavior of the Milky Way's outer stars</h2>



“What we were really surprised to see was that this curve remained flat, flat, flat out to a certain distance, and then it started tanking,” says Lina Necib, assistant professor of physics at <a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>. “This means the outer stars are rotating a little slower than expected, which is a very surprising result.”



This unexpected behavior of the outer stars prompted the team to reinterpret the distribution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-stars-scientists-discover-a-new-type-of-star-powered-by-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a> within the Milky Way, leading to a startling conclusion: the galaxy's core might be lighter and contain less dark matter than previously believed. 



“This puts this result in tension with other measurements,” Necib says. “There is something fishy going on somewhere, and it’s really exciting to figure out where that is, to really have a coherent picture of the Milky Way.”



The study features contributions from MIT scientists, including first author Xiaowei Ou, Anna-Christina Eilers, and Anna Frebel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vera-rubin-s-and-dark-matter">Vera Rubin's and dark matter</h2>



The research builds on the pioneering work of astronomer <a href="https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/cosmic-horizons-book/vera-rubin-dark-matter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vera Rubin</a> from the 1970s. Rubin first observed that galaxies rotate in a manner that cannot be solely attributed to visible matter. 



Her work suggested that some unseen, or "dark," matter exerted an influence on distant stars, accounting for their unexpected motion.



Rubin's pioneering work in understanding galactic rotation curves laid the groundwork for the discovery of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-may-reveal-the-origin-of-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, an elusive entity that seemingly outweighs all visible matter in the universe. 



Since then, astronomers have consistently found similar flat rotation curves in distant galaxies, reinforcing the theory of dark matter's omnipresence. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-measuring-milky-way-stars">Challenge of measuring Milky Way stars</h2>



However, charting the rotation curve of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-features-found-in-the-heart-of-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our own galaxy, has presented unique challenges.



“It turns out it’s harder to measure a rotation curve when you’re sitting inside a galaxy,” notes Xiaowei Ou.



This challenge was undertaken in 2019 by Anna-Christina Eilers, assistant professor of physics at MIT, using data from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-from-stars-can-be-used-to-measure-distances-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gaia satellite</a>. 



Gaia's initial data release, which included stars up to 25 kiloparsecs (approximately 81,000 light years) from the galaxy's center, suggested a flat yet mildly declining rotation curve for the Milky Way, hinting at a high concentration of dark matter at its core.



A more recent batch of Gaia data, encompassing stars up to 30 kiloparsecs (nearly 100,000 light years) from the core, offered new insights. 



Anna Frebel points out the significance of these distances, "We're at the galaxy's edge, where stars become sparse, and understanding matter movement here is exploring the unknown."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-technological-tools">Advanced technological tools</h2>



Leveraging this new data, Frebel, Necib, Ou, and Eilers sought to build upon Eilers' initial findings. 



They enhanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/gaia-has-captured-the-largest-catalog-of-stars-in-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gaia's data</a> with APOGEE (Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment) measurements, which provide intricate details on over 700,000 Milky Way stars, including their brightness, temperature, and elemental composition. 



“We feed all this information into an algorithm to try to learn connections that can then give us better estimates of a star’s distance,” Ou explains. “That’s how we can push out to farther distances.”



The team determined precise distances for over 33,000 stars, creating a three-dimensional map of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> up to 30 kiloparsecs. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pushing-the-boundaries-of-star-measurement">Pushing the boundaries of star measurement</h2>



They used this map to model circular velocity, simulating each star's travel speed based on the distribution of all other stars. 



Plotting each star's velocity and distance, they produced an updated rotation curve.



Here, the unexpected emerged. The curve showed a more significant dip than expected at the outer end. Contrary to earlier findings, stars at the galaxy's outskirts travel slower than anticipated. 



This downturn suggests that while stars maintain speed up to a certain point, they abruptly slow down in the farthest reaches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter-and-the-milky-way-s-outer-stars">Dark matter and the Milky Way's outer stars</h2>



Translating this rotation curve to the requisite amount of dark matter, the team inferred that the Milky Way's core might house less dark matter than previously thought. 



“This result is in tension with other measurements,” Necib says. “Really understanding this result will have deep repercussions.&nbsp;This might lead to more&nbsp;hidden masses just beyond the edge of the galactic disk, or a reconsideration of the state of equilibrium of our galaxy. We seek to find these answers in upcoming work, using high resolution simulations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ceers-2112-ancient-galaxy-looks-strikingly-similar-to-ours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way-like galaxies</a>."



In summary, this study's conclusions have significantly altered our understanding of the Milky Way. By employing sophisticated techniques and advanced tools like the Gaia satellite and APOGEE, they have revealed a surprising slowdown in the rotation speeds of stars at the galaxy's outskirts, challenging previous assumptions about the distribution of dark matter in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-our-galaxys-planets-could-be-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>. 



Their research underscores the dynamic nature of space exploration and raises new questions for future investigations. It prompts a reevaluation of existing galactic models and propels the scientific community towards uncovering the deeper mysteries of our universe, particularly in understanding the elusive nature of dark matter.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/528/1/693/7513209" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>.



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Stars at the edge of our Milky Way galaxy travel more slowly

Recent research by MIT physicists has led to an intriguing...

A team of Japanese researchers has made a groundbreaking discovery in the field of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-talk-soil-growth/">plant</a> communication, capturing real-time footage of plants transmitting defense responses to their neighbors. 



This significant achievement, led by molecular biologist Masatsugu Toyota from <a href="https://en.saitama-u.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saitama University</a>, was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-41589-9#Sec1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volatile-organic-compounds">Volatile organic compounds</h2>



The study's breakthrough lies in observing undamaged plants responding to volatile organic compounds (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-christmas-trees-produce-that-fresh-festive-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VOCs</a>) emitted by other plants experiencing mechanical damage or insect attacks. 



The research involved Yuri Aratani, a Ph.D. student, and Takuya Uemura, a postdoctoral researcher, as key team members.



