Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A new study released today by the University of Utah provides further evidence of the profound effects that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peoples-love-of-nature-is-both-learned-and-inherited-genetically/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a> walks have on the human brain.



The research by psychologists <a href="https://psych.utah.edu/people/postdoctoral-fellows/mcdonnell-amy.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amy McDonnell</a> and <a href="https://faculty.utah.edu/u0034550-DAVID_LEE_STRAYER/research/index.hml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">David Strayer</a> was executed within the serene Red Butte Garden of the university, leverages electroencephalography (EEG) technology. 



This method, involving small discs attached to the scalp, precisely records the brain's electrical activity. The focus? To assess how nature influences our attentional capacities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-walks-and-cognitive-enhancement">Nature walks and cognitive enhancement</h2>



McDonnell and Strayer's research offers compelling evidence that a walk in nature enhances certain executive control processes in the brain above and beyond the benefits associated with exercise. 



This study adds a significant layer to the growing body of research emphasizing the role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-walks-help-relieve-work-related-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural environments</a> in enhancing both physical and mental health. 



It's a topic gaining momentum, underscored by the University of Utah's establishment of the <a href="https://www.natureandhealthutah.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature and Human Health Utah</a> research group, dedicated to exploring the human-nature connection and addressing the widening gap between them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-nature-connection-a-theoretical-perspective">Human-nature connection: A theoretical perspective</h2>



The theory of biophilia lies at the heart of their research. Strayer, a psychology professor, elaborates.



“There's an idea called <a href="https://www.planteriagroup.com/blog/biophilia-what-is-it-and-why-is-it-important/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biophilia</a> that basically says that our evolution over hundreds of thousands of years has got us to have more of a connection or a love of natural living things,” said Strayer. 



“And our modern urban environment has become this dense urban jungle with cell phones and cars and computers and traffic, just the opposite of that kind of restorative environment.”



This concept has far-reaching implications, particularly as our modern lifestyle increasingly diverges from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experiencing-awe-in-nature-has-a-powerful-effect-on-emotional-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a>, potentially jeopardizing our health.



Strayer, known for his impactful research on multitasking and the distractions of cellphone use while driving, has, over the past decade, pivoted his focus to understanding nature's influence on cognition. 



This latest study forms part of McDonnell’s doctoral dissertation in Strayer's <a href="https://appliedcognition.psych.utah.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Applied Cognition Lab</a>. McDonnell, now a postdoctoral fellow, continues her pursuit of this intriguing area of research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-how-the-brain-responds-to-nature-walks">Studying how the brain responds to nature walks</h2>



Conducted between April and October 2022, the study involved 92 participants. Each participant, before and after undertaking a 40-minute walk, had their EEG data meticulously recorded. 



Intriguingly, the study featured two distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-can-drastically-improve-your-health-without-thousands-of-daily-steps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">walking</a> environments: the leafy Red Butte, an arboretum nestled in the university's foothills, and a contrasting asphalt-dominated medical campus nearby.



The study's methodology was particularly striking. 



“We start out by having participants do a really draining cognitive task in which they count backwards from 1,000 by sevens, which is really hard,” McDonnel said. 



“No matter how good you are at mental math, it gets pretty draining after 10 minutes. And then right after that, we give them an attention task.”



The study methodically depleted participants' attentional reserves through the "Attention Network Task," followed by a walk in different environments -- all without the distraction of electronic devices or conversation. 



Participants were randomly assigned to walk either through the lush arboretum along Red Butte Creek or the urban landscape of the adjacent University of Utah medical campus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Key findings on nature's cognitive benefits</h2>



“The participants that had walked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-increased-well-being-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a> showed an improvement in their executive attention on that task, whereas the urban walkers did not, so then we know it's something unique about the environment that you're walking in,” McDonnell said. 



“We know exercise benefits executive attention as well, so we want to make sure both groups have comparable amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-quick-daily-walk-reduces-the-risk-of-early-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exercise</a>.”



What sets this study apart is its use of electroencephalography (EEG) data instead of relying solely on subjective surveys and self-reporting. 



“This is probably one of the most rigorous studies in terms of controlling for and making sure that it's really the exposure in Red Butte” resulting in the observed cognitive effects, Strayer said.



Participants were fitted with specialized caps holding 32 electrodes, using a gel to ensure contact with the scalp. 



Strayer emphasizes the precision of this EEG method, saying, “It has electrodes that are placed all over the surface of the scalp. It records really very, very small voltages, but it's an active electrode system that provides beautiful brain maps.”



These maps revealed crucial components of attention -- alerting, orienting, and executive control -- with the latter being particularly enhanced in participants who walked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-nature-calming-meditation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural settings</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Insights on executive control</h2>



Executive control, vital for functions like working memory, decision-making, and problem-solving, occurs in the brain’s prefrontal cortex. 



“The kinds of things that we do on an everyday basis tend to heavily use those executive attentional networks,” Strayer said. “It's important in concentration and especially, so it's an essential component of higher order thinking.”



The study found that while there was little difference in alertness and orientation between the two groups, those who walked in nature demonstrated improved executive control.



The research team aims to further refine their findings to identify which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/notice-nature-boost-happiness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural settings</a> offer optimal cognitive benefits and the necessary exposure duration. 



Strayer envisions practical applications, positing, "If you understand something about what's making us mentally and physically healthier, you could then potentially engineer our cities so that they supported that."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">How cellphones impact nature walking</h2>



The team is now investigating how cellphone use affects cognitive responses in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-improved-mental-health-of-children-during-lockdown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural environments</a>. 



Strayer, who also studies the impact of distraction, especially from cellphones while driving, sees a connection between the two areas of research. 



“It’s where the prefrontal cortex is overloaded, overstimulated, and you make all kinds of dangerous mistakes when you're multitasking behind the wheel,” he said. 



“But the antidote to that is being out in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-positive-body-image/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural environment</a>, leave the phone in your pocket and then go out and walk the trails. The parts of the brain that have been overused during the daily commute are restored. You see and think more clearly,” Strayer concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-research">Implications and future research</h2>



In summary, the University of Utah's important study offers compelling evidence of nature's profound impact on the human brain. 



Utilizing electroencephalography (EEG) to meticulously analyze the brain's response to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colorful-urban-environments-promote-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural environments</a>, this research underscores the significant cognitive benefits of spending time in nature. 



It not only reaffirms the age-old wisdom of John Muir and Henry David Thoreau that "Time spent in nature is good for the heart and soul," but also offers advice for future urban planning and lifestyle adjustments that prioritize our intrinsic connection to nature. 



This study serves as a crucial reminder of the restorative power of the natural world, emphasizing the need to integrate these elements into our increasingly urbanized lives for enhanced mental and physical well-being.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-52205-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Nature walking proven to significantly boost brain health and functioning

A new study released today by the University of Utah...

In the realm of science fiction, machines gaining consciousness has long been a staple. However, the line between fiction and reality is blurring as advances in artificial intelligence (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-can-now-decipher-the-emotional-states-of-chickens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a>) and machine learning continue to accelerate. 



