Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Older adults do not just change what they eat, they often change when they eat. A new study tracked 2,945 people for more than 20 years and found that breakfast and dinner gradually shifted later with age. It also showed that later breakfast timing was tied to a small uptick in the risk of death.



Meal timing is not a niche topic for lab scientists. It sits at the crossroads of daily routine, sleep, and wider health. This makes it relevant for families and clinicians who are trying to spot early warning signs.



The research was led by Dr. Hassan S. Dashti, a nutrition scientist and circadian biologist at Massachusetts General Hospital, part of <a href="https://www.massgeneralbrigham.org/en/patient-care/services-and-specialties/find-a-location/our-hospitals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mass General Brigham</a>. His team looked beyond calories and nutrients to the clock on the wall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meals-move-later-over-decades">Meals move later over decades</h2>



Participants were community-dwelling adults in Manchester and Newcastle in the United Kingdom, aged 42 to 94 at entry. They reported typical times for breakfast, lunch, and dinner, and provided details on sleep, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simple-blood-test-could-spot-health-risks-years-before-symptoms/">health symptoms</a>, and daily routines across repeated assessments.



At baseline, average mealtimes were about 8:22 a.m., 12:38 p.m., and 5:51 p.m. The researchers modeled change over decades, then linked those trajectories to illness patterns, genetics, and mortality.



Breakfast and dinner crept later with age. The midpoint of eating shifted later as well, while the daily eating window narrowed.



Two patterns emerged. One group tended to keep earlier meals, and another tended to eat later. The late eaters showed a 10-year survival of 86.7 percent versus 89.5 percent for early eaters.



The circadian rhythm acts like a 24-hour program for hormones and metabolism, and human studies show that the same meal is handled differently in the morning than in the evening, with evening responses often less favorable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakfast-timing-linked-to-health">Breakfast timing linked to health</h2>



Each hour of later breakfast carried a modest increase in the risk of death over follow-up, even after accounting for many other factors. Later breakfast was also linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-gut-bacteria-morganella-morganii-could-cause-depression-not-a-brain-disorder/">depression</a>, fatigue, and oral health problems in the data.



“Our research suggests that changes in when older adults eat, especially the timing of breakfast, could serve as an easy to monitor marker of their overall health status," said Dr. Dashti. 



"Patients and clinicians can possibly use shifts in mealtime routines as an early warning sign to look into underlying physical and mental health issues.”



Genetic profiles related to an evening chronotype were tied to later breakfast, lunch, and dinner. That means people with a biological tendency to go to bed and wake up later also tended to eat later.



Practical barriers mattered too. Reporting difficulty preparing meals was associated with later breakfast and a shorter eating window, and worse sleep quality tracked with later meals. Together, these patterns suggest that both biology and daily life push the clock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-late-meals-boost-hunger-fat-storage">Late meals boost hunger, fat storage</h2>



When people eat late, the body’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/">metabolic </a>settings may not be primed for handling glucose efficiently. Controlled laboratory work shows that evening timing alone can lower glucose tolerance because of the internal clock, independent of what you eat or how long you slept.



Other experiments demonstrate that a late but otherwise identical meal can increase hunger and reduce calories burned, while shifting molecular pathways toward fat storage.



This was an observational study, not a randomized trial, so it cannot prove that late breakfast causes earlier death. It can show that later breakfast aligns with more illness and slightly higher risk over time, which makes it a useful flag to watch.



Breakfast timing also fits with prior population work. Large cohorts in the United States have linked skipping breakfast to higher cardiovascular mortality, even after adjusting for many lifestyle factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakfast-habits-linked-to-survival">Breakfast habits linked to survival</h2>



Meal skipping and very short intervals between meals have been associated with higher all-cause and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/">cardiovascular</a> mortality in national data. This suggests that regular, spaced eating may be part of the picture.



That does not negate the value of personalized schedules, but it does argue for caution in older adults.



Historical cohort work in older adults in the U.S. also noted that not regularly eating breakfast correlated with higher mortality over many years, which underscores that this signal is not new.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakfast-timing-and-aging-well">Breakfast timing and aging well</h2>



If an older adult begins drifting breakfast much later than usual, that change may coincide with fatigue, low mood, sleep problems, or oral discomfort. The timing shift may be easier to spot than a slow weight change or a subtle mood dip.



Consistency is the theme that emerges. In older adults, especially those with an evening chronotype, aiming for a steady morning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meal-time-has-a-major-influence-on-our-health/">meal time</a> could support better alignment of eating with internal clocks, and it offers a simple metric to share with clinicians.



Trials that assign earlier or later breakfast times in older adults would help test causality. Studies that integrate food timing with sleep timing, medications, and oral health care could reveal which combination matters most.



For now, the timing signal is modest but measurable, and it is easy to track at home. That makes breakfast time a low effort part of the health conversation for aging well.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43856-025-01035-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Medicine</a>.



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Eating breakfast later may signal hidden health risks

Older adults do not just change what they eat, they...

In July 2025, the Mediterranean Sea reached an average water temperature of 80.4°F - the warmest ever recorded. In places such as Spain, Italy, and Greece, waters are now hitting 82°F or even higher - more like a hot tub than a sea.



For swimmers, that might sound like a dream, but for marine life and ecosystems that depend on stable conditions, it’s a serious red flag.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-warning-for-global-oceans">Early warning for global oceans</h2>



Unlike wide-open oceans, the Mediterranean is semi-enclosed. It connects to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cold-spot-in-the-atlantic-could-signal-big-trouble-for-global-climate/">Atlantic</a> through the narrow Strait of Gibraltar, which limits how fast it can exchange water. That means heat, pollution, and acidification build up more quickly here than in most other seas.



Between 1982 and 2019, its surface water temperature rose by 2.3°F. In the same period, the global ocean average went up by just over 1°F. 



That difference matters. It’s why scientists call the Mediterranean a “climate change hotspot.” It’s warming and acidifying faster than most of the rest of the planet.



“What happens in the Mediterranean often foreshadows changes to be expected elsewhere," said Abed El Rahman Hassoun, a biogeochemical oceanographer at the <a href="https://www.geomar.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel</a>. 



"The Mediterranean Sea acts like an early warning system for processes that will later affect the global ocean.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mediterranean-temperature-risk-map">Mediterranean temperature risk map</h2>



A group of researchers considered 131 scientific papers that studied the influence of climate change on marine and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-coastal-ecosystems-can-mitigate-climate-change/">coastal ecosystems</a> within the Mediterranean. 



The team relied on the data from the IPCC’s climate scenarios to know what will probably occur at various emission levels.



The researchers built a risk map - called a "burning ember" diagram - to visualize how serious the threats are at various temperature increases.



“The diagram clearly shows how strongly climate change threatens key ecosystems," said Meryem Mojtahid, a professor of paleo-oceanography. "I hope our results will help raise awareness and inspire real action to protect these unique ecosystems.” 



The findings are clear: even small temperature increases can lead to major ecological damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-warming-big-consequences">Small warming, big consequences</h2>



Some people think a fraction of a degree isn’t a big deal. But the research shows that even an additional 0.8°F of warming puts many ecosystems in serious trouble.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-climate-solutions-enhancing-the-role-of-seagrass-meadows/">Seagrass meadows</a> such as Posidonia oceanica - vital to oxygen production and nursery grounds for marine animals - would be reduced dramatically and potentially disappear by 2100. Indigenous seaweeds such as Cystoseira are likely to decrease, and invasive algae will probably dominate.



Fish stocks might fall by 30 to 40 percent. Some will move north into cooler seas, leaving space for newcomers such as lionfish, which disrupt food webs.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-corals-can-survive-high-ocean-heat-which-could-save-reefs/">Corals</a>, surprisingly, are more resistant - but only up to a point. They face moderate to high risk starting at 5.6°F above today’s temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-ecosystems-under-rising-threat">Coastal ecosystems under rising threat</h2>



Warming isn’t the only issue. Sea level rise, including in the Mediterranean, adds another layer of stress, especially for areas up to 30 feet above sea level. Beaches, dunes, and rocky shores are losing ground - literally.