“Plants perceive volatile organic compounds (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-can-warn-each-other-of-imminent-dangers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VOCs</a>) released by mechanically- or herbivore-damaged neighboring plants and induce various defense responses. Such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-leaves-send-signals-to-their-roots-on-dry-days-telling-them-to-keep-digging-deeper-for-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interplant communication</a> protects plants from environmental threats,” the authors explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-plant-communication">Studying plant communication </h2>



The experimental setup included an air pump connected to a container of leaves and caterpillars and another chamber housing Arabidopsis thaliana, a common weed from the mustard family. 



The Arabidopsis plants were genetically engineered to fluoresce green upon detecting calcium ions, which act as stress messengers. 



Using a fluorescence microscope, the team could monitor the signals released by the undamaged plants after they received <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-gives-pine-trees-fresh-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VOCs</a> from the damaged leaves.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="y3jCxgUSpz-3322206-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-airborne-warning-messages">Airborne warning messages</h2>



This study builds on initial observations of plant communication documented in 1983, which sparked significant discussion within the scientific community.&nbsp;



"We have finally unveiled the intricate story of when, where, and how plants respond to airborne 'warning messages' from their threatened neighbors," Toyota said. 



He emphasized the crucial role of this unseen communication network in alerting neighboring plants to imminent threats in a timely manner.



In summary, Toyota's research shines a spotlight on the complex and subtle interactions within the plant kingdom, while broadening our understanding of ecological relationships and plant defense mechanisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-plant-communication">More about plant communication</h2>



As discussed above, the world of plant communication is a realm where chemical signals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-talk-to-plants-using-light-based-messaging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light messaging</a>, electrical impulses, and networked roots create a complex language that is crucial for plant survival and interaction. 



Let's now explore, in greater detail, the intricate ways plants communicate -- a fascinating aspect of botany that challenges our traditional understanding of plant life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-language-of-plants">Chemical language of plants</h3>



At the heart of plant communication lies the use of chemical signals. As discussed previously in this article, plants release a variety of volatile organic compounds (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-skunky-cannabis-emissions-affect-air-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VOCs</a>) into the air. 



VOCs serve as messages to neighboring plants. They can convey information about environmental conditions, such as drought or pest attacks. 



For example, when a plant is attacked by herbivores, it emits specific VOCs that can be detected by nearby plants. 



These neighboring plants, upon receiving the signal, may then bolster their own chemical defenses in anticipation of a similar attack.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarm-signals-and-defensive-responses">Alarm signals and defensive responses</h3>



One of the most fascinating aspects of plant communication is the transmission of alarm signals. 



When a plant suffers physical damage, it releases VOCs that signal distress. 



This not only alerts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-cells-message-each-other-using-rna-and-escort-proteins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neighboring plants</a> to potential dangers but also attracts natural predators of the pests harming the plant. 



In essence, plants can call for help, recruiting allies in their fight for survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-communication-through-electrical-signals">Plant communication through electrical signals</h3>



Plants also communicate through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-fruit-warns-the-rest-of-the-plant-when-attacked/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electrical signals</a>, a method reminiscent of the nervous system in animals. 



When a plant is stressed or damaged, it generates electrical impulses that travel throughout its structure. 



These signals can prompt physiological changes in the plant, such as closing stomata to prevent water loss during drought conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wood-wide-web-underground-plant-communication-networks">Wood wide web: Underground plant communication networks</h3>



Beneath the soil, plants engage in a complex form of communication <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-talk-soil-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">through their roots</a> and associated fungal networks, often termed the "Wood Wide Web." 



This network is primarily formed by mycorrhizal fungi, which connect the roots of different plants. Through these connections, plants can share nutrients, water, and information. 



For instance, a plant experiencing nutrient deficiency can receive supplies from a neighboring plant through this underground network. 



This symbiotic relationship not only facilitates communication but also fosters a supportive plant community.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-plant-communication-in-ecosystems">Role of plant communication in ecosystems</h3>



Understanding plant communication is crucial for appreciating the dynamics of ecosystems. 



It helps explain how plant communities respond to environmental challenges and how they can be resilient in the face of disturbances like pests or climate change. 



This knowledge is invaluable for agriculture, forestry, and conservation efforts, as it can guide practices that support healthy plant communication and, by extension, ecosystem health.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-secret-language-of-the-green-world">Understanding the secret language of the green world</h3>



In summary, plant communication is a testament to the complexity and interconnectedness of life on Earth. 



By emitting chemical signals, generating electrical impulses, and forming underground networks, plants engage in a form of dialogue that is as intricate as it is essential for their survival. 



As we continue to explore and understand this hidden language, we gain not only scientific insights but also a deeper appreciation for the remarkable world of plants. 



This quiet symphony of silent whispers, echoing through leaves and roots, serves as a reminder of the sophisticated life processes that occur all around us, often unnoticed.



Video Credit: Masatsugu Toyota/ Saitama University



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Plants communicating with each other caught on video for the first time ever

A team of Japanese researchers has made a groundbreaking discovery...

Researchers have unveiled a striking correlation between education levels and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-vaccination-reduces-mortality-risk-but-only-for-6-months/">mortality</a> rates. The extensive study, which is the largest of its kind, reveals that each additional year of education can reduce the risk of dying by two percent, regardless of age, sex, location, or background.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-direct-correlation-nbsp">A direct correlation&nbsp;</h2>



The findings represent a significant leap in understanding the link between education and longevity. Previous theories proposed that higher education levels might lead to longer life spans, but the extent of this effect was unclear.&nbsp;



The current research clarifies this by illustrating a direct correlation: a completion of six years of primary school decreases death risk by about 13 percent, secondary education cuts it by nearly 25 percent, and 18 years of education slashes mortality risk by 34 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-education-and-mortality">Link between education and mortality</h2>



The correlation between education and reduced mortality can be compared to other well-known health factors. 



The study notes that the benefits of 18 years of education is comparable to the health impact of consuming an ideal amount of vegetables versus none at all. Conversely, the lack of education bears the same health risks as heavy alcohol consumption or smoking.



“Education is important in its own right, not just for its benefits on health, but now being able to quantify the magnitude of this benefit is a significant development,” said study co-author Dr. Terje Andreas Eikemo, head of Centre for Global Health Inequalities Research at the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a> (NTNU).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-universal-benefits">Universal benefits</h2>



The study also highlights that the benefits of education are not confined to the young. Older individuals, including those over 70, also benefit from the protective effects of education. This finding challenges the common assumption that the impact of education diminishes with age.