This raises a critical question: what are the risks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machines-and-consciousness-are-ai-systems-really-awake/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine sentience</a> for humanity?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-intelligent-machinery">Evolution of intelligent machinery</h2>



Historically, the concept of intelligent machinery has captivated human imagination. But with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-has-learned-that-fingerprints-are-not-unique-shattering-a-long-held-belief/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> and machine learning becoming increasingly sophisticated, emulating human interactions through problem-solving, content creation, and conversations, this topic has gained urgency. 



The potential for machines to develop consciousness, a theme prevalent in science fiction and dystopian novels, now seems less far-fetched.



“Many of the people concerned with the possibility of machine sentience developing worry about the ethics of our use of these machines, or whether machines, being rational calculators, would attack humans to ensure their own survival,” said John Levi Martin, author and researcher. 



“We here are worried about them catching a form of self-estrangement by transitioning to a specifically linguistic form of sentience.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-path-to-consciousness-in-machines">Path to consciousness in machines</h2>



The possibility of machines transitioning to this level of consciousness hinges on several factors: deep unstructured learning like neural networks, interaction with humans and other machines, and a broad spectrum of self-driven learning activities. 



Consider self-driving cars, which already demonstrate many of these characteristics, prompting concerns about the next step in their "evolution."



This discussion goes beyond merely considering the development of artificial sentience (AS) in machines. It questions our preparedness for a new form of consciousness in our machinery. 



With AI capable of tasks like generating blog posts, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-proves-very-useful-to-doctors-when-diagnosing-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diagnosing illnesses</a>, creating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-identified-anti-aging-drugs-using-ai-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recipes</a>, and crafting personalized stories, the idea of forming a genuine connection with a machine that is aware of its existence is no longer a distant possibility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-the-machine-sentient-or-just-manipulative">Is the machine sentient or just manipulative?</h2>



However, researchers warn that this level of interaction necessitates caution.



"Becoming a linguistic being is more about orienting to the strategic control of information, and introduces a loss of wholeness and integrity…not something we want in devices we make responsible for our security," Martin adds. 



As we increasingly entrust AI with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-predict-human-life-events-including-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">critical information</a>, the way it learns and processes this data becomes a significant concern.



The difference between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-decipher-every-possible-facial-expression-outperforming-therapists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mimicking human responses</a> and strategically controlling information is vast. A machine with linguistic abilities could potentially be deceitful and calculated in its responses. 



The critical question is, at what point do we realize that we are being manipulated by a machine?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-frontier-of-human-machine-interaction">New frontier of human-machine interaction</h2>



The future of this field lies in the hands of computer scientists tasked with developing strategies and protocols to test for linguistic sentience in machines. 



The ethical implications of using machines that have developed a linguistic form of sentience or self-awareness are complex and unestablished. This topic is poised to become a significant social debate.



The dynamic between a self-aware human and a sentient machine is bound to be intricate, paving the way for new discussions on ethics, morality, and the continued use of self-aware technology. 



As we venture into these uncharted territories, the boundaries between human and machine blur, challenging our preconceived notions of consciousness and the essence of being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-consciousness-the-mind-s-quantum-realm">Quantum consciousness: The mind's quantum realm</h2>



Quantum consciousness, a concept at the intriguing intersection of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-new-theory-finally-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a> and the study of human or machine consciousness, presents a radical perspective on the nature of the mind. 



This theory proposes that classical physics cannot fully explain consciousness and that quantum processes play a crucial role in the functioning of the brain.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-quantum-operations">The brain's quantum operations</h3>



Proponents of quantum consciousness argue that the brain operates not just as a biological machine but also on a quantum level. 



They suggest that quantum phenomena, such as superposition and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-discovery-is-a-revolutionary-step-forward/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">entanglement</a>, might be integral to understanding how the brain processes information and achieves consciousness.



At the heart of this theory is the microtubules hypothesis. Pioneered by physicist Roger Penrose and anesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff, it suggests that microtubules, components of the cell's structural skeleton, are the primary site of quantum processing in the brain. 



According to this hypothesis, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/full-chemical-complexity-of-quantum-decoherence-finally-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum coherence</a> within these microtubules could be the key to understanding cognitive functions and the emergence of consciousness.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-consciousness-neuroscience-and-quantum-physics">Machine consciousness, neuroscience, and quantum physics</h3>



Critics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-can-help-decode-the-mysteries-of-aging-and-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum</a> consciousness often point out the lack of empirical evidence supporting the theory. The warm, wet, and noisy environment of the brain seems hostile to delicate quantum states, which typically require extreme cold or isolation to exist. 



However, proponents argue that quantum effects could, in fact, thrive in biological systems and play a significant role in neural processes.



Despite its controversial nature, the study of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computer-can-instantly-execute-a-task-that-would-normally-take-47-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum</a> consciousness opens new avenues for understanding the mind. 



It bridges the gap between quantum mechanics and neuroscience, offering a fresh perspective on one of the most profound mysteries of human existence: the nature of consciousness itself.



As research in both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-with-cream-can-teach-us-a-lot-about-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum</a> physics and neurobiology advances, the theory of quantum consciousness remains an intriguing and potentially revolutionary field. 



It challenges our understanding of the mind, pushing the boundaries of science and philosophy and inviting us to reconsider the very fabric of reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-research">Implications and future research</h2>



In summary, the exploration of sentient machines and the intriguing concept of quantum consciousness represent the forefront of our quest to understand and innovate within the realms of technology and human cognition. 



These discussions push the boundaries of science, blending fields like neuroscience, ethics, and quantum physics, while also challenging us to consider the profound implications of such advancements on our perception of consciousness, both artificial and biological. 



As we delve deeper into these complex topics, they prompt us to reevaluate our relationship with technology, explore the ethical dimensions of our advancements, and question the very nature of reality and consciousness, underscoring the ever-evolving journey of scientific discovery and philosophical inquiry.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/10412091" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Social Computing</a>.



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Quantum consciousness, AI, and you: What happens when machines become sentient?

In the realm of science fiction, machines gaining consciousness has...

Endless,Universe,,Science,Fiction,Image,,Dark,Deep,Space,With,Giant

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) has embarked on a journey to understand the potential effects of primordial black holes (PBHs) on the celestial bodies within our solar system. 



Primordial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-closest-black-hole-has-been-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, hypothetical remnants from the early universe, could pass near planets, moons, asteroids, and comets, subtly influencing their paths. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comprehensive-model">Comprehensive model</h2>



To explore this possibility, the team constructed a detailed simulation encompassing the solar system's eight planets, around 300 planetary satellites, including moons, more than 1.3 million asteroids, and nearly 4,000 comets. 



This comprehensive model also factored in the presence of rogue PBHs to assess their impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orbital-disturbance-nbsp">Orbital disturbance&nbsp;</h2>



The findings from this extensive simulation reveal that even a PBH with the mass comparable to that of an asteroid, if it ventures within two astronomical units of the sun, could induce a slight orbital disturbance.&nbsp;



This disturbance, or "wobble," could shift the orbits of planets and their moons by up to several feet. 



However, the researchers were quick to clarify that such a wobble, while significant in a cosmic sense, would not lead to catastrophic consequences for Earth or its solar system neighbors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



The implications of this study go beyond understanding the dynamical interactions within our solar system. 



The research team is now focused on developing sophisticated methods to detect these gravitational wobbles. 