Sea turtle nesting sites are at risk, too. Over 60 percent of them could disappear. And even rocky coasts, which usually resist erosion better than sand, are beginning to lose biodiversity.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wetlands-are-a-hidden-source-of-rising-methane-emissions/">Wetlands</a>, salt marshes, lagoons, and deltas are also feeling the heat. Many are already showing damage at just +0.8°F to +1.0°F. 



Plants are dying off, invasive species are moving in, and water supplies are drying up due to changes in rainfall. Flooding and excess nutrients only make things worse as temperatures climb.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-every-fraction-of-a-degree-counts">Every fraction of a degree counts</h2>



Scientists used two IPCC emissions scenarios to project future outcomes. In the moderate scenario, known as RCP 4.5, emissions level off in the near future.



Even along this more optimistic path, the Mediterranean is expected to warm by a temperature of 1.1°F by 2050 and up to 2.3°F by 2100. In the high-emissions scenario, called RCP 8.5 - where emissions continue to rise without major policy changes - warming could reach between 4.9°F and 6.8°F by century’s end.



The impacts multiply with every increase. More heat means greater acidification, faster sea-level rise, and larger disruptions in food chains.



“These scenarios show we can still make a difference - every tenth of a degree counts,” said Hassoun. “Political decisions made now will determine whether ecosystems in the Mediterranean Sea collapse or remain functional, supporting the ecosystem services they provide.”



“At the same time, our study also shows that even with moderate climate protection and an additional 0.8°C warming, we must expect some consequences. Our focus should be on minimizing the impacts as much as possible.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-data-gaps-cloud-mediterranean-future">Data gaps cloud Mediterranean future</h2>



The study also pointed out a big gap in what we know. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-temperature-has-been-steadily-rising-since-the-1850s/">Temperature data</a> is scarce for parts of the Mediterranean, especially in the south and east. That means the risk in those areas might be underestimated.



There’s also a lack of research on how multiple stressors - like pollution, overfishing, and invasive species - combine to make things worse. Deep-sea habitats, salt marshes, and marine megafauna still need more attention.



“We found that Mediterranean ecosystems are remarkably diverse in how they respond to climate-related stress. Some are more resistant than others, but none are invincible,” said Mojtahid. “Only strict climate protection measures can keep the risks at a level to which ecosystems can still adapt."



This isn’t just about saving a few species. The Mediterranean supports millions of people - from fishing to tourism to coastal agriculture. When ecosystems collapse, the damage doesn’t stop at the shoreline. The science is clear. We can slow this down. But only if action is taken now.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-07858-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Mediterranean Sea reaches its hottest temperatures ever recorded

In July 2025, the Mediterranean Sea reached an average water...

What if a simple blood test could reveal how fast your body is really aging? Imagine learning about health risks before symptoms ever show up. Scientists in Spain are working on just that. 



A new study introduces a “metabolic clock” that could change how we track aging and disease.



The research comes from <a href="https://www.cicbiogune.es" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CIC bioGUNE</a>, a member of BRTA, led by Professor José Mato and Dr. Óscar Millet. The tool predicts biological age and uncovers metabolic patterns linked to specific diseases. Unlike chronological age, biological age better reflects a person’s overall health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-age-through-blood">Mapping age through blood</h2>



The team relied on NMR metabolomics, a technology that measures small molecules in the blood. Using machine learning, they trained a model to predict biological age.



The project drew on data from the AKRIBEA cohort, a large health study in the Basque Country. With contributions from the Mondragón Corporation, the final dataset included about 20,000 individuals across a wide age range.



“Our goal was to obtain an independent measure of age, beyond the information on a passport,” said Dr. Millet. “The importance of this study lies in the fact that discrepancies between chronological age and metabolic age within the metabolic space may reveal early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anthropocene-when-did-humans-begin-changing-the-earth/">markers</a> of disease.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disease-leaves-hidden-traces">Disease leaves hidden traces</h2>



The team applied their clock to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-with-this-blood-group-age-more-slowly-according-to-new-research/">blood</a> samples from patients with various diseases. The results were striking. Prostate cancer patients showed an average metabolic age nearly five years older than their actual age. People with fatty liver disease had an even larger gap, averaging more than 14 years.



Different subtypes of fatty liver disease also revealed distinct aging patterns that went beyond what doctors typically expect to see.



These unique differences are difficult to capture with standard clinical tests, which often miss the finer details hidden in a patient’s blood chemistry.



The new approach shows how subtle metabolic signatures can highlight risks invisible to routine health checks, giving doctors the chance to spot problems much earlier. This could help tailor treatments to each person and provide a clearer picture of long-term health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clocks-beyond-the-calendar">Clocks beyond the calendar</h2>



The idea of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-a-turning-point-when-your-body-starts-aging-faster-proteins-key/">biological clocks</a> is not new. Scientists have built clocks from DNA methylation, gene activity, protein levels, and even microbiome shifts. 



Epigenetic clocks are among the most precise for matching chronological age, while transcriptomic and proteomic clocks highlight cellular changes tied to aging. 



Metabolomic clocks, like this new one, bring a unique advantage: they directly reflect the state of metabolic health.



The researchers emphasized that these clocks are not perfect. A single measurement only offers a snapshot and can shift with illness or lifestyle changes. Population differences also affect accuracy, meaning recalibration may be needed across diverse groups.



Still, combining data from multiple sources could create powerful models for predicting healthspan and disease risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-test-reveals-health-risks">Blood test reveals health risks</h2>



Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is central to this tool. Unlike other methods, NMR allows consistent, non-destructive measurement of many metabolites. 



It captures details about glucose regulation, lipid profiles, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-helps-the-body-fight-inflammation-and-chronic-diseases/">inflammation</a> - processes strongly linked to aging. Markers such as GlycA and albumin, both tied to inflammation, emerged as important predictors in the model.



To make the clock clinically useful, the team built algorithms that also estimate 25 routine health markers. These include cholesterol, kidney function, and inflammation levels, all from the same blood sample. 



By using techniques like SHAP (Shapley Additive Explanations), the researchers could interpret which features most influenced predictions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broad-view-of-patient-health">Broad view of patient health</h2>



Beyond predicting biological age, the platform estimates over 25 clinical parameters from the same blood sample. 



These include markers for inflammation and kidney function. With one non-invasive test, doctors could gain a comprehensive view of patient health.



“The idea is to capture as much information as possible from existing clinical tests,” said Dr. Millet. “It is remarkable how much of this information is already encoded within a serum NMR spectrum.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-health-with-metabolic-clocks">Monitoring health with metabolic clocks </h2>



This study builds on CIC bioGUNE’s long-term work in precision medicine. It also connects with the CIBERehd research network and the Complementary Plans in Biotechnology Applied to Health. 



With more validation, the researchers hope to see the clock adopted across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-space-agencies-can-help-address-healthcare-challenges/">healthcare systems</a>. Their vision is clear: using metabolic data to help people live longer, healthier lives.



The broader perspective suggests that metabolic clocks could become part of integrated health monitoring, alongside other biological clocks. 



The technology’s scalability, accuracy, and non-invasive design make it a strong candidate for clinical use. In time, such models could help doctors move from reactive treatments to proactive care, where early warnings shape healthier aging.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44324-025-00078-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Metabolic Health and Disease</a>.



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Simple blood test could spot health risks years before symptoms

What if a simple blood test could reveal how fast...

Animals often communicate through signals that go beyond sound or movement. In orangutans, the flange - large cheek pads that develop in dominant males - are more than just striking facial features. 



Recent research shows that flange not only help males stand out but also capture the attention of other orangutans. The study highlights how such traits may influence both attraction and vigilance in the social world of great apes.