One of the most pivotal aspects of this research is its global applicability. The effects of education on health are consistent across countries at various stages of development.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-inequalities-nbsp">Addressing inequalities&nbsp;</h2>



“We need to increase social investments to enable access to better and more education around the globe to stop the persistent inequalities that are costing lives,” said study co-lead author Mirza Balaj.&nbsp;



“More education leads to better employment and higher income, better access to healthcare, and helps us take care of our own health. Highly educated people also tend to develop a larger set of social and psychological resources that contribute to their health and the length of their lives.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-international-commitment-is-needed-nbsp">International commitment is needed&nbsp;</h2>



“Closing the education gap means closing the mortality gap, and we need to interrupt the cycle of poverty and preventable deaths with the help of international commitment,” said co-lead author Claire Henson.&nbsp;



“In order to reduce inequalities in mortality, it’s important to invest in areas that promote people’s opportunities to get an education. This can have a positive effect on population health in all countries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The study included data from 59 countries with over 10,000 data points derived from more than 600 published articles. However, most of the studies reviewed were from high-income settings, highlighting a gap in research from low- and middle-income countries, especially from regions like sub-Saharan and north Africa.



“Our focus now should be on regions of the world where we know access to schooling is low, and where there is also limited research on education as a determinant of health,” said study co-author Dr. Emmanuela Gakidou.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(23)00306-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet Public Health</a>.&nbsp;



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Every year of education reduces mortality risk

Researchers have unveiled a striking correlation between education levels and...

A new study has revealed significant insights into the evolutionary adaptability of marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-investigate-the-mysterious-origin-of-flowering-plants/">flowering plants</a>, commonly known as seagrasses.&nbsp;



The pioneering research was focused on the genomic analysis of three major seagrass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-bacteria-provide-nutrients-to-seagrasses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>: Neptune grass (Posidonia oceanica), Little Neptune grass (Cymodocea nodosa), and Turtlegrass (Thalassia testudinum).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crucial-ecosystems-nbsp">Crucial ecosystems&nbsp;</h2>



Seagrasses play a crucial and often overlooked role in coastal ecosystems. They provide stability against erosion, serve as vital habitats for diverse marine life, and mitigate climate change through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-is-of-fundamental-importance-to-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage</a>. 



The alarming rate at which these vital ecosystems are disappearing, comparable to the loss of coral reefs, has spurred intense research into their conservation and restoration.



The study was conducted by an international consortium of 38 researchers led by Dr. Yves Van de Peer (<a href="https://www.ugent.be/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ghent University</a>), Dr. Jeanine Olsen (<a href="https://www.rug.nl/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Groningen</a>), Dr. Thorsten Reusch (<a href="https://www.geomar.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel</a>), and Dr. Gabriele Procaccini (<a href="https://www.szn.it/index.php/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn of Napoli</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-journey-of-seagrasses-nbsp">Evolutionary journey of seagrasses&nbsp;</h2>



The research involved a comprehensive examination of the genome structure of seagrasses, followed by a comparison of gene families and pathways linked to their unique structural and physiological adaptations to marine environments.&nbsp;



This approach contrasted the seagrasses with their freshwater counterparts, shedding light on the evolutionary journey of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-is-a-powerful-weapon-in-the-fight-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine plants</a>.



“Seagrasses underwent an extremely rare set of adaptations. Whereas re-adaptation to freshwater environments has occurred more than 200 times in flowering plant evolutionary history -- involving hundreds of lineages and thousands of species -- seagrasses evolved from their freshwater ancestors only three times -- involving 84 species," said Dr. Olsen.



"To do this required specialized ecological tolerance to, for example, high salinity, lower light, a wide range of temperature tolerances, underwater carbon capture for photosynthesis, different pathogen defense, structural flexibility and an underwater pollination.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seagrasses-rapidly-adapt">Seagrasses rapidly adapt</h2>



A key finding of the study is the role of genome duplication in facilitating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-meadows-can-recover-after-major-die-offs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rapid adaptation</a> to new environments. 



“Comparison of the three independent seagrass lineages, including freshwater sister lineages, revealed a shared ancient whole genome triplication at about 86 million years," said Professor Dr. Van De Peer. 



"This was quite exciting because large parts of the ocean were oxygen-free at that time and it’s also a uniting event involving the three lineages.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jumping-genes">Jumping genes</h2>



The research also uncovered how seagrasses have adapted through the retention and expansion of certain gene families. 



These adaptations include the development of flavonoids for UV and fungal protection, cysteine oxidases for coping with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-can-protect-against-coastal-erosion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">low oxygen environments</a>, and genes associated with circadian rhythms. 



Furthermore, the study found that “jumping genes” - transposable elements - have played a significant role in generating genetic diversity for natural selection.



"It’s clear that fine-tuning of supportive pathways has played the dominant role, rather than genes taking on major new functions," said Dr. Procaccini.



"Salt-tolerance is a good example in which a higher efficiency of multiple processes has occurred to regulate sodium, chlorine and potassium. Evolutionary changes have also provided different species with the ability to withstand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-amounts-of-sugar-found-under-seagrass-meadows/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different environments</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-conserving-seagrasses">Significance of conserving seagrasses</h2>



The research team identified several adaptations resulting from convergent evolution. 



This includes the loss of genes for traits that became redundant or detrimental in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-meadows-remove-plastic-debris-from-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine environment</a>, such as stomata for gas exchange and certain pathogen defense mechanisms. 



These findings exemplify the principle of "use it or lose it" in evolutionary biology.



“Most ecologically important functions are complex traits, involving the interaction of many genes through flexible pathways. With genomic tools now developed for key seagrasses, we can begin to experimentally test and manipulate them," explained Dr. Reusch. 



"This is especially important for restoration under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> scenarios involving many of the conditions discussed here.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-on-the-importance-of-seagrasses">More on the importance of seagrasses</h2>



As discussed above, seagrasses, often unnoticed and undervalued, play a crucial role in the health of marine ecosystems. 



These underwater plants, thriving in shallow, sheltered marine environments, are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-meadows-are-very-reliable-fishing-grounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity hotspots</a> and vital to environmental health.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unsung-heroes-of-carbon-sequestration">Unsung heroes of carbon sequestration</h3>



Seagrasses are powerful carbon sinks. They capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere at a rate much faster than tropical rainforests. 