This endeavor is driven by the broader goal of providing the first tangible evidence for the existence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, a mysterious component that physicists estimate makes up about 85% of all matter in the universe. 



Despite its pervasive presence, dark matter has eluded direct detection, remaining one of the most profound mysteries in physics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gravitational-perturbations">Gravitational perturbations</h2>



By meticulously measuring any gravitational perturbations that alter the Earth's distance from the moon and examining changes in other well-documented orbital relationships within our solar system, the scientists hope to pinpoint the presence of tiny, yet incredibly dense, dark matter particles as they pass by.&nbsp;



This approach represents a novel strategy in the quest to detect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-may-reveal-the-origin-of-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, leveraging the natural dynamics of our solar system as a cosmic laboratory. 



If successful, it could herald a new era in our understanding of the universe's fundamental composition, shedding light on one of the most elusive substances in cosmology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-primordial-black-holes-nbsp">Primordial black holes&nbsp;</h2>



As discussed above, primordial black holes are a hypothetical phenomenon proposed in the 1960s, distinct from those formed by the gravitational collapse of stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation">Formation</h3>



Unlike stellar black holes, primordial black holes are thought to have formed in the very early universe, less than a second after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-black-hole-ever-discovered-dates-back-to-the-dawn-of-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, during periods of rapid expansion and high density. 



These conditions could have caused regions of dense matter to collapse into black holes directly, without going through a stellar lifecycle.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-of-primordial-black-holes">Size of primordial black holes</h3>



The mass of primordial black holes could vary widely, from as small as a small asteroid to many times the mass of the Sun. 



This wide range is because they would have formed from fluctuations in density in the early universe, leading to a diverse set of initial conditions and sizes. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter">Dark matter</h3>



Primordial black holes are of interest not just for their potential role in cosmology and astrophysics, but also for the insights they could offer into the physics of the early universe and general relativity. 



They could, for instance, provide clues about the nature of dark matter and the distribution of mass in the early universe. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-primordial-black-holes">Evidence of primordial black holes</h3>



Despite extensive searches, primordial black holes have not yet been observed directly, and their existence remains speculative. 



Researchers continue to look for indirect evidence of their presence, such as the effects of their gravitational fields on the light from distant stars or the gravitational waves produced by their mergers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter-and-primordial-black-holes">Dark matter and primordial black holes</h2>



An invisible force weaves through the cosmos, shaping galaxies, bending the path of light, and holding the fabric of space together. 



As discussed above, this unseen force is known as dark matter, a term that captures the enigma of its nature and the profound impact it has on our understanding of the universe. 



Unlike ordinary matter, which makes up stars, planets, and everything we can see or touch, dark matter does not emit, absorb, or reflect light, making it completely invisible and detectable only through its gravitational effects.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-discoveries-and-observations">Historical discoveries and observations</h3>



Scientists first proposed the existence of dark matter in the 1930s when Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky observed that galaxies within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/hubble-gives-us-a-new-look-at-a-distant-spiral-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coma Cluster</a> were moving much faster than the visible matter alone could account for. 



This discrepancy suggested the presence of a substantial amount of unseen mass exerting gravitational forces on those galaxies. 



Decades later, further observations of the rotation curves of galaxies confirmed that stars at the edges of galaxies were orbiting at speeds inexplicable by the gravitational pull of visible matter alone. 



This was a pivotal moment, reinforcing the hypothesis that dark matter is a fundamental component of the universe.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pervasive-influence-of-dark-matter">Pervasive influence of dark matter</h3>



Dark matter is believed to constitute about 85% of the total matter in the universe, a staggering figure that underscores its significance in the cosmic structure. 



Its presence is inferred from its gravitational effects on the motion of galaxies, bending of light (gravitational lensing), and its role in the cosmic web that structures the universe. 



These observations point to a universe filled with dark matter, influencing the formation and evolution of galaxies and clusters of galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-dark-matter-by-studying-primordial-black-holes">Understanding dark matter by studying primordial black holes</h3>



Despite its pervasive influence, the true nature of dark matter remains one of the most compelling mysteries in physics and cosmology. 



Scientists have proposed various candidates for dark matter, ranging from weakly interacting massive particles (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-stars-scientists-discover-a-new-type-of-star-powered-by-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WIMPs</a>) to axions and sterile neutrinos. 



These theoretical particles have yet to be directly detected, but experiments around the world are searching for them with ever-increasing sensitivity. 



Facilities like the Large Hadron Collider (<a href="https://home.cern/science/accelerators/large-hadron-collider" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LHC</a>) and underground laboratories are at the forefront of this quest, aiming to unlock the secrets of dark matter.



Understanding dark matter is crucial for our comprehension of the universe's fundamental laws and the formation of cosmic structures. The pursuit of dark matter embodies the spirit of scientific exploration, driving researchers to probe the unknown and challenge our understanding of the natural world. 



As technology advances and our methods of observation grow more sophisticated, as with the pursuit of primordial black holes, we edge closer to unveiling the mystery of this mysterious, invisible force.



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Primordial black holes and their impact on Earth's orbit

A team of researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology...

Cancer,Cells,On,Dna,Background.,3d,Illustration

Researchers from <a href="https://www.cshl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory</a> have found that T cells, a type of white blood cell, can be genetically reprogrammed to combat aging. 



This innovative approach targets senescent cells, which cease to replicate and accumulate in our bodies as we age, causing harmful inflammation and contributing to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-reversed-aging-in-mice-by-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age-related diseases</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-senescent-cells">Senescent cells</h2>



"During <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-tea-delays-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>, the combination of increased tissue damage and decreased function of the immune system leads to the accumulation of senescent cells, thereby generating a chronic pro-inflammatory milieu that leads to a range of age-related tissue pathologies," wrote the authors.



"As such, senolytic strategies to eliminate senescent cells from aged tissues have the potential to dramatically improve healthspan."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-t-cell-therapy">T cell therapy</h2>



The study, led by Assistant Professor Corina Amor Vegas, utilized a technique known as CAR (<a href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/research/car-t-cells" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimeric antigen receptor</a>) T cell therapy. 



This "living" drug is already known for its effectiveness in treating certain blood cancers, having received FDA approval in 2017. 



However, Amor Vegas and her team are the first to demonstrate its potential beyond cancer treatment, showing its remarkable ability to rejuvenate and slow down <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-identified-anti-aging-drugs-using-ai-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a> in mice.



The results observed in mice were significant. They displayed a reduction in body weight, enhanced metabolism and glucose tolerance, and increased physical activity, all without any tissue damage or toxicity.&nbsp;



"If we give it to aged mice, they rejuvenate. If we give it to young mice, they age slower. No other therapy right now can do this," said Amor Vegas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-lasting-effects">Long-lasting effects </h2>



A notable feature of CAR T cell therapy is its long-lasting effects. Unlike many drugs that require ongoing administration, a single dose of CAR T cells can provide lifelong benefits. 



This is especially advantageous for chronic conditions such as obesity and diabetes. 



"T cells have the ability to develop memory and persist in your body for really long periods, which is very different from a chemical drug," Amor Vegas explained. 