A research team led by <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leiden University</a> found that orangutans pay more attention to images of flanged males compared to unflanged ones. The bias mirrors patterns in humans, where masculine features often draw the eye.



"This shows that our attention system has deep evolutionary roots," said Tom Roth, a behavioral biologist at <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>. Such shared mechanisms suggest that sexual selection has shaped cognition across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-orangutans-can-teach-humans-about-food-and-fitness/">primates</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cheek-pads-matter">Why cheek pads matter</h2>



Male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-learn-to-build-complex-tree-nests-by-watching-their-mothers/">orangutans</a> display extreme sexual dimorphism. Some remain unflanged, while others develop into heavier males with large cheek pads, throat sacs, and long hair. 



These flanges require years of energy investment and are linked to higher testosterone levels. Females typically prefer flanged males, possibly because they signal genetic quality.



At the same time, flanged males may pose risks. They dominate rivals and might represent threats in social interactions. 



For females, even a low possibility of infanticide could encourage caution. This dual role - attractive yet potentially dangerous - may explain why flanges command such attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes-on-dominance">Eyes on dominance</h2>



To test this, the team used eye-tracking technology with zoo-housed orangutans. When presented with paired images, the apes were more likely to fixate first on the flanged male. 



They also spent longer gazing at him. The bias held in both controlled portraits and more naturalistic images.



"The orangutans looked at the flanged male about 55 to 60 percent of the time and at the unflanged male 40 to 45 percent of the time," said Roth. "That is a substantial difference for this kind of study." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attention-bias-towards-flanged-males">Attention bias towards flanged males</h2>



Interestingly, the experiments also revealed a perceptual quirk: orangutans tended to fixate first on the left side of the screen, regardless of which male was shown. 



This mirrors findings in humans and other animals, suggesting a general bias in how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-stops-paying-attention-to-repeated-distractions/">attention</a> is directed.



Beyond group patterns, individual orangutans showed unique preferences. Some females consistently favored specific flanged males, hinting at personal variation in attraction or interest. 



However, the small sample size leaves open whether these differences reflect genuine preference or random variation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signals-beyond-attraction">Signals beyond attraction</h2>



Attention toward flanged males may not be purely about mate choice. For males, it could signal competition. For females, it could represent vigilance against dominance or potential risks. 



"This study shows that flanges provide relevant information for conspecifics," said Roth. "However, we cannot yet say with certainty what exactly motivates the animals to focus on flanged males." 



Such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-use-complex-vocal-patterns-found-in-human-language/">complexity</a> echoes human patterns. People often focus on masculine faces, which may signal both attractiveness and dominance. 



Just as in humans, attention in orangutans might be shaped by overlapping factors: desire, competition, and caution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-evolutionary-picture">Broader evolutionary picture</h2>



These findings fit into a larger framework of how visual attention supports survival and reproduction. 



In both humans and other primates, attention is biased toward evolutionarily important stimuli. These include predators, rivals, potential mates, or subtle signals of social dominance that can shape interactions.



Detecting these cues quickly and automatically provides a survival advantage, since hesitation in recognizing a threat or opportunity could reduce reproductive success.



Orangutans join <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/japanese-macaques-have-social-bonds-that-persist-beyond-death/">macaques</a> and humans in showing clear attentional biases toward sexually selected traits. This suggests that visual systems across primates have evolved to prioritize cues linked not only to fitness and competition but also to long-term strategies of mate choice, alliance building, and risk avoidance.



The consistent focus on flanged males demonstrates how strongly cognition has been shaped by pressures of natural and sexual selection, guiding attention toward traits that influence both attraction and social hierarchy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-flanged-males">Future research on flanged males</h2>



Future research could explore whether female orangutans show stronger biases during fertile periods, linking attention more directly to mating motivation. 



Studies could also combine visual and vocal cues, since flanged males are known for their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/japanese-macaques-have-social-bonds-that-persist-beyond-death/">long calls</a>, which may reinforce their visual presence.



"But just like with humans, there has to be more than a genetic match. The animals also need to be interested in each other as partners," Roth said. 



Understanding attention may help improve breeding programs in zoos and deepen our grasp of how cognition and sexual selection intertwine.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/uqAanqck3X4?si=60Nv06HKTBKEZwxD
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Video Credit: Utrecht University </figcaption></figure>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nyas.70032" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Orangutans can’t look away from macho male faces

Animals often communicate through signals that go beyond sound or...

Most people think cancer becomes deadly when a tumor grows too large. But that’s not exactly true. In many cases, the real threat comes when cancer spreads. 



This process, called metastasis, is responsible for the vast majority of cancer deaths. It’s not the tumor in one spot; it’s the new ones appearing in the brain, bones, or lungs that cause the damage.



Now, researchers have found something surprising: it might not be the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-activated-molecules-kill-cancer-cells-with-precision/">cancer cells</a> themselves that decide to spread. It could be the journey they take through the body. Being squeezed through the body’s tiniest blood vessels may transform them into a more dangerous version of themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-cancer-cells-in-tight-spaces">Testing cancer cells in tight spaces</h2>



Our blood vessels get incredibly narrow, especially in the capillaries - tiny tubes just wide enough for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-blood-cells-found-to-squeeze-clots-tight-using-physical-force/">blood cells</a> to pass through. Experts built a special lab device that mimics how these vessels work.



The researchers wanted to see what happens when cancer cells are forced through narrow spaces, like what they’d experience moving through blood.



The team used melanoma cells for the experiment. These are skin cancer cells known for spreading quickly and aggressively. 



The device was made from a soft plastic material and contained channels as small as five micrometers wide - far narrower than a human hair. When the melanoma cells were forced through these channels, something changed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cells-reprogrammed-under-stress">Cells reprogrammed under stress</h2>



Study lead author Dr. Giulia Silvani created the device at the Australian National Fabrication Facility, a joint venture between <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW</a>, the University of Sydney, and UTS.



“Within 15 minutes of being squeezed through the smallest channels, we observed how the melanoma cells became physically deformed,” said Dr. Silvani. 



“When we analyzed the cells, we detected proteins linked to cancer spread and stem cell-like behavior - suggesting that the mechanical stress had reprogrammed them to adopt this new state.”



That’s important. Cancer cells that act like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-stem-cells-grown-in-the-lab-for-first-time-ever-leukemia-treatment/">stem cells</a> can multiply more easily and survive in different environments. This makes them much more likely to form new tumors in other parts of the body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squeezed-cells-grow-more-tumors">Squeezed cells grow more tumors</h2>



To test whether these changes made a difference in a living system, the researchers injected the “squeezed” melanoma cells into mice with weakened immune systems. These mice were also given unsqueezed cancer cells for comparison.



After 30 days, the results were clear. Mice injected with the squeezed cells developed far more tumors in the lungs, bones, and brain. The squeezing made the cells more aggressive and more likely to spread.



“One of the most exciting aspects of this project was the chance to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-discovery-about-cell-migration-will-help-defeat-cancer/">metastatic cancer cells</a> in a way that hasn’t been possible before,” said Dr. Silvani. “Their journey through the body is so hidden, leaving little trace and making them incredibly difficult to capture in action."



"We were able to recreate that journey in the lab, giving us a rare glimpse into the moment when these cells switch into their most aggressive state.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pressure-reshapes-cancer-cells">Pressure reshapes cancer cells</h2>



This new discovery supports a longstanding idea among scientists: that mechanical pressure - like being squeezed through narrow blood vessels - can change cancer cells. But now, there's real evidence to show how it happens.



Professor Kris Kilian, who co-authored the study, explained what this could mean going forward. 



“These results open up new possibilities for prognosis and treatment, by targeting the mechanical forces that lead to metastasis,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-paths-for-diagnosis-and-care">New paths for diagnosis and care</h2>



One future approach could be using imaging, like MRI scans, to find areas in the body with lots of tiny blood vessels. 



These spots might be more likely to trigger the kind of cellular change seen in the study. Doctors could then watch those areas closely or even find ways to reduce the risk of cells squeezing through.