This process, known as carbon sequestration, is pivotal in mitigating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrasses-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. The carbon absorbed by seagrasses gets stored in the sediments below them, often remaining trapped for centuries. 



Thus, protecting and restoring seagrass meadows is not just beneficial; it's imperative for our fight against global warming.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-and-habitat-provision">Biodiversity and habitat provision</h3>



Seagrass meadows provide a home and breeding ground for a myriad of marine species. They serve as nurseries for numerous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-loss-leads-to-changes-in-fish-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish species</a>, many of which are important for commercial fishing industries. 



This rich biodiversity includes not just fish, but also crustaceans, mollusks, and even endangered species like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-restoration-could-help-save-starving-manatees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">manatees</a>, seahorses and turtles. 



The dense root and leaf systems of seagrass beds offer shelter and food, creating a vibrant, diverse ecosystem.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-quality-and-sediment-stabilization">Water quality and sediment stabilization</h3>



Seagrasses play a key role in maintaining water quality. Their leaves filter suspended particles from the water, enhancing its clarity and quality. 



This filtration process benefits both the marine organisms that live there and the humans who rely on these waters for recreation and livelihoods.



Furthermore, the complex root systems of seagrasses stabilize the seabed. They prevent erosion by anchoring the sediment, which is especially crucial in coastal areas where erosion can be a significant problem. 



This stabilization also helps to maintain clear water conditions, which is necessary for the growth of underwater life, including the seagrasses themselves.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-challenges-and-a-call-to-action">Conservation challenges and a call to action</h3>



Despite their importance, seagrasses face numerous threats. Pollution, coastal development, and destructive fishing practices, like trawling, have led to a dramatic decline in seagrass meadows globally. 



Climate change, causing rising sea temperatures and ocean acidification, further exacerbates the problem.



The conservation of seagrasses is a vital step in preserving marine biodiversity, fighting climate change, and protecting our coasts. It requires concerted efforts from governments, environmental organizations, and communities. 



Public awareness plays a key role in this endeavor. Understanding the importance of seagrasses can lead to more mindful practices regarding pollution and coastal development.



Scientific research and monitoring are essential for the effective management and restoration of these vital ecosystems. 



Restoration projects have shown promising results in several parts of the world, demonstrating that with proper care and attention, these vital ecosystems can recover.



In summary, seagrasses are absolutely fundamental to the health of our planet. They support marine life, protect coastlines, improve water quality, and fight against climate change. 



The protection and restoration of seagrass meadows should be a priority in global environmental conservation efforts. 



By understanding and valuing these vital ecosystems, we can take significant steps towards a healthier, more sustainable planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41477-023-01608-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>. 



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Seagrasses are the unsung heroes of oceans and marine life

A new study has revealed significant insights into the evolutionary...

The tidal marshes of the San Francisco Bay Area are witnessing a subtle yet profound ecological change. Savannah sparrows, which have been long adapted to the region's saltwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-all-of-the-worlds-salt-marshes-may-be-underwater-by-2100/">marshes</a>, are undergoing a genetic transformation and losing the very traits that make them unique. This shift is a consequence of habitat loss and increased interbreeding with their inland counterparts, according to the results of a new study. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-trend-nbsp">Disturbing trend&nbsp;</h2>



For over a century, the Bay Area has been a haven for diverse wildlife, including the saltwater-adapted Savannah sparrows. However, a new genomic analysis, incorporating specimens dating back to 1889 from the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at UC Berkeley, indicates a disturbing trend. These sparrows that were once distinct in their adaptation to the harsh saline environment are now showing a dilution of these specialized traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-dilemma">Genetic dilemma</h2>



The study highlights a stable genetic diversity among the coastal Savannah sparrows. Yet, it underlines the loss of specific genetic variants crucial for survival in tidal marshes. This change is attributed to interbreeding with freshwater-adapted inland sparrows, leading to a depletion of the saltwater-adaptive alleles. 



Such a genetic shift could severely impact the bird's ability to thrive in its native marshlands, where its diet and survival heavily depend on saltwater tolerance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-loss-nbsp">Habitat loss&nbsp;</h2>



A significant factor in this genetic blending is the steep decline in tidal marshes across the state. The Bay Area alone has seen a staggering 90% reduction in tidal marshland since the 1800s.&nbsp;



This loss has reduced local Savannah sparrow populations to a level where interbreeding with immigrant birds has become more prevalent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influx-of-immigrants-nbsp">Influx of immigrants&nbsp;</h2>



"There seem to be increasing levels of gene flow from eastern California into places like the Bay Area, potentially due to the local population becoming a sink where the local breeders can't really produce enough offspring to maintain a population," said Phred Benham, a postdoctoral fellow at UC Berkeley who led the study.&nbsp;



"So you get the influx of immigrants from another population. The migrants think it's a nice place to stay and try to set up a nest, and there's this opportunity for gene flow to occur into the residents."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-adaptation">Coastal adaptation</h2>



As Professor Rauri Bowie pointed out, the inland birds are ill-suited for breeding in saltwater environments. "The inland areas where grasslands remain extensive are producing large numbers of these birds, and they have to go somewhere. And so the Bay Area is a destination," said Professor Bowie.&nbsp;



"They're coming in, but they are not adapted to breed in that environment. So they don't do well, and they're introducing maladaptive alleles - freshwater-adapted alleles into saltwater-adapted populations. And some of these coastal populations are endangered. If you go to these habitats, you see lots of Savannah sparrows, but there's something going on underneath the hood that's a lot more complex in these kinds of specialized environments."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threatened-species">Threatened species</h2>



The introduction of maladaptive genes into the local gene pool, known as "genetic swamping," threatens the very existence of coastal populations, some of which are already endangered.



Among the 17 recognized subspecies of Savannah sparrows in North America, those adapted to saltwater marshlands are particularly threatened. Two such subspecies in California are the northern subspecies (P. s. alaudinus), listed as a "species of special concern," and the federally protected southern subspecies, the Belding's Savannah sparrow (P. s. beldingi).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-silver-lining-nbsp">Possible silver lining&nbsp;</h2>



The good news for the northern marshland subspecies, noted Benham, is that tidal wetlands around the San Francisco Bay estuary are protected and growing, potentially allowing coastal Savannah sparrow populations to increase.