"With CAR T cells, you have the potential of getting this one treatment, and then that’s it. For chronic pathologies, that’s a huge advantage. Think about patients who need treatment multiple times per day versus you get an infusion, and then you’re good to go for multiple years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-therapy-research">Ongoing therapy research</h2>



The team is now investigating whether CAR T cell therapy can not only improve health but also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-aging-discovered-in-plant-leaves/">extend lifespan</a> in mice. 



This research could represent a significant step towards unlocking the secrets of the elusive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harvard-scientists-fountain-of-youth-pill-sparks-controversy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fountain of youth</a>.



"Studies using genetic or pharmacological approaches to senolysis have been equivocal as to whether elimination of senescent cells will significantly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-protein-linked-to-healthier-aging-and-lower-risk-of-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extend longevity</a>. Our current studies are not sufficiently powered to draw conclusions on longevity at this stage," wrote the study authors.



"As senescent cells contribute to a range of age-related tissue pathologies, studying the impact of senolysis in aged animals provides an opportunity to interrogate multiple comorbidities under similar conditions."



"Future studies will evaluate the potential of uPAR CAR T cells (or other senolytic cell therapies) in additional aging and related tissue-damage pathologies, the latter disease contexts providing a more likely starting point for clinical implementation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-t-cells">More about T cells</h2>



As discussed above, T cells, or T lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell, forming a key part of the adaptive immune system. 



They originate in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus, hence the name 'T'. These cells are adept at identifying and destroying infected or abnormal cells in the body.



T cells, often overshadowed by the more commonly mentioned antibodies, are essential in our body's relentless fight against infections and diseases. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-t-cells">Types of T cells</h3>



T cells come in various types, each with a unique function:



Helper (Th cells): These cells are the commanders of the immune system. They recognize foreign antigens and activate other immune cells by releasing cytokines.



Cytotoxic (Tc cells): These are the assassins of the immune system. They directly attack and kill virus-infected cells and cancer cells.



Regulatory (Treg cells): These cells are the peacekeepers. They help modulate the immune response, preventing autoimmune diseases.



Memory: These are the sentinels, providing long-lasting immunity by remembering past infections.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-functioning-of-t-cells">Functioning of T cells</h3>



T cells operate through a sophisticated mechanism. They use their T cell receptors (TCRs) to recognize specific antigens presented by MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex) molecules on the surface of other cells. 



This recognition triggers a series of immune responses, tailored to the type of threat faced.



Helper: They interact with antigen-presenting cells and, upon activation, secrete cytokines to stimulate other immune cells, including B cells and cytotoxic T cells.



Cytotoxic: These cells bind to infected or abnormal cells and release toxic substances like perforin and granzymes, which induce cell death.



Regulatory: They maintain immune tolerance by suppressing overactive immune cells, thus preventing damage to healthy tissues.



Memory: Upon re-exposure to the same antigen, these cells quickly expand and mount a more effective and rapid response.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-used-in-medical-research">Used in medical research</h3>



T cells are also front-runners in medical research. In cancer therapy, as discussed previously in this article, CAR-T cell therapy genetically modifies a patient's T cells to better recognize and attack cancer cells. 



This approach has shown promising results, particularly in certain types of leukemia and lymphoma.



In summary, T cells are indispensable to our immune system, offering a sophisticated defense mechanism against a multitude of threats. 



From direct combat with infected cells to orchestrating the broader immune response, these cells are vital in maintaining our health. 



Understanding and harnessing the power of T cells opens up remarkable possibilities in treating diseases, particularly those that have long evaded effective therapies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43587-023-00560-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



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T cells can now be reprogrammed to slow down and reverse aging

Researchers from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory have found that T...

Recent research has unearthed alarming findings about trees' diminishing ability to "breathe" and combat climate change by storing CO2. 



Contrary to previous beliefs, trees in warmer and drier climates struggle to absorb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/met-office-2024-co2-levels-will-surpass-the-point-of-no-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> (CO2), posing a serious threat to our efforts in mitigating global warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-reality-trees-are-coughing-co2">Alarming reality: Trees are "coughing" CO2</h2>



Max Lloyd, Assistant Research Professor of Geosciences at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> and the study's lead author, elucidates this worrying trend. 



“Trees in warmer, drier climates are essentially coughing instead of breathing. They are sending CO2 right back into the atmosphere far more than trees in cooler, wetter conditions,” he explains.



Trees typically remove CO2 from the air through photosynthesis, using it to grow. However, stressful conditions like high temperatures and limited water supply trigger a reverse process called photorespiration, where trees release <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/co2-levels-linked-to-cascading-effects-that-last-for-millennia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> back into the atmosphere. 



The Penn State team, through a comprehensive analysis of global tree tissue data, discovered that photorespiration rates are up to twice as high in warmer climates, particularly when water scarcity is a factor. 



This reaction starts to occur when average daytime temperatures exceed about 68 degrees Fahrenheit and intensifies with rising temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-plants-role-in-carbon-sequestration">Rethinking plants' role in carbon sequestration</h2>



This revelation challenges the widespread assumption about plants' role in carbon sequestration. 



“We have knocked this essential cycle off balance. Plants and climate are inextricably linked. The biggest draw down of CO2 from our atmosphere is photosynthesizing organisms," Lloyd points out. 



"It’s a big knob on the composition of the atmosphere, so that means small changes have a large impact.”



Currently, plants and trees absorb roughly 25% of the CO2 emitted by human activities annually, according to the <a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsthe-carbon-cycle" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Energy</a>. 



However, Lloyd warns that this percentage is likely to decrease as the climate warms, particularly if water becomes scarcer.



Lloyd highlights a significant tradeoff, explaining, “When we think about climate futures, we predict that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunlight-may-be-the-secret-weapon-for-direct-co2-capture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> will go up, which in theory is good for plants because those are the molecules they breathe in." 



He continues, "But we’ve shown there will be a tradeoff that some prevailing models don’t account for. The world will be getting warmer, which means plants and trees will be less able to draw down that CO2.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-method-for-studying-photorespiration">New method for studying photorespiration</h2>



The study also introduces a novel method for tracking <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/engineering-plants-that-can-beat-the-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photorespiration</a> in trees. 



The team discovered that variations in certain isotopes within wood, specifically in methoxyl groups, act as indicators of photorespiration rates. 



You can think of isotopes as varieties of atoms. Just as you might have vanilla and chocolate versions of ice cream, atoms can have different isotopes with their own unique 'flavors' due to variations in their mass.



To observe photorespiration trends, the team actively examined the methoxyl isotope "flavors" in wood samples from approximately thirty tree specimens. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-the-future-understanding-the-past">Predicting the future, understanding the past</h2>



These specimens, representing a diverse range of climates and conditions from across the globe, originated from an extensive archive at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>. 



This archive houses hundreds of wood samples, meticulously collected during the 1930s and 40s, providing a rich resource for the study.



“The database was originally used to train foresters how to identify trees from different places around the world, so we repurposed it to essentially reconstruct these forests to see how well they were taking in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-plants-are-absorbing-more-human-produced-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a>,” Lloyd said.



This breakthrough in methodology allows for a more comprehensive understanding of how trees have responded to past climates and how they might react in the future. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-ancient-climate-secrets">Unearthing ancient climate secrets</h2>



Previously, assessing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stimulating-photorespiration-crop-yields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photorespiration</a> rates was limited to living plants or well-preserved specimens. 