Another possibility is to look at cancer cells floating in a patient’s blood. Doctors could then test how easily those cells can transform under pressure. This could help doctors figure out how likely the cancer is to spread in a specific person.



“The point is, it used to be thought that it was just this extremely rare type of cell that found its way from a primary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cancer-research-ai-will-change-the-way-we-see-tumors/">tumor</a> to a spot where they could invade,” said Kilian. 



“But no, in some cases it’s actually the squeezing that changes the cell into this rare type, and it could put cancer researchers in a much stronger position to devise new treatment strategies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breast-cancer-shows-blood-effect">Breast cancer shows blood effect</h2>



About 90 percent of the work so far has focused on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melanoma-has-been-replaced-as-the-deadliest-form-of-skin-cancer/">melanoma</a>. But Kilian believes this squeezing effect might show up in other cancers too. He mentioned early results in breast cancer experiments look promising. More testing is planned across different types of tumors.



“I believe we’ll find evidence that many solid tumors metastasize this way - we’re already seeing compelling evidence when we repeat these experiments with breast cancer - and I’m looking forward to testing a range of cancer cell types in the lab,” he said.



Dr. Silvani is also eager to continue the work. She sees huge value in using engineering tools to better understand how cancer behaves. 



“Watching this idea grow from a spark of intuition into a real discovery has been deeply inspiring,” she said. “It’s a powerful reminder of what can be achieved when engineering and biology come together."



"Cells are intricate machines, and unraveling their mysteries requires precise design and innovative tools, guided by the insights biology provides.”



This discovery doesn’t promise a cure. But it’s a fresh way of thinking about how cancer spreads - and a step closer to finding new ways to stop it.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63374-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Tiny blood vessels may fuel the spread of cancer cells

Most people think cancer becomes deadly when a tumor grows...

Humans often learn by watching two other people interact and then copying what fits the moment. A new study shows blue-throated macaws can do the same thing.



This ability, known as third-party imitation, suggests a more flexible kind of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-and-bees-are-capable-of-complex-social-learning/">learning</a> than simple mimicry. It points to social knowledge that spreads without direct teaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-parrots-learn">How parrots learn</h2>



The work was led by Esha Haldar at the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence (<a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPIB</a>) in Germany. She and colleagues tested whether parrots can learn by watching a conspecific, meaning a member of the same species, interact with a person.



Researchers define intransitive actions as movements that are not aimed at an object - for example, lifting a leg or fluffing feathers. This focus is important because it rules out shortcuts, ensuring the birds copy the movement itself rather than just the end goal.



Earlier tests in domestic dogs found no evidence of third-party imitation for such goal-less movements. The contrast helps frame what makes the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecuadors-rare-red-faced-parrot-gets-a-new-home/">macaw</a> results notable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-macaws-are-masters-of-imitation">Macaws are masters of imitation </h2>



Two groups of blue-throated macaws took part and none had been trained to imitate on command. In total, the researchers ran 462 sessions of 10 trials each, which equals 4,620 trials.



Birds in the test group watched a trained macaw respond to human hand signals with one of five movements, including fluff, spin, vocalize, lift leg, and flap wings. After a brief pause, the observer bird received the same hand signal for up to 12 seconds.



Birds in the control group received the identical signals but saw no other bird perform the actions. Rewards were given only when the subject produced the correct movement after the signal.



Across the five possible actions, the test group learned more responses than the control group. They also reached the criterion faster and with greater accuracy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-imitation-in-birds">Imitation in birds</h2>



The test birds learned an average of 4.16 actions, while the control birds averaged 2.20. This difference was statistically significant and was matched by higher response accuracy and quicker learning in the observers that had watched the interaction.



“Our findings show that third-party imitation, even for intransitive actions, exists outside humans, allowing for rapid adaption to group specific behaviors and possibly cultural conventions in parrots,” noted Haldar. 



The control birds never mastered the flap wings movement, and the observers learned it last, indicating how unlikely that action was without demonstrations.



Some observers even copied an action briefly before receiving any signal or reward. Those spontaneous moments appeared for spin, fluff, or vocalize and were not reinforced.



Because the target movements were goal-less, explanations like goal copying or object enhancement fit poorly. The design therefore supports imitation of movement patterns within a social context.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-local-routines">Adapting to local routines</h2>



Parrots are not only vocal mimics. A large <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-24335-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survey</a> shows many species keep learning new vocalizations across their lives, and they use those sounds in rich social settings.



Training research also shows that parrots can learn by observing people interact with each other. The model rival <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8469950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technique</a> uses two human trainers to teach labels and concepts to African grey parrots, making observational learning a practical tool in the lab.



Wild parrots <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0049747" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">display</a> flexible social communication too. Orange fronted conures can address specific flock mates by imitating their contact calls, which shows how imitation can serve precise social goals.



The macaw experiment fits that broader picture of social minds. Learning from two others may help newcomers adapt to local routines quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parrots-must-learn-fast">Parrots must learn fast</h2>



In third-party tests with intransitive actions, household dogs did not copy the model. Those studies suggest dogs may rely more on objects or explicit training in such tasks, which makes intransitive movements harder to match without prior practice.



Parrots face different pressures in the wild, including frequent regrouping and shifting partners. Under those conditions, rapidly matching another bird’s movements could aid coordination and affiliation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The sample was small and the action set was limited to five movements. That means follow up studies should scale up both the number of birds and the diversity of actions.



Related work points to another piece of the puzzle. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-parrots-in-the-illegal-wildlife-trade-with-dna-technology/">Macaws</a> also show automatic imitation in a separate experiment, where seeing a movement makes the same movement more likely even when it is not helpful.



Future tests can separate motivation from mechanism by varying the reward schedule or by using two birds as the interacting pair. Researchers can also probe whether observers track the human cue, the demonstrator, or both.



If third-party imitation helps birds synchronize with new partners, it could shape how social traditions form and stick. That is a strong reason to look for similar abilities in other parrots and then in wild settings.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-11665-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Parrots that learn like people: Macaws copy without being taught

Humans often learn by watching two other people interact and...

She was buried in a cave above the Meuse River, and now she has a face and a name: Mos'anne. Scientists used bone, genes, and artifacts to rebuild the look and life of a woman who lived about 10,500 years ago in what is now Belgium.



Her story adds context to a turning point in European prehistory. It also shows how biology and archaeology work together to correct assumptions about early people.



Maïté Rivollat from <a href="https://www.ugent.be/nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ghent University</a> leads the genetic analysis within the <a href="https://roamprojects.com/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ROAM project</a>. The project brings together specialists in archaeology, bioanthropology, and art to better understand human variation after the Ice Age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-mos-anne-s-ancient-world">Uncovering Mos’anne’s ancient world</h2>



Mos’anne lived in the Mesolithic, the period after the last Ice Age when small bands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-in-hunter-gatherer-stone-age-societies-had-better-parenting-than-modern-children/">hunter-gatherer</a>s moved with the seasons. Evidence helps frame the picture of her wider population in Western Europe.



Her remains were found in 1988 in the Margaux Cave near Dinant. Excavations recovered the remains of seven to ten adult females, according to a 2011 study.



The burial context dates to the early Holocene, a time of warming forests and shifting wildlife. Recent radiocarbon work links these Belgian burials to that early Mesolithic timeline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3d-modeling-meets-dna">3D modeling meets DNA</h2>



Researchers created a 3D model of her <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-skull-traits-cause-modern-brain-conditions/">skull</a> and layered muscles, fat, and skin based on demographic averages for a middle-aged woman. 



The 2011 report described how the team scanned the skull and estimated her age between 35 and 60.



The team also extracted ancient DNA from the dense petrous bone inside the skull. That tissue often preserves genetic material better than other parts of the skeleton.