"There's a huge amount of tidal restoration efforts underway in the Bay Area, and Savannah sparrows aren't the only ones that depend on this. One of the most critically endangered species in the Bay Area is the salt marsh harvest mouse. There's a lot of federal money going into protecting their habitat, which I think ultimately would benefit the Savannah sparrows," said Benham.&nbsp;



"I think it would be really great to revisit these populations in 10 years to see if this trend is ongoing or if tidal marsh restoration has allowed the locals to reestablish their populations and their dominance."



Bowie said that continued monitoring of immigrant sparrows would give a sense of whether this genetic swamping is continuing and how quickly it's happening. "I'd hope that as marshes are restored, that would be mitigated. But we don't know that."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17126" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Savannah sparrows are losing their unique adaptations in the Bay Area 

The tidal marshes of the San Francisco Bay Area are...

Flock,Of,Scarlet,And,White,Ibises,In,Flight,Above,Green

Alarming new research has uncovered the profound effects of climate change on migratory birds. The study, led by Yali Si from the CML at <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leiden University</a>, focused on 16 migratory bird species in Asia. 



The team discovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-climate-change-happening-too-fast-for-birds-to-keep-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a>-induced shifts in the timing of natural events significantly disrupt these species' intricate migration networks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-bird-migration">Climate change and bird migration</h2>



Si articulates the core issue, saying, "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/body-sizes-and-shapes-of-birds-are-shrinking-as-the-earth-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a> alters the timing of natural events like the onset of spring, leading to mismatches between the availability of food and the birds' arrival in various regions." 



This phenomenon is particularly critical for migratory birds, which rely on a precise alignment of their arrival with the availability of food resources. 



Si emphasizes, "For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-have-new-strategy-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a>, food must be available at precisely the right time and place. If there's a mismatch, the consequences can be dire."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



The study uniquely approached this problem by analyzing the migration network integrity of these birds. 



Si explains, "These birds typically have a wintering area, several stopover areas for rest and feeding, and a breeding area. All these regions form an interconnected network, and our goal was to assess how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-populations-in-the-uk-are-being-decimated-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> affects this migration network's functionality."



To achieve this, Si and her team compared the networks' functioning over the past 21 years, a period marked by climate change, against a hypothetical 21-year period without climate change. 



This comparison allowed them to isolate the specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-coloration-is-fading-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impacts of climate change</a> on each species' migration network.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migratory-birds-confront-a-new-climate-reality">Migratory birds confront a new climate reality</h2>



Their findings are stark: all 16 species studied have been impacted by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/as-urban-heat-continues-to-rise-birds-are-moving-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, with birds wintering closer to the mid-temperate zone facing more significant challenges. 



"These regions show more pronounced differences due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physical-changes-in-birds-linked-to-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, causing increased difficulties for birds that rely on these areas for wintering," Si adds.



This research stands out from previous studies by considering the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/how-does-the-climate-affect-the-behavior-of-migratory-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration journey</a> rather than isolated aspects. 



Si points out, "Previous research often focused on single areas or specific phases like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-laying-their-eggs-earlier-to-adapt-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding</a>. By examining each aspect in isolation, you end up with an incomplete picture, underestimating the overall effect on these birds."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-conservation-efforts">Implications and conservation efforts</h2>



The study's innovative approach was made possible by the availability of long-term remote sensing data on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-reproduction-suffers-greatly-during-heat-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, enabling the analysis of trends and meaningful observations. 



The methods and findings of Si and her colleagues hold significant promise for enhancing the assessment of migratory species' vulnerability to climate change. 



Si concludes, "By integrating our results into existing frameworks, we can tailor them specifically for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-the-first-time-climate-change-adaptation-is-discovered-at-the-genetic-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a>, leading to a deeper understanding of the consequences and identifying actions for biodiversity conservation."



This important research provides a comprehensive view of the challenges faced by migratory birds in the face of climate change, while setting a new standard for future studies in the field. 



By considering the entire migration network, Si's work offers invaluable insights for the conservation of biodiversity and the protection of these vital species. 



The full study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.17148" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Migratory birds are struggling to adapt to climate change

Alarming new research has uncovered the profound effects of climate...

In a significant departure from the widely accepted view of early human societies as hunter-gatherers who were primarily meat-dependent, recent research seems to prove otherwise.



Spearheaded by <a href="https://www.uwyo.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wyoming</a>'s Assistant Professor Randy Haas, a new study reveals a strikingly different dietary habits of early humans. 



The term "hunter-gatherers," long synonymous with early human groups, is now being reconsidered, particularly for societies in the Andes of South America. 



The findings suggest a more accurate descriptor would be "gatherer-hunters."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-early-human-diets">New insights into early human diets</h2>



Haas, along with a team of researchers from various prestigious institutions, undertook a detailed analysis of human remains from two burial sites in Peru: Wilamaya Patjxa and Soro Mik'aya Patjxa. 



Contrary to the long-held belief that early human diets were predominantly meat-based, the study discovered that the diets in the Andean Mountains were composed of approximately 80 percent plant matter and only 20 percent meat.



The study, entitled "Stable isotope chemistry reveals plant-dominant diet among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-lush-green-sahara-desert-helped-early-humans-migrate-out-of-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early foragers</a> on the Andean Altiplano," utilized isotope chemistry and statistical modeling. 



This approach provided a fresh perspective on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-of-large-prey-drove-evolutionary-changes-in-early-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dietary habits</a> of Andean societies dating back to 9,000 to 6,500 years ago and challenged the traditional narratives of hunter-gatherer diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-heavy-diet-of-early-hunter-gatherers">Plant-heavy diet of early hunter-gatherers</h2>



The conventional wisdom surrounding early human economies has long emphasized hunting. This belief has influenced modern dietary trends, such as the Paleodiet, which advocate for high-protein, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-humans-used-to-eat-their-ancestral-relatives-practicing-cannibalism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meat-centric diets</a>. However, Haas' research tells a different story. 