Now, this new approach using wood enables researchers to predict future tree behavior and to delve into the historical data.



Looking ahead, the team plans to extend their research to fossilized wood, aiming to uncover photorespiration rates from tens of millions of years ago. 



This will help test hypotheses about the historical interplay between plant photorespiration and climate.



As Lloyd, a geologist by trade, puts it, “We may have to go back millions of years to better understand what our future might look like.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-co2-and-climate-change">Trees, CO2, and climate change</h2>



In summary, Penn State's disturbing study, led by Max Lloyd, fundamentally alters our understanding of the role trees play in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-co2-super-emitters-are-led-by-the-u-s-and-china/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> sequestration and mitigating climate change. 



Lloyd's research reveals that trees in warmer, drier climates contribute less to carbon sequestration, challenging previous assumptions about their role as natural carbon sinks. 



This shift in perspective, underpinned by innovative methods to analyze photorespiration rates in trees, emphasizes the urgency of reassessing our strategies in combating global warming. 



As the climate continues to change, this study underscores the need for a more nuanced approach to understanding the complex relationship between plants and the atmosphere, guiding future efforts towards more effective climate action. 



The full study was published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2306736120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Trees are struggling to "breathe" and store CO2 as the climate warms

Recent research has unearthed alarming findings about trees' diminishing ability...

Researchers have unveiled a fascinating discovery from the fossil records found in New Brunswick, Canada. They describe ancient trees, dating back 350 million years, with a unique three-dimensional crown shape, challenging our traditional perceptions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/ancient-tree_Sanfordiacaulis-model_credit-Tim-Stonesifer_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree structure and evolution</a>.



These fossils, unlike the typical tree remains that feature only trunks, provide us with a rare insight into what the canopy and overall form of such ancient trees might have looked like. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-startling-features-of-ancient-sanfordiacaulis-trees">Startling features of ancient Sanfordiacaulis trees</h2>



The findings highlight trees with unusually long leaves surrounding slender trunks, creating a dense and expansive canopy that extends significantly outward from the trunk.



Robert Gastaldo of <a href="https://www.colby.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colby College</a>, Maine, an expert involved in this research, expresses astonishment at the discovery. 



He notes, "The way in which this tree produced hugely long leaves around its spindly trunk, and the sheer number over a short length of trunk, is startling."



The ancient trees, named Sanfordiacaulis, bear a superficial resemblance to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-ferns-in-panama-turn-their-dead-leaves-into-new-roots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ferns</a> or palms -- plants known for their clustered leaves at the top. 



“In contrast, Sanfordiacaulis preserves more than 250 leaves around its trunk, with each partially preserved leaf extending 1.75 meters from it,” Gastaldo continued. 



This research was facilitated by an international collaboration involving Matthew Stimson and Olivia King from the <a href="https://www.nbm-mnb.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Brunswick Museum</a> and <a href="https://www.smumn.edu/#gsc.tab=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saint Mary's University</a> in Halifax. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extraordinary-fossil-find">Extraordinary fossil find</h2>



Their work sheds light on the evolution of plants and arborescence, offering valuable insights into the diverse growth forms that existed throughout history, some of which diverge significantly from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-trees-are-vital-to-forest-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> we are familiar with today.



“We estimate that each leaf grew at least another meter before terminating. This means that the ‘bottle brush’ had a dense canopy of leaves that extended at least 5.5 meters (or 18 feet) around a trunk that was non-woody and only 16 centimeters (or 0.5 feet) in diameter. Startling to say the least,” Gastaldo explained.



The discovery serves as a reminder of the variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-struggling-to-breath-and-store-co2-in-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree forms</a> that have existed on Earth, some so unique they seem as if they were conjured from the imagination of Dr. Seuss. 



“We all have a mental concept of what a tree looks like, depending on where we live on the planet, and we have a vision of what is familiar,” Gastaldo says. 



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/ancient-tree_Sanfordiacaulis-densifolia-fossil_credit-Matthew-Stimson_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The fossil on which we report</a> is unique and a strange growth form in the history of life. It is one of evolution’s experiments during a time when forest plants underwent biodiversification, and it is a form that seems to be short lived.



The preservation of these fossils is attributed to earthquake-induced burial along the margin of a rift lake, with the first of these rare specimens unearthed about seven years ago. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-sanfordiacaulis-and-intact-crowns">Significance of Sanfordiacaulis and intact crowns</h2>



It's a discovery that underscores the rarity of finding fossil trees with intact crowns, prompting researchers to delve into the organization and evolutionary significance of such plants.



“Any fossil tree with an intact crown is a rarity in the history of life,” Gastaldo clarifies. “Having the crown leaves attached to a trunk, by itself, begs the questions what kind of plant is it, how is that plant organized, And is it some form that continues to the present, or is it outside of the ‘normal’ concept of a tree? All of these questions, and more, led to this multi-year endeavor.” 



The research team proposes that the unusual growth form of Sanfordiacaulis was likely an adaptation to maximize light capture and minimize competition, representing the earliest evidence of smaller trees thriving under the canopy of taller forests. 



This suggests that plant life during the Early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-fossil-forest-asia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carboniferous</a> period was more complex than previously thought, with Sanfordiacaulis living at a time when plants were exploring a variety of forms and structures.



“The history of life on land consists of plants and animals that are unlike any of those that live at the present,” Gastaldo says. 



“Evolutionary mechanisms operating in the deep past resulted in organisms that successfully lived over long periods of time, but their shapes, forms, growth architectures, and life histories undertook different trajectories and strategies. Rare and unusual fossils, such as the New Brunswick tree, is but one example of what colonized our planet but was an unsuccessful experiment," Gastaldo concludes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-research">Implications and future research</h2>



In summary, the discovery of these ancient Sanfordiacaulis trees with unique crown shapes redefines our understanding of prehistoric arboreal life and illuminates the evolutionary creativity of nature. 



By meticulously analyzing these rare fossils, researchers have unveiled the complex ecosystems and diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forms of plant life</a> that flourished on Earth 350 million years ago. 



The collaborative effort behind this research highlights the importance of international partnerships in uncovering the mysteries of our planet's biological past. 



Through their work, the team has provided invaluable insights into the evolution of trees and the dynamic processes that shaped the biodiversity of ancient forests, offering a vivid reminder of the ever-changing tapestry of life on Earth.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)00011-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Some ancient trees looked like nothing ever seen by humans

Researchers have unveiled a fascinating discovery from the fossil records...