A team of artists worked together to add hair, skin detail, and lived in features. Their craft follows anatomical rules and it respects the constraints that science sets when the data are uncertain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mos-anne-s-appearance-defies-expectations">Mos’anne’s appearance defies expectations</h2>



“We know that she had blue eyes and an average skin color. That's striking; until now, most finds from that time indicated darker skin,” said Professor Isabelle De Groote of Ghent University.



Earlier research on hunter-gatherers helps explain why that mix is plausible. A study from Spain showed blue eyes in a man who still carried ancestral skin pigmentation alleles.



The Ghent team also compared Mos'anne to the Western Hunter-Gatherers, a population that includes England's Cheddar Man. 



The prediction for Mos'anne suggests variation within that group rather than a single uniform phenotype.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-in-the-meuse-valley">Life in the Meuse Valley</h2>



Archaeology fills in daily life around the face. The team tracked nearby plants and animals because diet and landscape shape bodies and choices.



The cave and nearby sites yielded shells, pigments, camps, and stone tools. Red ochre and charcoal appear in graves across the region, so the reconstruction includes those materials as personal decoration.



Seasonal travel likely connected river terraces, upland forests, and open camps. People carried efficient stone points and worked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-bone-tools-suggest-early-humans-were-smarter-than-we-thought/">bone</a> and antler into tools and ornaments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-art-meets-archaeology">Art meets archaeology</h2>



The necklace in the display is made from a deer tooth pierced with a stone tool and strung on plant fiber. Hair is tied with a leather band dyed with ochre, and charcoal marks trace simple geometric patterns.



These reconstructions come directly from physical traces on tools and bones found at the site and its neighbors, anchoring every detail in measurable evidence - even when artists must make small interpretive calls.



The Margaux assemblage stands out for its distinctive sex patterning across the burials, a signal of social rules for memory and status that remain unclear.



Cut marks on one skull point to postmortem handling likely tied to ritual, while pigment traces around cranial bones suggest bodies were prepared with care.



Together, these objects and traces hint at a community where adornment, symbolism, and treatment of the dead intertwined in ways that archaeologists are only beginning to piece together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-genomes-defy-simple-stories">Ancient genomes defy simple stories</h2>



Skin color is influenced by many genes, diet, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-skin-become-leathery-after-too-much-uv-light-from-sun-exposure/">sunlight exposure</a>, and it did not shift all at once across Europe. 



Early people did not share a single look, and Mos'anne shows that variation already existed in Western Europe before farming spread from the Near East. 



This finding underscores the need to study regional histories rather than rely on oversimplified narratives.



Yet much remains uncertain. Genetic predictions for eye, hair, and skin rely on statistical models trained on living people, and ancient genomes do not always contain the same combinations or exert the same effect sizes. 



Reconstructions of face shape use averages from modern samples matched by sex and age, while details such as hairstyle or ornament are still informed choices rather than fixed facts. 



“Until now, the phenotypic diversity among European hunter-gatherers was only known from a small number of fossils and was thought to be fairly homogeneous,” said Dr. Rivollat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-lives-not-bones">Reconstructing lives, not bones</h2>



Seeing a specific person, not an anonymous skeleton, invites better questions about health, food, and social ties. It also gives museums a concrete way to test how the public understands uncertainty in science.



Facial models can be checked against new data as methods improve. That makes them living summaries of evidence, not static trophies under glass.



Stable isotopes in bone and teeth can estimate where someone grew up and what they ate across seasons. Those chemical fingerprints, paired with tool residues and pollen, can place Mos'anne within a tighter map and calendar.



Broader sampling across the Meuse burials could reveal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neolithic-tomb-reveals-ancient-burial-practices/">kinship</a> and social structure. It could also test whether the women shared diets, travel patterns, or health stresses that set them apart from nearby groups.



The study is published in the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20740498/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Journal of Physical Anthropology</a>.



Image credit: ©2025 Kennis en Kennis.



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Scientists reconstruct the face of a hunter-gatherer who lived 10,500 years ago

She was buried in a cave above the Meuse River,...

Hot summers have made bark beetles a familiar menace in northern Europe, but a new twist is now clear. When these insects kill spruce, they also change the air within the forest, raising daytime temperatures close to the ground by as much as 2 degrees Celsius (about 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit).



That <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forests-which-tree-species-can-survive-climate-change/">shift</a> matters because many organisms depend on steady conditions near the forest floor. It also affects how new trees take root after a disturbance, and how people feel when they walk these trails on a scorching day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-bark-beetle-outbreaks">Increasing bark beetle outbreaks </h2>



The research was led by Caroline Greiser of Stockholm University and the <a href="https://www.su.se/bolin-centre-for-climate-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bolin Centre for Climate Research</a>. 



The team measured temperatures both beneath and above the trees at 31 spruce-dominated sites in southern Sweden between July and September 2021.



Sensors mounted at 6.5 feet recorded air in the understory, the shaded space below the canopy. A drone flight added a thermal map of treetops over one reserve to compare living crowns with dead ones.



The focus was the European spruce bark beetle, Ips typographus. “We’ve known for a long time that hot, dry summers increase bark beetle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-lagging-centuries-behind-in-climate-adaptation/">outbreaks</a>,” said Greiser.



The goal of the study was to see how attack severity plays out in the micro-scale temperatures that plants and animals actually experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperatures-of-dead-trees">Temperatures of dead trees</h2>



Daytime maximums beneath attacked stands ran up to 2 degrees Celsius warmer along a gradient from healthy to heavily damaged. 



Nights did not drop below the temperatures seen in healthy stands, which suggests a surprising kind of thermal stability after mortality.



Dead trees were not neutral at the top of the forest either. On a sunny day their crowns averaged 2.6 degrees Celsius warmer than living crowns, and on an overcast day the gap shrank to 0.7 degrees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-deciduous-trees-matter">Why deciduous trees matter</h2>



Where birch and aspen were mixed in with spruce, the warming was smaller. Broad leaves restore shade, keep moisture cycling, and help hold down the daily highs under the trees after an outbreak.



“Our study adds a new reason to diversify forests,” said Greiser. Mixed stands also spread risk across species, so a single pest cannot topple everything at once. 



Restoring deciduous trees to conifer heavy stands has been a policy discussion in Scandinavia for years. These results add temperature control to the list of reasons to bring them back.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-effects-of-bark-beetles">Temperature effects of bark beetles</h2>



Forests tend to be cooler by day and warmer by night than open areas because of shading, wind reduction, and moisture fluxes. That buffering is documented in a global <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gcb.15569" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> that links canopy structure to steadier conditions below.



Living trees also move water from soils to air through <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/water-science-school/science/evapotranspiration-and-water-cycle" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evapotranspiration</a>, which absorbs heat on hot afternoons. When many trees die, that cooling pathway weakens, so the daytime highs under the canopy can tick upward.



Despite the warmer days, attacked stands did not show colder nights in this work. Crowns and stems, even when dead, still slow the loss of heat to the sky, and that can keep minimums steady.



Earlier field <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037811270100754X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> in shelterwood systems found higher night minimums under partial cover than in clear cuts. That helps explain why leaving some structure standing can still protect frost sensitive seedlings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-dead-trees-run-hotter">Why dead trees run hotter</h2>



The thermal drone maps showed dead crowns run warmer than living crowns, especially on clear days. That pattern lines up with reduced water flow from dead wood and the loss of evaporative cooling at the top of the stand.



Independent remote sensing work in Poland reported roughly a 2.5 degrees Celsius (about 4.5 degrees Fahrenheit) difference between dead and healthy tree canopies on a hot day. Weather conditions and tree species can change the exact number, but the direction is consistent.



Clear skies strengthen these differences because sunlight drives heating while living leaves are busy cooling. Clouds narrow the gap by cutting incoming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/">energy</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-bark-beetles">Preparing for bark beetles</h2>



Once again, diversity proves valuable. Adding birch and aspen to spruce stands softens the heat surge that follows beetle die-offs and reduces the risk of a single insect wiping out the entire stand.