The isotopic composition of human bones from these ancient Andean societies indicates a diet where plant foods, particularly tubers like potatoes, were the primary sustenance, relegating meat to a secondary role. 



This finding is further supported by evidence such as burnt plant remains at the sites and distinctive dental wear patterns indicative of tuber consumption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-research-effort">Collaborative research effort</h2>



The study represents a collaborative effort involving researchers from Penn State University, the <a href="https://www.ucmerced.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California-Merced</a>, University of California-Davis, <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a>, the University of Arizona, and the National Register of Peruvian Archaeologists. 



The initial excavations in 2018 at the Wilamaya Patjxa burial site also provided a valuable opportunity for undergraduate students to engage in hands-on research.



Jennifer Chen, currently a Ph.D. student in anthropology at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State University</a> and the lead author of the journal article, played a pivotal role in this research. 



As a former undergraduate in Haas' lab, Chen conducted significant portions of the isotope lab work and analysis following the excavations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconsidering-hunter-gatherer-societies">Reconsidering hunter-gatherer societies</h2>



Chen emphasizes the importance of understanding food consumption, especially in challenging environments like the Andes. 



The study challenges the traditional archaeological frameworks that predominantly focus on hunting and meat-heavy diets. 



Instead, it suggests that early hunter-gatherer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-humans-almost-went-extinct-as-population-declined-to-1280-individuals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human societies</a>, at least in Andean culture, primarily relied on plant foods, such as wild tubers.



Haas points out that this study not only revises our understanding of early Andean diets but also highlights the potential for similar misconceptions in other parts of the world. 



He notes that archaeological biases have often led to misconceptions, suggesting that future isotopic research might reveal similar plant-based diets in other early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-footprints-prove-humans-were-in-north-america-23000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human societies</a>.



“Our combination of isotope chemistry, paleoethnobotanical and zooarchaeological methods offers the clearest and most accurate picture of early Andean diets to date,” Haas says. 



“These findings update our understanding of earliest forager economies and the pathway to agricultural economies in the Andean highlands," he concluded



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-much-more-to-learn-about-early-humans">Much more to learn about early humans</h2>



In summary, this surprising research alters our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-humans-first-evolve-in-europe-ape-skull-sparks-new-debate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early human diets</a>, especially in the Andes. Their study has shifted the narrative around our hunter-gatherer ancestors from a meat-centric to a plant-dominated subsistence. 



This revelation challenges long-standing archaeological assumptions and underscores the importance of reevaluating our perspectives on ancient human lifestyles. 



By uncovering a diet heavily reliant on plant matter, particularly tubers, in the Andean societies, the study highlights a need to explore the diversity of early human diets across the globe.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0296420" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.



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Our hunter-gatherer ancestors did much more gathering veggies than hunting meat

In a significant departure from the widely accepted view of...

In a landmark development with far-reaching implications, a recent study from the <a href="https://www.jic.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">John Innes Centre</a> has opened doors to innovative bioengineering possibilities for vaccine adjuvants. 



This breakthrough centers around the soapbark tree (Quillaja saponaria), a critical yet environmentally taxing source for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medical-breakthrough-new-vaccine-may-prevent-alzheimers-disease/">vaccine</a> ingredients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-new-potential-nbsp">Unveiling new potential&nbsp;</h2>



The key focus of the research is QS-21, a potent adjuvant derived from the bark of the Chilean soapbark tree. Adjuvants are crucial in vaccines, enhancing the body's immune response, and QS-21 is a prime example used in vaccines against shingles, malaria, and more.&nbsp;



However, sourcing QS-21 from soapbark trees raised sustainability concerns, given the environmental impact of harvesting this natural resource.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-in-bioengineering">Breakthrough in bioengineering</h2>



The team at the John Innes Centre, using the recently published genome sequence of the soapbark tree, has successfully mapped the complex sequence of genes and enzymes required to produce QS-21.&nbsp;



In a pioneering effort, the experts replicated this chemical pathway in a tobacco plant, marking the first instance of producing QS-21 outside of the tree. This method represents a significant leap towards sustainable production.



“Our study opens unprecedented opportunities for bioengineering vaccine adjuvants. We can now investigate and improve these compounds to promote the human immune response to vaccines and produce QS-21 in a way which does not depend on extraction from the soapbark tree," said Professor Anne Osbourn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-challenges">Overcoming challenges</h2>



The quest to replicate QS-21 in an alternative host like tobacco or yeast has been challenging, primarily due to the molecule's complex structure and the previously unknown biochemical pathway in the tree.&nbsp;



Earlier efforts by Professor Osbourn's group had identified part of this pathway, but the full sequence - particularly the acyl chain crucial for stimulating immune cells - remained elusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-gene-expression-analysis">Advanced gene expression analysis</h2>



The recent study involved identifying approximately 70 candidate genes, which were then introduced into tobacco plants. Utilizing advanced gene expression analysis techniques, along with Metabolomic and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) platforms, the researchers narrowed down to the final 20 genes and enzymes forming the QS-21 pathway.



Dr. Laetitia Martin, the first author of the study, expressed her excitement: “This is the first time QS-21 has been produced in a heterologous expression system. This means we can better understand how this molecule works and how we might address issues of scale and toxicity."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



By enabling more sustainable production of QS-21, the study not only advances scientific knowledge but also contributes positively to global health initiatives.&nbsp;



“What is so rewarding is that this molecule is used in vaccines and by being able to make it more sustainably my project has an impact on people’s lives. It's amazing to think that something so scientifically rewarding can bring such good to society,” said Dr. Martin.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“On a personal level this research was scientifically extremely rewarding. I am not a chemist so I could not have done this without the support of the John Innes Centre metabolomics platform and chemistry platform.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41589-023-01538-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Chemical Biology</a>.



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Soap bark tree discovery could revolutionize vaccine production

In a landmark development with far-reaching implications, a recent study...

The relentless acceleration of global warming has now claimed an unexpected victim: our understanding of Earth's past <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-could-cause-one-billion-deaths-over-the-next-century/">climate</a>.&nbsp;



A recent study led by the Ice Memory initiative has revealed a sobering reality. The rapid melting of the Corbassière glacier, located in the Grand Combin massif, has destroyed what was once a valuable record of climate data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ice-memory-initiative">The Ice Memory initiative</h2>



The Ice Memory initiative is a collaboration involving researchers from the <a href="https://www.psi.ch/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paul Scherrer Institute</a> (PSI), the University of Fribourg, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, and the Institute of Polar Sciences of the Italian National Research Council.