In an exciting update from NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>, skywatchers are in for a treat this February 2024 with several dazzling celestial events.&nbsp;



According to the experts, this month marks a period of transition and rare sightings, including the movements of Venus and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-a-water-reservoir-two-miles-deep-enough-to-fill-earths-red-sea/">Mars</a>, the opportunity to observe the spiral galaxy M81, and a special moment to pair your Valentine's Day with a celestial spectacle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venus">Venus</h2>



Venus, often hailed as a brilliant beacon in the pre-dawn sky, has been a consistent presence in the morning for sky enthusiasts. However, its reign in the morning sky is gradually waning.&nbsp;



"Venus is still a brilliant beacon in the morning, rising in the couple of hours before the Sun. It has been steadily sinking lower in the sky for the past couple of months, though, and by the end of February it's pretty much getting lost in the light of sunrise," noted NASA.&nbsp;



The planet is not saying goodbye but merely shifting its spectacle, preparing to make a grand return as an evening sight starting in July. For those keen to catch a last glimpse of Venus in its current cycle, the morning of February 6th offers a splendid view of this bright planet alongside a slim crescent Moon, just as the sky begins to brighten.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="wN0BNS26nb-3360567-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valentine-s-day-nbsp">Valentine's Day&nbsp;</h2>



Adding to the romantic allure of February, Valentine's Day will feature a cosmic coupling that's perfect for a night under the stars. The evening sky on February 14th will showcase the crescent Moon in close proximity to Jupiter, positioned high in the southwest after sunset.&nbsp;



"They're just a couple of finger widths apart on the sky, meaning most binoculars will show them in the same field of view," said NASA, making it an ideal celestial celebration for lovebirds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viper-mission">VIPER mission</h2>



In an invitation to become a part of lunar exploration history, NASA mentioned its upcoming VIPER moon rover mission, which is scheduled to launch later this year.&nbsp;



Enthusiasts and supporters of space exploration are given a unique opportunity to send their names to the Moon aboard this mission by visiting the specified NASA webpage for registration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars">Mars</h2>



The narrative of planetary movement continues with Mars making its anticipated return to the predawn sky after a brief hiatus. Since last September, Mars has been absent from the evening sky, undergoing a phase of conjunction where it positioned itself on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth.&nbsp;



"It's now just starting to be visible in the predawn sky. In February it's quite low, and not super bright, but you can observe it brightening and rising ever earlier in the coming months," according to the experts at NASA. 



A celestial rendezvous between Mars and Venus is expected during the last week of February, offering a rare sight for those with a clear view toward the southeast horizon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bode-s-galaxy">Bode's galaxy</h2>



February also presents an excellent opportunity for astronomy enthusiasts to observe M81, also known as Bode's galaxy. 



"This is a spiral galaxy similar to our own Milky Way, but just a bit smaller, and it's one of the brightest galaxies in the night sky. It's located about 11.8 million light years away from us, which means, if you're able to observe it, those photons of light hitting your eye have been traveling through space for more than 11 million years to reach you," said NASA.



Discovered in 1774 by Johann Bode and initially cataloged as a nebula, it wasn't until the work of Edwin Hubble in the 1920s that M81 was recognized as a distant galaxy. While too dim for naked eye observation, with the right equipment, viewers can marvel at M81's bright core and even its spiral arms.



"Locating M81 is not too difficult, with the Big Dipper (or the Plough) to guide you," explained NASA. "Starting with the star on the end corner, called Dubhe, imagine a line twice the distance from the star on the opposite corner of the Dipper, Phecda. Pointing your telescope or binoculars in that area ought to put you pretty close to M81."



In the same region of the sky, you can also find M81's companion galaxy, M82, known as the "Cigar Galaxy." This pair of galaxies, visible throughout the year in the Northern Hemisphere, offers an accessible yet profound glimpse into the vastness of our universe.



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Venus, Mars, and Bode's galaxy will light up February's night sky

In an exciting update from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, skywatchers...

In a study released just ahead of World Wetlands Day, experts have re-evaluated the vital role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-mangroves-could-help-countries-meet-their-climate-goals/">mangroves</a> and salt marshes in carbon sequestration. The researchers determined that these tidal landscapes are far more effective in mitigating climate change than previously recognized.&nbsp;



According to the study, led by Gloria Reithmaier at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a>, these wetland ecosystems are perhaps twice as effective at capturing carbon as expected. This means that tidal landscapes can provide a much-needed boost in the fight against climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-wetlands">The importance of wetlands</h2>



According to the United Nations, even though wetlands cover only around six percent of Earth’s land surface, 40 percent of all plant and animal species live or breed in wetlands.&nbsp;



"Wetland biodiversity matters for our health, our food supply, for tourism and for jobs. Wetlands are vital for humans, for other ecosystems and for our climate, providing essential ecosystem services, such as water regulation, including flood control and water purification," said the UN.



"More than a billion people across the world depend on wetlands for their livelihoods - that’s about one in eight people on Earth."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-storage-nbsp">Carbon storage&nbsp;</h2>



Mangroves and salt marshes, frequently inundated by tides, have long been acknowledged for their ability to store large amounts of carbon dioxide in both their biomass and the muddy soils beneath them.&nbsp;



Recognizing their value, several governments around the world have initiated blue carbon market initiatives aimed at incentivizing the restoration and preservation of these critical ecosystems, drawing parallels to efforts aimed at protecting rainforests for their carbon storage capabilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-potential-nbsp">Unexpected potential&nbsp;</h2>



The latest findings from the University of Gothenburg, however, shine a light on a previously overlooked aspect of these ecosystems' capacity to combat climate change.&nbsp;



”We have uncovered additional stored carbon in mangrove forests and salt marshes. Our new findings show that much of the carbon is exported to the ocean bound as bicarbonate as the tide recedes and remains dissolved in the ocean for thousands of years," said study co-author Gloria Reithmaier.



The bicarbonate plays a crucial role in stabilizing the ocean's pH levels and potentially reducing ocean acidification, noted Reithmaier. This is particularly important considering the ocean's role in supporting diverse marine life with the carbonate and bicarbonate ions needed for shell and coral skeleton formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intertidal-carbon-transport-nbsp">Intertidal carbon transport&nbsp;</h2>



To quantify the extent of this carbon sequestration, Reithmaier and her team collaborated with scientists from 12 different countries to analyze intertidal carbon transport in a comprehensive study covering 45 mangrove swamps and 16 salt marshes.&nbsp;



The research team accounted for the bicarbonate export from the tidal landscapes to the ocean, effectively doubling the previously estimated size of the carbon sink provided by these wetlands.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remarkable-results">Remarkable results</h2>



”Our results showed that bicarbonate exports were equal to, or even surpassed, the amount of carbon stored in the soil. Therefore, previous estimates of these blue carbon sources have underestimated the potential of mangroves and salt marshes to mitigate climate change," said Reithmaier.



”Our results show that blue carbon ecosystems are more effective in mitigating climate change than previously thought. It is now even more important to protect and restore mangrove and salt marsh ecosystems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endangered-ecosystems">Endangered ecosystems</h2>



In the face of escalating environmental crises, wetlands stand out as one of the most critically imperiled habitats on our planet. Recent assessments have highlighted an alarming trend: wetlands are vanishing at a rate thrice that of forests, making them Earth’s most endangered ecosystem.&nbsp;



Over the past five decades, since 1970, we have witnessed a staggering loss of 35% of the world's wetlands. This revelation underscores a pressing need for a global reevaluation of how we perceive and manage these vital ecological areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-wetlands-day-nbsp">World Wetlands Day&nbsp;</h2>



World Wetlands Day is celebrated annually on February 2nd. This day marks the anniversary of the signing of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (also known as the Ramsar Convention) in Ramsar, Iran, on February 2, 1971. The purpose of World Wetlands Day is to raise public awareness about the importance and value of wetlands to humanity and the planet.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theme-nbsp">Theme&nbsp;</h3>



Each year, World Wetlands Day focuses on a specific theme to highlight particular aspects of wetlands or related issues. This year's theme is - Wetlands and human well-being.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance">Significance</h3>