Decisions about salvage logging are not one size fits all. Where standing dead trees help hold night minimums steady and support insects and fungi that need dead wood, managers can leave structure to maintain that buffering.



Fire risk is often raised after beetle outbreaks, yet large scale <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1424037112" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analyses</a> show area burned in the western United States did not increase directly because of beetles, with fire weather playing a larger role. 



That does not remove local hazards, but it does suggest careful, site specific planning rather than blanket assumptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-bark-beetle-outbreaks">Future bark beetle outbreaks </h2>



Better maps of fine scale temperature will help link microclimate to seedling survival and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-not-adapting-fast-enough-to-climate-change/">wildlife</a> activity. 



Repeated drone flights across seasons and weather types could sharpen guidance on when and where structure matters most.



Microclimate is part of the climate feedback too. As bark beetles change how heat moves through forests, they shape the very environment that affects future outbreaks and regeneration.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168192325004150" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agricultural and Forest Meteorology</a>.



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Bark beetle attacks increase daytime forest temperatures

Hot summers have made bark beetles a familiar menace in...

The oceans are heating. Scientists say surface waters could climb by 4°C in the next 75 years. Heat waves in the sea are also set to strike more often. Corals bleach and ecosystems collapse, but what happens to fish?



Their survival is less visible, yet just as critical. Shifting fish populations could reshape food webs, disrupt fisheries, and even threaten coastal communities that depend on reefs for protection and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clownfish-evolution-mystery-solved-by-surprising-swimming-behavior/">resources</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clownfish-survival-in-warming-seas">Clownfish survival in warming seas</h2>



Researchers at the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (<a href="https://www.oist.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OIST</a>) set out to investigate whether clownfish could survive hotter seas. The team also wanted to know how the bodies of clownfish might bend or break under pressure.



"Ocean warming and marine heatwaves are predicted to have adverse impacts on marine organisms. Yet, knowledge of the molecular mechanisms that underpin successful or failed acclimation to increasing temperatures remains incomplete," wrote the researchers.



For the study, the team focused on the common clownfish, Amphiprion ocellaris. The fish is easy to breed in tanks and its life cycle is well understood, making every change easier to measure.



The team reported their findings in the journal iScience, revealing how young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clownfish-physically-shrink-their-bodies-to-survive-heatwaves/">fish</a> adapt - or struggle - when water gets hotter. 



Beyond tracking survival, the researchers analyzed tissues, genes, and energy systems. The results show where flexibility exists, where limits appear, and why some clownfish may cope while others fall behind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-heat-stress-in-fish">Measuring heat stress in fish</h2>



The experiment was simple but clever. Freshly hatched clownfish grew in warm tanks at 31°C (about 88°F), while control groups stayed at 28°C (about 82°F). A third group faced early stress: 20 days at 31°C (88°F), then back to 28°C (82°F).



After two months, the team studied the fish tissues. They checked how the bodies managed energy. 



The researchers also measured metabolism to connect genes with performance. This revealed not just short-term reactions but slower, deeper adjustments. These changes exposed hidden strengths or weaknesses in how fish respond to heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-clownfish-respond-to-heat">How clownfish respond to heat</h2>



The results were clear. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clownfish-use-a-trick-to-live-safely-among-stinging-anemones/">Fish</a> exposed early in life adapted better. Their metabolism didn’t spike the same way under stress. Short bursts of heat caused sudden metabolic surges, but long-term heat shaped steady acclimation.



The researchers found that developmental timing mattered more than expected. Early exposure seemed to prepare fish for the future.



The biggest changes appeared in the liver and pancreas. The liver switched on oxidative phosphorylation, producing more energy from food. The pancreas cut down on insulin secretion. Together, these changes rewired how the fish handled energy. 



Other organs showed shifts too. The brain altered genes tied to nerve growth. Gills tweaked transport functions. The intestine changed contraction patterns and barrier strength. Each tissue told part of the story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-difference-in-size">No difference in size</h2>



Despite these changes, growth stayed the same. Fish in hot tanks weighed as much as those in cooler water. Earlier studies showed faster growth under heat, but not here. 



Researchers think social hierarchies in the wild may level size differences, since smaller individuals can still survive if they avoid conflict. 



Energy use, not size, carried the real story, with molecular shifts revealing deeper adjustments that never showed up on a scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptation-with-a-cost">Adaptation with a cost</h2>



The study revealed that adaption is associated with risks. The liver showed early signs of fibrosis. Changes in brain gene expression hinted at problems in nerve development.



The intestine appeared weaker, with barriers that might let harmful microbes in. Adaptation, it seems, carries a cost.



Study co-author Professor Timothy Ravasi is head of the Marine Climate Change Unit at OIST.



"While we've found mechanisms for heat acclimation, these biological changes may have other long-term negative impacts on fish health, so we need to expand our studies and do further testing to get a better idea on the future of our fish," said Professor Ravasi.



"But knowing that developmental exposure to these high temperatures can support heat acclimation, we can move forward with hope for the future of our tropical fish."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)01656-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Clownfish reprogram their bodies to survive ocean warming

The oceans are heating. Scientists say surface waters could climb...

Science often works like a detective story, piecing together fragments of the past. Fossils provide some of the most important clues, but they rarely tell the whole story. 



Now, two tiny fossils from Solnhofen are rewriting a mystery that puzzled paleontologists for decades. Researchers at the <a href="https://le.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> have revealed how baby pterosaurs met their end 150 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fragile-baby-pterosaurs">Fragile baby pterosaurs</h2>



The findings, published in&nbsp;Current Biology, show that powerful storms not only killed these fragile creatures but also preserved them in remarkable detail. 



Storm-driven waves and rapid burial in fine mud created the perfect conditions for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-mastered-land-before-dominating-the-sky/">fossilization</a>. This helps explain why hundreds of small pterosaurs appear in the fossil record, while their larger relatives remain scarce.



The Mesozoic era is often remembered for its giants: massive dinosaurs, predatory marine reptiles, and wide-winged pterosaurs.



Yet most ecosystems, then and now, were filled with small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaur-footprints-discovery-leads-to-surprising-conclusion-life-on-land/">animals</a>. 



Fossilization tends to highlight the giants, leaving smaller creatures hidden. On rare occasions, conditions flip the script, capturing delicate life forms in extraordinary clarity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-famous-baby-pterosaur-fossils">Famous baby pterosaur fossils</h2>



Southern Germany’s <a href="https://www.collections.grisda.org/solnhofen-lagersatte" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solnhofen Limestones</a> hold one of the world’s most famous fossil collections. These lagoonal deposits are celebrated for preserving everything from insects to pterosaurs in exquisite detail.



Yet one puzzle has stood out. Most pterosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humid-air-gave-pterosaurs-the-boost-they-needed-to-take-flight/">fossils</a> here are small, young individuals, preserved whole. Larger adults appear rarely, and usually as fragments.



“Pterosaurs had incredibly lightweight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fossil-fills-crucial-gap-in-pterosaur-evolution/">skeletons</a>. Hollow, thin-walled bones are ideal for flight but terrible for fossilization. The odds of preserving one are already slim and finding a fossil that tells you how the animal died is even rarer,” noted lead author Rab Smyth from the University of Leicester.



The discovery of two baby pterosaurs provided the missing link. Nicknamed Lucky and Lucky II, these hatchlings had wingspans of under 20 centimeters (8 inches). 



Their skeletons are intact, but each shows the same clean fracture on a wing bone. Such injuries point to violent gusts rather than collisions with hard surfaces.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Pterodactylus-hatchling_fossil_fractured-wing_credit-Rudolf-Hima_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Pterodactylus-hatchling_fossil_fractured-wing_credit-Rudolf-Hima_1s.webp" alt="The hatchling Pterodactylus, nicknamed Lucky, illuminated UV light. Both part and counterpart show the delicate bones of this tiny pterosaur, capturing a fractured wing in extraordinary detail. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1985105"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hatchling Pterodactylus, nicknamed Lucky, illuminated UV light. Both part and counterpart show the delicate bones of this tiny pterosaur, capturing a fractured wing in extraordinary detail. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-struggles-of-baby-pterosaurs">Struggles of baby pterosaurs</h2>



Storm winds likely twisted their wings mid-flight. Injured and unable to fly, the hatchlings fell into lagoon waters, where storm-driven waves drowned them. 