The team analyzed ice cores drilled in 2018 and 2020 from the Corbassière glacier. Their goal was to preserve the precious climate records held within these glaciers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-climate-data">Loss of climate data</h2>



The researchers discovered significant differences between the two sets of ice cores. The 2018 core, extending up to 14 meters and containing records back through 2011, displayed the expected seasonal fluctuations in trace substances like ammonium, nitrate, and sulfate. These substances, usually deposited through snowfall, provide a seasonal account of air pollution and climate conditions.



By contrast, the 2020 core, drilled up to 18 meters under the guidance of PSI researcher Theo Jenk, revealed a disturbing trend. Only the uppermost layers showed the expected seasonal fluctuations.&nbsp;



Deeper layers, representing older records, showed a flattening of these fluctuations and a reduced total amount of trace substances. This anomaly points to a significant loss of climate data, comparable to a library losing its books and the remaining ones being scrambled beyond recognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accelerated-glacier-melting">Accelerated glacier melting</h2>



The researchers attributed this loss to enhanced melting between 2018 and 2020, causing surface water to penetrate deeper into the glacier, washing away the trace substances.&nbsp;



This process not only diluted the records but also permanently removed them, effectively erasing parts of the glacier's historical climate record.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-threshold-has-been-crossed-nbsp">A threshold has been crossed&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers examined the meteorological data from 2018 through 2020 and found that it was warm on the glacier in line with the general climate trend, but these years were not extreme outliers.&nbsp;



“From this we conclude that there was no singular trigger for this strong melting, but that it resulted from many warm years in the recent past,” said Margit Schwikowski, head of the Laboratory for Environmental Chemistry at PSI. “It seems a threshold has been crossed, which now has led to a comparatively strong effect.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



The implications of this discovery extend far beyond the Corbassière glacier. It signals a more dynamic and rapid progression of glacier melting than previously anticipated, affecting even the highest parts of alpine glaciers where ice replenishment occurs.&nbsp;



The research suggests that many other glaciers worldwide might be losing their ability to serve as climate archives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collecting-ice-from-endangered-glaciers-nbsp">Collecting ice from endangered glaciers&nbsp;</h2>



The Ice Memory Foundation aims to collect ice cores from 20 endangered glaciers over 20 years. These cores are intended to be stored in an ice cave at the Concordia research station in Antarctica. This initiative is crucial as it provides a potential safeguard against the complete loss of glacial climate records.&nbsp;



However, the experience at Grand Combin, where the team faced insurmountable difficulties in drilling and preserving the ice core, highlights the urgency and challenges of this mission.



The Ice Memory project is a race against time, with setbacks like those experienced at Grand Combin becoming increasingly common. While successful cores have been obtained from other locations like the Col du Dôme glacier and Colle Gnifetti, the failure at Grand Combin serves as a stark reminder of what is at stake.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01366-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Melting glaciers are destroying a valuable record of Earth's climate

The relentless acceleration of global warming has now claimed an...

In an era where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-devices-can-actually-improve-our-memory-skills/">digital devices</a> are increasingly replacing traditional pen and paper, a new study has brought to light the significant benefits of handwriting.&nbsp;



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a>, led by Professor Audrey van der Meer, have discovered that writing by hand leads to higher brain connectivity compared to typing on a keyboard.&nbsp;



The study highlights the importance of handwriting activities for learning and memory formation among students.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers explored the neural networks activated during handwriting and typing. They used a high-density EEG technique, which involved placing a network of 256 sensors over the participants' heads to measure brain activity.&nbsp;



The study included 36 university students who were prompted to write or type a word that appeared on a screen. The writing was done using a digital pen on a touchscreen in cursive, and typing was performed with a single finger on a keyboard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhanced-brain-connectivity-nbsp">Enhanced brain connectivity&nbsp;</h2>



“We show that when writing by hand, brain connectivity patterns are far more elaborate than when typewriting on a keyboard,” said Professor van der Meer. “Such widespread brain connectivity is known to be crucial for memory formation and for encoding new information and, therefore, is beneficial for learning.”



One of the key observations of the study was the increase in connectivity of different brain regions when participants wrote by hand, an effect not seen when typing. This suggests that the physical act of writing, involving precise hand movements and sensory experiences, plays a significant role in stimulating brain regions associated with learning.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-more-use-of-the-senses">Making more use of the senses</h2>



“Our findings suggest that visual and movement information obtained through precisely controlled hand movements when using a pen contribute extensively to the brain’s connectivity patterns that promote learning,” said Professor van der Meer.



The researchers said that even though the participants used digital pens for handwriting, the results are expected to be the same when using a real pen on paper.&nbsp;



“We have shown that the differences in brain activity are related to the careful forming of the letters when writing by hand while making more use of the senses,” explained Professor van der Meer.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-to-write">Learning to write</h2>



The research also highlighted the importance of the sensory and motor experience in learning to write. The experts noted that the simple movement of hitting a key with the same finger repeatedly is less stimulating for the brain.&nbsp;



“This also explains why children who have learned to write and read on a tablet, can have difficulty differentiating between letters that are mirror images of each other, such as ‘b’ and ‘d,'" said Professor van der Meer. "They literally haven’t felt with their bodies what it feels like to produce those letters."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The implications of these findings are significant for educational practices. The researchers advocate for a balance between traditional handwriting and the use of digital devices in classrooms.&nbsp;



While acknowledging the practicality of typing for longer texts, the experts emphasize the cognitive benefits of handwriting, particularly for tasks like taking lecture notes. Many U.S. states have recognized this balance, reintroducing cursive writing training at the beginning of the year.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1219945" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Psychology</a>.



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Handwriting increases brain connectivity and promotes learning 

In an era where digital devices are increasingly replacing traditional...

In a recent exploration into the complex world of plants, researchers at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> delved into the ways tomato <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/">plants</a> communicate through chemicals. 