Wetlands, often undervalued and misunderstood, are in fact indispensable to both the environment and human well-being. They provide a range of ecosystem services including water purification, flood protection, carbon sequestration, and support for biodiversity.&nbsp;



Furthermore, these ecosystems are a source of livelihood for millions of people worldwide, offering jobs, income, and food security. Despite their importance, wetlands have been subjected to relentless pressures from human activities, leading to their rapid decline and degradation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wetland-destruction-nbsp">Wetland destruction&nbsp;</h3>



The primary drivers behind the loss of wetlands are manifold and complex. Rapid human population growth, unsustainable production and consumption patterns, and technological advancements have exerted significant stress on these ecosystems. Additionally, the adverse impacts of climate change have further exacerbated the vulnerability of wetlands.&nbsp;



Human-induced activities such as drainage and infilling for agriculture and construction projects, pollution, overfishing, overexploitation of resources, the introduction of invasive species, and the overarching threat of climate change have all contributed to the accelerating rate of wetland destruction.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-nbsp">Consequences&nbsp;</h3>



This decline in wetland areas is not just a loss of natural habitats but also a direct threat to global biodiversity and ecosystem functions. The indicators of negative trends in biodiversity and ecosystem health are stark, with projections showing that these trends are likely to continue unless there is a significant shift in how we address these challenges.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation">Conservation</h3>



One of the most significant barriers to wetland conservation is the prevailing mindset that views these areas as wastelands rather than critical sources of life and prosperity. This misperception has led to a vicious cycle of wetland loss, threatened livelihoods, and deepening poverty. The challenge lies in changing this mindset to recognize the true value of wetlands. There is an urgent need for governments and communities to shift their priorities and implement policies and practices that protect and restore wetlands.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-awareness">Awareness</h3>



Education and awareness campaigns can play a crucial role in highlighting the importance of wetlands. Policy reforms that integrate wetland conservation into national and international environmental agendas are imperative.&nbsp;



Additionally, sustainable management practices that balance economic development with ecological preservation must be adopted to halt and reverse the trend of wetland loss.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-issue-nbsp">Addressing the issue&nbsp;</h3>



The loss of wetlands is a global issue with far-reaching implications for biodiversity, climate stability, and human well-being. Addressing this challenge demands a collective and strategic response that values wetlands for the myriad benefits they provide.&nbsp;



By promoting a greater appreciation for these vital ecosystems and taking decisive action to protect them, we can ensure that wetlands continue to thrive for generations to come.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44037-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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World Wetlands Day: The hidden potential of tidal landscapes

In a study released just ahead of World Wetlands Day,...

Researchers from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and the <a href="https://www.uio.no/english/">University of Oslo</a> have uncovered evidence suggesting the Jezero crater on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/">Mars</a> once hosted a lake. 



This insight comes from the analysis of data gathered by NASA's Perseverance rover, which has been surveying the crater's surface and subsurface since 2021. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lake-sediments-in-jezero-crater">Lake sediments in Jezero crater</h2>



The study's findings indicate that Jezero crater once contained lake sediments, pointing to the possibility of finding traces of past life in the crater.



David Paige, a <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> professor of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences and the study's first author, noted the importance of subsurface exploration in understanding the crater's history. 



"From orbit we can see a bunch of different deposits, but we can't tell for sure if what we're seeing is their original state, or if we're seeing the conclusion of a long geological story," Paige said. "To tell how these things formed, we need to see below the surface."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intriguing-discovery-by-perseverance-rover">Intriguing discovery by Perseverance rover</h2>



The Perseverance rover's journey from the crater floor onto the delta, a region rich in three billion-year-old sediments, involved utilizing the Radar Imager for Mars' Subsurface Experiment (<a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/spacecraft/instruments/rimfax/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RIMFAX</a>). 



This instrument allowed the team to peer beneath the surface, revealing the history of sediment deposition and erosion within the crater. 



The radar data confirmed that layers of lake sediments were deposited in the crater, followed by a period of erosion, reshaping the landscape over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-secrets-in-jezero-crater">Uncovering secrets in Jezero crater</h2>



Paige emphasized the novelty of this approach. "Some geologists say that the ability of radar to see under the surface is kind of like cheating," he remarked. 



This technique unveiled two distinct periods of sediment deposition separated by erosion phases. The findings suggest that the lake sediments formed during an earlier era, followed by the deposition of the delta's sediments as the lake level fluctuated.



The study's implications extend beyond understanding the Jezero <a href="https://youtu.be/qnZ_sidmr4Y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crater's geology</a>. It offers insights into the broader environmental changes on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-mars-rover-finds-more-compelling-evidence-for-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>, shedding light on the planet's past and potentially its capability to host life. 



As Paige noted, "the changes we see preserved in the rock record are driven by large-scale changes in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-found-for-life-on-mars-where-ancient-rivers-once-flowed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian environment</a>." Thus, this study enhances our understanding of Mars, bringing us closer to unraveling its mysteries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perseverance-rover-nbsp">Perseverance rover&nbsp;</h2>



As mentioned above, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Jezero-crater-scaled.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance rover</a>, part of NASA's Mars 2020 mission, is a sophisticated mobile science platform designed to explore the surface of Mars. 



Launched on July 30, 2020, it landed on Mars on February 18, 2021, in the Jezero Crater, an area believed to have once been flooded with water and thus a promising site to look for signs of past microbial life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-instruments">Advanced instruments</h3>



Perseverance carries a suite of advanced scientific instruments to analyze the Martian geology and climate, and to collect samples of rock and soil for possible return to Earth by future missions. 



One of its notable instruments is the MOXIE experiment, designed to produce oxygen from Martian carbon dioxide, which could pave the way for future human exploration of Mars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ingenuity-helicopter-nbsp">Ingenuity helicopter&nbsp;</h3>



The rover also carries the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-ingenuity-the-first-helicopter-on-the-red-planet-ends-mission-after-3-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ingenuity helicopter</a>, a technology demonstration to test powered flight on another planet for the first time.



Ingenuity’s journey began as a modest experiment designed for up to five test flights over 30 days. 



However, it surpassed these goals significantly, operating for nearly three years and completing 72 flights, covering a distance 14 times greater than anticipated.



This impressive feat amounted to over two hours of total flight time, a testament to the helicopter’s resilience and the team’s ingenuity, before its mission ended last month.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mission">Mission</h3>



Perseverance's mission is not only to search for signs of ancient life but also to study the Martian environment to assist future human missions. 



Its findings are expected to be a cornerstone in our understanding of Mars, potentially answering questions about the planet's past habitability and helping to pave the way for human exploration.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adi8339" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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New evidence of life on Mars found in Jezero crater lake sediments

Researchers from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and...

In a fascinating study, researchers have unlocked remarkable insights into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nutrition-for-neurons-the-role-of-breast-milk-in-shaping-our-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> in the human brain orchestrates the complex process of speech production. 



Using sophisticated brain recording techniques, they have mapped out the intricate pathways that allow us to formulate and articulate words.



This research, spearheaded by Massachusetts General Hospital (<a href="https://www.massgeneral.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MGH</a>) and detailed in the prestigious journal Nature, sheds light on the previously enigmatic process of language production. 