Fine lime mud then buried them quickly, sealing their delicate forms. Their tragic end became a gift to science.



Many other small pterosaurs found at Solnhofen show no trauma but were preserved in the same way. Researchers now believe baby pterosaurs were especially vulnerable to sudden storms.



Tossed into lagoons, they drowned and settled into the mud. This explains the abundance of juveniles in the fossil record. 



Larger adults, stronger fliers, survived the storms but decomposed differently, leaving only scattered remains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storms-and-fossil-bias">Storms and fossil bias</h2>



The new study adds weight to this view. It suggests that storm activity played a major role in shaping the fossil record, selectively capturing the most fragile members of pterosaur populations, the babies.



These conditions favored rapid burial and articulation, explaining why juvenile fossils appear unusually complete. 



Adults, that were less likely to perish directly in storms, decomposed in open water, which reduced their preservation potential.



“For centuries, scientists believed that the Solnhofen lagoon ecosystems were dominated by <a href="https://palaeo-electronica.org/content/2023/3878-a-new-solnhofen-pterosaur" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small pterosaurs</a>,” Smyth noted.



“But we now know this view is deeply biased. Many of these pterosaurs weren’t native to the lagoon at all. Most are inexperienced juveniles that were likely living on nearby islands and that were unfortunately caught up in powerful storms.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Pterodactylus-hatchling_fossil-process-illustration_ULeicester_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Pterodactylus-hatchling_fossil-process-illustration_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="(A) Most of the time, pterosaurs stood little chance of becoming fossils. Decaying larger individuals sometimes left behind scattered bones that reached the lagoon floor, but smaller pterosaurs were usually lost without trace. (B) Storms, however, created very different conditions. Powerful winds and waves dragged the bodies of small and young pterosaurs into deeper waters. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1985107"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">(A) Most of the time, pterosaurs stood little chance of becoming fossils. Decaying larger individuals sometimes left behind scattered bones that reached the lagoon floor, but smaller pterosaurs were usually lost without trace. (B) Storms, however, created very different conditions. Powerful winds and waves dragged the bodies of small and young pterosaurs into deeper waters. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-autopsy-after-150-million-years">Autopsy after 150 million years</h2>



"When Rab spotted Lucky we were very excited but realized that it was a one-off. Was it representative in any way? A year later, when Rab noticed Lucky II we knew that it was no longer a freak find but evidence of how these animals were dying," added co-author David Unwin.



"Later still, when we had a chance to light-up Lucky II with our UV torches, it literally leapt out of the rock at us - and our hearts stopped. Neither of us will ever forget that moment."



These discoveries change how scientists understand both fossilization and pterosaur life. What once seemed like a world ruled by tiny fliers was in fact a selective snapshot shaped by violent storms. 



Lucky and Lucky II reveal not only the fragility of young life but also the power of nature to record its own history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)01037-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Very rare baby pterosaur fossils tell the sad story of how they died 150 million years ago

Science often works like a detective story, piecing together fragments...

Carrying a reusable water bottle is a smart habit. It saves money. It cuts down on single-use plastic. It keeps you hydrated. There’s a catch, though. 



Many of us don’t clean our bottles nearly as well or as often as we think we do, and the germs that hitch a ride on our hands, rims, and lids can stick around.



In 2024, the global market for reusable water bottles was valued at about $10 billion, with surveys of university students reporting usage rates ranging from 50% to 81%.



A study on the campus of <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a> put everyday bottles under the microscope to see how clean they really are and which habits help or hurt. The takeaway is a reality check with simple fixes that anyone can put into practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-reusable-water-bottles">Studying reusable water bottles</h2>



The research team kept the question simple: "How clean are the bottles that students actually use all day?" 



To get real-world answers, they collected 90 bottles directly from students. They asked owners how they used and cleaned their bottles, then tested the bottles in two ways.



First, they swabbed the outer surfaces using a rapid hygiene test called ATP that lights up when organic residue remains. This signal is widely used in food safety as a quick screen for whether a surface is truly clean after washing. 



Second, they rinsed the insides and counted bacteria clinging to water-contact surfaces. They measured common water-loving bacteria and checked for coliforms, an indicator group that can signal when conditions could support more concerning contamination.



The study was led by Carl Behnke from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a> with a cohort of academics and scientists. Later in the process, Dr. Yuriko Fukuta, an assistant professor of medicine (infectious diseases) at <a href="https://www.bcm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baylor College of Medicine</a>, added clinical context.



Their goal wasn’t to name and shame anyone’s bottle. It was to map daily habits to measurable cleanliness, so people could tweak what they do and keep their bottles safer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-on-the-outside">What's on the outside</h2>



The outsides of bottles were dirtier than they looked. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_test" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ATP readings</a> indicated that the exterior surfaces of all the water bottles collected (including two new bottles that were purchased from a local retailer as controls) were considered "dirty" and failed the ATP test.



That’s not surprising in daily life, where hands move from phones to doorknobs to laptop keyboards to bottle caps. Residue left behind gives microbes places to hang on to.



More frequent refills were associated with dirtier outer surfaces. Each refill adds touchpoints: your hands, the cap, counter edges, and faucet areas. The rim matters here because it is where hands and mouths meet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-on-the-inside">What's on the inside</h2>



Scientists tested the inside of people’s reusable bottles to see how many live bacteria were inside. Think of the number they report - CFU per milliliter - as how many tiny bacterial “colonies” can grow from a small sip of liquid rinsed off the bottle’s inner walls. 



Many places set the bar for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-100-million-americans-exposed-to-contaminated-drinking-water/">drinking water</a> at below 100–500 CFU/mL. In this study, about 7 out of 10 bottles cleared 100, about 2 out of 3 topped 200, and 3 out of 5 exceeded 500. In plain English: most bottles carried more bacteria than you’d want in clean drinking water.



Researchers also checked for “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/coliform-bacteria">coliforms</a>,” the bacteria we use as a red flag for sanitation. For bottled water, the rule of thumb is basically “none detected” (no more than 1 per 100 mL). Here, roughly 1 in 4 bottles broke that limit, and a few were sky-high.



Bacteria need three things: moisture, nutrients, and time. A bottle provides moisture by design. Nutrients show up when anything other than water goes in, and time accumulates when a bottle sits in a warm car, on a desk, or by the bed overnight.



One clear pattern stood out. Bottles used strictly for water tended to have lower bacterial counts. Bottles that also held sports drinks, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bvo-highly-toxic-soda-ingredient-banned-by-the-fda-in-2024-still-being-used-today/">soda</a>, or sweetened tea or coffee with cream often had much higher counts. 



Sugars feed bacteria. Proteins and fats can leave a film that helps cells attach and form biofilms, which are much harder to remove than free-floating cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaning-reusable-water-bottles">Cleaning reusable water bottles</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-from-plastic-bottles-raises-your-blood-pressure/">Material</a> played a limited role. Glass tended to look cleaner on the quick outside test, likely because its surface is smoother and nonporous. But no material gets a free pass. 



Design features - narrow necks, flip tops, straws, bite valves, and silicone gaskets - create nooks where residue and biofilms hide. Those tucked-away spots are often the last to be disassembled and scrubbed.



People who cleaned more often generally had better results, but intentions didn’t always match outcomes. 



A quick rinse can leave sticky films intact. Dishwashers vary in heat and spray coverage; water may not reach beneath threads, seals, and straw assemblies.



Washing without separating the different parts of the bottle lets biofilms survive in hidden crevices.