Tomato plants, like many others, emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as a response to various environmental factors, acting as a signal for both defense and interaction with their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-communication">Chemical communication</h2>



One of the most recognizable scents of nature is the aroma of freshly cut grass, a common example of plants signaling distress. Lacking the ability to flee from harm, plants have developed a sophisticated system of chemical communication.&nbsp;



Volatile organic compounds serve multiple purposes, including defense preparation, alerting neighboring plants to dangers, attracting helpful soil microbes, and even calling in predators of pests.



Lead author Erinn Dady, a graduate student at the University of Illinois, explains this phenomenon using the example of a caterpillar munching on a leaf. The plant releases a chemical signal that essentially acts as an advertisement for the caterpillar's predators, informing them of a potential meal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



This study, focusing on the factors affecting VOC emissions, is crucial to understanding overall plant health. Prior research has examined the impact of various elements such as soil microbes and different tomato varieties on VOCs.&nbsp;



The new study, however, looks at the collective impact of these factors using four popular tomato varieties in central Illinois - two heirlooms (Amish Paste and Cherokee Purple) and two hybrids (Mountain Fresh and Valley Girl).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted-nbsp">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



To investigate, the researchers exposed the tomato plants to different treatments including arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), caterpillars, both, or none.&nbsp;



The study of VOCs was conducted by enclosing eight-week-old tomato plants in an odor-blocking oven bag for an hour and then analyzing the air around them using gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights">Critical insights</h2>



Interestingly, both AMF and caterpillars, when present alone, reduced the volatile emissions across all tomato varieties. However, their combined presence had a minimal effect compared to either one individually. The study noted a concern that plants were less responsive to caterpillars when in association with AMF.



Moreover, the heirloom tomatoes emitted a greater quantity of VOCs compared to the hybrid varieties. Senior author Esther Ngumbi, an assistant professor of integrative biology, notes that while heirlooms are bred for flavor, hybrids are developed for large-scale production, potentially at the expense of the plant's defenses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-discovery-nbsp">Unexpected discovery&nbsp;</h2>



The research also examined plant growth, finding that plants with fungal associations exhibited higher leaf biomass and more complex root structures.&nbsp;



Surprisingly, caterpillar-treated plants showed greater growth, a response that intrigued the researchers and will be a focus of further investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-the-language-of-plants">Learning the language of plants</h2>



According to Ngumbi and Dady, there is still much to uncover about plant responses and the role of different microbes. "People tend to think that plants are not intelligent, but our studies have shown that they are actively responding to the environment around them using chemistry," Dady said.



Through their work, the team aims to deepen our understanding of plant chemistry, a critical language in the botanical world, and its implications for plant health and interaction with the environment.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10886-023-01455-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Chemical Ecology</a>. 



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Tomato plants ‘talk’ to one another to signal danger

In a recent exploration into the complex world of plants,...

In a new study led by <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Berkeley</a>, researchers have used machine learning to precisely determine which waterways fall under the protection of the Clean Water Act. 



The research is particularly relevant in the context of evolving presidential administrations and regulatory decisions. It sheds light on the extent of protection afforded to the United States' vital water resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clean-water-act-spurs-ongoing-debate">Clean Water Act spurs ongoing debate</h2>



The Clean Water Act of 1972, a key element of <a href="https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-clean-water-act" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. environmental legislation</a>, was designed to protect the "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-drinking-water-often-contains-unsafe-levels-of-toxic-contaminants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waters</a> of the United States." 



However, the Act does not explicitly define the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-the-worlds-climate-driven-water-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">streams and wetlands</a> it encompasses, leading to varying interpretations by successive administrations, regulators, and courts. 



As a result, the exact scope of the Act's protection has been a subject of ongoing debate and legal contention.



The ambiguity of the Clean Water Act was starkly highlighted by a rule enacted under the Trump administration in 2020, which significantly scaled back its protections. 



According to the UC Berkeley study, the Trump administration rule effectively removed Clean Water Act protections for approximately one-fourth of U.S. wetlands and one-fifth of U.S. streams.&nbsp;



The research also indicates that 30% of watersheds supplying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-make-water-resources-less-predictable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking water</a> to households were deregulated under this rule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approach-to-the-clean-water-act">New approach to the Clean Water Act</h2>



Previous analyses of the Clean Water Act had relied on assumptions based on geophysical characteristics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-are-an-underestimated-source-of-water-contamination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">streams and wetlands</a>. 



Instead, the Berkeley team trained a machine learning model on 150,000 jurisdictional decisions made by the <a href="https://www.usace.army.mil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Army Corps</a>, each interpreting the Clean Water Act for specific sites and rules. 



This approach was more data-driven and precise compared to the methods the <a href="https://www.epa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPA</a> and Army Corps of Engineers previously labeled as “highly unreliable.”



“Using machine learning to understand these rules helps decode the DNA of environmental policy,” said study co-author Professor Joseph Shapiro. “We can finally understand what the Clean Water Act actually protects.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-troubling-study-results">Troubling study results</h2>



The study revealed that the 2020 Trump administration rule deregulated a staggering 690,000 stream miles. 



This amount is equivalent to more than every stream in California, Florida, Illinois, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas combined.



In addition, the deregulated wetlands under this rule had previously provided over $250 billion in flood prevention benefits.



Simon Greenhill, a PhD candidate at UC Berkeley and co-author of the study, highlighted the broader implications of these regulatory shifts. 



"This game of regulatory ping-pong has staggering effects on environmental protection."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safety-and-economic-benefits">Safety and economic benefits </h2>



The machine learning model not only provides insights into environmental protection but also offers potential economic benefits.&nbsp;



The study estimates that this methodology could save over $1 billion annually in permitting costs by providing immediate estimates of regulation probability, thus streamlining the often lengthy and uncertain process.



The research gains additional relevance in the context of recent policy changes. The Biden White House rule of 2023 expanded the jurisdiction of the Clean Water Act, a move followed by the Supreme Court's 2023 Sackett decision, which then contracted it.&nbsp;



The Berkeley team’s machine learning approach can help to clarify the scope of these and future regulatory changes, offering a much-needed tool in understanding and implementing one of the nation's key environmental protections.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adi3794" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>. 



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What is actually protected by the Clean Water Act?

In a new study led by UC Berkeley, researchers have...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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