“Do you wash your dishes after dinner?” Behnke asked. “Yes. But with water bottles, we often take them all over the place and don’t properly clean them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-health-concerns">Human health concerns</h2>



Fukuta suggested that bacteria might include <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/staph-infections/symptoms-causes/syc-20356221" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">staphylococcus bacteria</a> or <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/group-a-strep/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strep</a>. And there’s this, from the cohort study: “More than 20% of our samples had coliform bacteria, which is fecal matter,” says Behnke.



A bottle can act as a fomite - a surface that helps move microbes from place to place - when it isn’t kept clean. Hands touch the cap and rim. 



Mouths contact the same areas. If the outside is grimy, it can become the pathway for microbes to reach the drinking surfaces.



Dr. Yuriko Fukuta agrees. “We’re constantly touching our water bottles with our mouths and hands, so it’s easy to transmit bacteria to them, and then it just grows,” she says. “In some cases this can make you sick, especially if you have a weaker immune system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reusable-water-bottle-tips">Reusable water bottle tips</h2>



Treat a reusable bottle like a food-contact surface. Use hot water and dish soap. Scrub the walls with a bottle brush. 



Use a small brush, skewer, or toothpick for threads and tiny crevices. Take lids, straws, bite valves, and silicone rings apart and scrub them individually. 



Let everything dry completely with the cap off. Drying breaks the moisture part of the bacteria formula and prevents the musty smell that appears when water lingers.



If you use sweet or creamy drinks, wash the bottle the same day. If your current bottle has many small parts and you often skip steps, a simpler design with a wide mouth can help you stick with the routine. 



Avoid sharing bottles. Saliva adds new microbes that can seed later growth, even if nothing seems wrong at the time. 



If you often set your bottle on public surfaces, wipe the outside periodically, paying special attention to the rim and cap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-it-all-means">What it all means</h2>



Reusable bottles are still a smart, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-thousands-of-nanoplastics-found-in-bottled-water/">sustainable choice</a>. They just need real cleaning. 



The inside isn’t sterile, and the outside picks up residue fast. Pair frequent refilling with a consistent cleaning routine. 



That set of small steps turns your bottle back into what you intended it to be: a safe hydration tool, not a traveling microbiology project.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.foodprotection.org/files/food-protection-trends/nov-dec-17-sun.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Protection</a>.



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Reusable water bottles are a "breeding ground" for strep and fecal bacteria, study warns

Carrying a reusable water bottle is a smart habit. It...

The genome of life is vanishing faster than we can understand it. Species are going extinct, ecosystems are breaking down, and climate change is making everything more unstable. 



At the same time, science is finally catching up with a bold idea: if we can read the DNA of life - every plant, animal, fungus, and more - we can help protect it. 



That’s the massive mission behind the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-genome-has-barely-changed-after-250-million-years-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth BioGenome Project</a> (EBP), a global effort to sequence the DNA of every known eukaryotic species on the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-reference-for-life-itself">A reference for life itself</h2>



In simple terms, eukaryotes are the organisms that have complex cells, like humans, trees, and mushrooms. 



There are about 1.67 million named species, and EBP wants to map the genome of each one. That means building a massive, digital <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-life-the-secret-language-of-dna/">DNA</a> library - a reference for life itself. 



This isn’t just for the sake of curiosity. Knowing the genetic makeup of different species can help with medicine, food security, environmental protection, and even pandemic prevention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powering-up-the-genome-project">Powering up the genome project</h2>



The EBP started sequencing genomes in 2020. Since then, it’s picked up speed. Today, the project is moving 10 times faster than when it began, thanks to better technology and new tools like portable “pop-up” labs that can work even in remote regions.



“As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a> loss gathers pace, so must our work,” said Professor Harris Lewin at <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>. “Our growing digital ‘genome ark’ is shifting what’s possible in genomics from isolated, expensive sequencing efforts to a global, scalable, and inclusive enterprise.”



The project isn’t just about science - it’s also about making sure the work benefits everyone, especially communities in biodiversity-rich but often overlooked areas, like parts of South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. 



That includes giving local and Indigenous researchers the tools they need to do world-class genomic science right where they live.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-digital-tree-of-life">Building a digital tree of life</h2>



By the end of 2024, researchers in the network had published 1,667 genomes, representing over 500 eukaryotic families. Another 1,798 genomes were submitted that meet EBP’s standards. That brings the total to 3,465 species already sequenced and cataloged.



These genomes have helped explain how some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genomics-can-help-farm-animals-adapt-to-climate-change/">animals adapt</a> to extreme environments, like the Svalbard reindeer in the Arctic. They’ve also shown how chromosomes have changed over time in butterflies and moths. 



Furthermore, the genomes are helping to improve tools like environmental DNA, or eDNA, which can identify species just from the traces they leave behind in water, soil, or air.



“We have laid the roots to build our digital ‘tree of life’ - and our early outputs are already reshaping what we know about evolution, ecosystem function, and biodiversity,” said Professor Mark Blaxter at the UK’s Wellcome Sanger Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-big-challenge">The next big challenge</h2>



Now, EBP is entering the second of three phases. Phase II is much more ambitious. The goal is to sequence 150,000 species over the next four years. That’s half of all known genera. 



The focus of this phase will be on species that matter most for ecosystems, food, disease prevention, and cultural and community needs.



That also means collecting 300,000 biological samples. To hit these targets, the project will need to sequence 3,000 genomes a month. That’s more than 10 times the current rate. But the tech is getting better - and cheaper. Genome sequencing costs have dropped eightfold in just a few years.



“It’s a biological moonshot in terms of the scale of ambition. As species vanish and ecosystems degrade, we aim to capture and preserve the biological blueprint of life on Earth for future generations,” said Professor Blaxter. 



“Understanding the origins and evolution of life on Earth is a human pursuit equivalent to understanding the origins and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-not-as-random-as-we-thought/">evolution</a> of the universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-labs-in-a-box">Genome labs in a box</h2>



One of the biggest challenges is getting high-quality samples from hard-to-reach places. The EBP wants to solve that with a simple idea: genome labs in a box. 



These pop-up sequencing labs, called gBoxes, fit inside shipping containers and can go almost anywhere. Once there, they give local scientists the power to process and analyze DNA on site - without having to ship samples around the world.



“Chile is one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots with many endemic species, but these are under threat,” said Professor Juliana Vianna from the <a href="https://www.internationalgenome.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1,000 Genomes Project</a>. 



“In addition, our species are often studied only after samples are exported. With gBoxes, we can change that. Local teams can generate the data here, in context, and immediately connect it to the conservation and sustainable management challenges we face on the ground.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-novel-solutions">Developing novel solutions</h2>



“Biodiversity scientists in low and lower middle-income countries confront daily the great irony of our species and our planet: that the lion’s share of funding and infrastructure for genomics is located at higher latitudes while the great bulk of biodiversity is found in the tropics,” said Dr. Andrew J Crawford from Universidad de los Andes in Colombia. 



He noted that the gBox would allow any nation on the globe to make its own choices, empower the next generation of researchers in biotech and computational biology, and impact national economies by asking novel questions and developing creative solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-huge-genome-project-mission">A huge genome project mission</h2>



Since it started, EBP has built a strong foundation. It created international standards, set up a network of affiliated projects, and reached many of its Phase I goals. Now it’s aiming even higher.



The price tag for Phase II is $1.1 billion. That includes $0.5 billion for a Foundational Impact Fund to support training, infrastructure, and applied research in the Global South.



Sequencing the full 1.67 million named eukaryotic species over 10 years would cost around $4.42 billion. For perspective, that’s less than what it cost to sequence the first human genome or to build the James Webb Space Telescope.



The scientists behind the project say that’s a fair price for what it could deliver - a complete digital record of Earth’s genetic diversity.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/science/articles/10.3389/fsci.2025.1514835/full">Frontiers in Science</a>.



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Preserving Earth’s genetic future before it’s too late

The genome of life is vanishing faster than we can...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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