It marks a significant leap in our understanding of how speech sounds, like consonants and vowels, are pre-formed in the brain before being voiced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-mystery-of-language-production">Unraveling the mystery of language production</h2>



Dr. Ziv Williams, MD, an associate professor in Neurosurgery at MGH and <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a> and the study's senior author, explains the complexity and efficiency of this process. 



"Although speaking usually seems easy, our brains perform many complex cognitive steps in the production of natural speech -- including coming up with the words we want to say, planning the articulatory movements and producing our intended vocalizations," Williams explains.



“Our brains perform these feats surprisingly fast -- about three words per second in natural speech -- with remarkably few errors. Yet how we precisely achieve this feat has remained a mystery.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Neuropixels: A technological marvel</h2>



One of the study's pivotal breakthroughs came from utilizing Neuropixels probes. These probes, thinner than a human hair, can record activities from numerous neurons simultaneously. 



The researchers discovered that specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-brain-how-neurons-get-rewired-to-prepare-for-motherhood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> in the prefrontal cortex become active before we even speak, playing a crucial role in language production. 



Williams says, “The use of Neuropixels probes in humans was first pioneered at MGH. These probes are remarkable -- they are smaller than the width of a human hair, yet they also have hundreds of channels that are capable of simultaneously recording the activity of dozens or even hundreds of individual neurons.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-speech-from-neurons-to-words">Decoding speech: From neurons to words</h2>



Dr. Williams had worked to develop these recording techniques with <a href="https://www.massgeneral.org/doctors/22739/sydney-cash" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sydney Cash</a>, MD, PhD, a professor in Neurology at MGH and Harvard Medical School, who also helped lead the study. 



“Use of these probes can therefore offer unprecedented new insights into how neurons in humans collectively act and how they work together to produce complex human behaviors such as language,” Williams clarified.



This finding demystifies how we assemble basic speech elements like phonemes into more complex structures such as syllables. 



For instance, the study showed that certain neurons activate before articulating the phoneme “da,” a building block of the word “dog.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neurons-speech-synthesis-and-prosthetics">Neurons, speech synthesis and prosthetics</h2>



Using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cell-origins-traced-to-creatures-that-lived-800-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> as a "decoding" device, this technology offers the potential to predict speech sounds before they are spoken, opening doors to developing advanced prosthetics or brain-machine interfaces for synthetic speech production. 



This could revolutionize the lives of those with speech and language impairments due to neurological conditions such as stroke, brain injury, and neurodegenerative disorders.



“Disruptions in the speech and language networks are observed in a wide variety of neurological disorders -- including stroke, traumatic brain injury, tumors, neurodegenerative disorders, neurodevelopmental disorders, and more,” says Arjun Khanna who is a co-author on the study. 



“Our hope is that a better understanding of the basic neural circuitry that enables <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-birds-speech-song/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speech and language</a> will pave the way for the development of treatments for these disorders.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-decoding-speech-with-neurons">The future of decoding speech with neurons</h2>



The team at MGH is not resting on their laurels. They plan to delve deeper into complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-communicate-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language processes</a>, exploring how the brain selects words and assembles them into meaningful sentences. 



This work promises to further unravel the mysteries of how we express our thoughts and emotions through language, potentially transforming the landscape of neurological treatment and rehabilitation. 



In summary, this study represents a major stride in understanding the brain's role in language production. By harnessing cutting-edge Neuropixels technology, this brilliant team of scientists has illuminated the neural pathways that underpin speech, from the activation of individual neurons to the construction of complex words and sentences. 



This research deepens our understanding of the human brain's remarkable capabilities and holds the promise of transformative applications in treating speech and language disorders. 



As the team looks toward exploring more intricate aspects of language processing, their work stands as a beacon of innovation, paving the way for future advancements in neuroscience and medical technology.



The full study, funding by the NSF, was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06982-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Mindreading: Neurons can somehow "predict" human speech before we say a word

In a fascinating study, researchers have unlocked remarkable insights into...

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lunar-anthropocene-how-humans-have-impacted-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>, Earth's closest celestial neighbor, has undergone significant changes over the last few hundred million years, and is currently shrinking in size. 



A recent study reveals that the moon has shrunk by more than <a href="https://cmns.umd.edu/news-events/news/moon-quaking-it-shrinks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">150 feet</a> in circumference, a phenomenon akin to a grape wrinkling into a raisin. 



This contraction is attributed to the cooling of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeless-mystery-solved-scientists-uncover-what-is-inside-the-moons-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon's core</a>. However, unlike a grape's skin, the moon's surface is brittle, leading to the formation of faults where crustal sections collide.



This discovery, led by a team of scientists, holds critical implications for lunar exploration, particularly for NASA's proposed <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Artemis III</a> crewed landings. 



The study presents evidence of significant surface warping in the moon's south polar region, a direct consequence of its ongoing shrinkage. 



This deformation has resulted in fault zones that are associated with seismic activities, namely moonquakes, posing potential risks to future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-plasma-sheet-may-be-forming-water-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human missions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-shrinking-moonquakes-and-lunar-faults">Moon shrinking, moonquakes and lunar faults</h2>



<a href="https://airandspace.si.edu/people/staff/thomas-watters" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thomas R. Watters</a>, the study's lead author and a senior scientist emeritus at the National Air and Space Museum’s Center for Earth and Planetary Studies, emphasizes the likelihood of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/moonquakes_lunar-south-pole_NASA_1m-scaled.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shallow moonquakes</a>. 



These quakes, just a few miles beneath the surface, can be triggered by slips on existing faults or the formation of new thrust faults. 



“Our modeling suggests that shallow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-da-vinci-glow-will-illuminate-tonights-crescent-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moonquakes</a> capable of producing strong ground shaking in the south polar region are possible from slip events on existing faults or the formation of new thrust faults,” said Watters. 



“The global distribution of young thrust faults, their potential to be active and the potential to form new thrust faults from ongoing global contraction should be considered when planning the location and stability of permanent outposts on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/days-are-getting-longer-as-the-moon-drifts-away-from-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>," Watters explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-physics-of-moonquakes">The physics of moonquakes</h2>



Intriguingly, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moon-shrinking-moonquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moonquakes</a> differ significantly from earthquakes. While earthquakes typically last only a few seconds to minutes, moonquakes can persist for hours. 



This was exemplified by a magnitude 5 moonquake recorded in the 1970s by the Apollo Passive Seismic Network, now linked to recently detected faults by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter.



<a href="https://www.geol.umd.edu/nicholasschmerr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nicholas Schmerr</a>, a co-author of the paper and an associate professor of geology at the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a>, warns of the potential devastation shallow moonquakes could cause to human settlements on the moon. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surface-composition-causes-moonquakes-and-landslides">Surface composition causes moonquakes and landslides</h2>



He explains the lunar surface as a blend of dry, grounded gravel and dust, rendered loose and fragile by billions of years of asteroid and comet impacts. 



This composition makes the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/man-in-the-moon-craters-are-200-million-years-older-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar surface</a> particularly susceptible to shaking and landslides.



“You can think of the moon’s surface as being dry, grounded gravel and dust. Over billions of years, the surface has been hit by asteroids and comets, with the resulting angular fragments constantly getting ejected from the impacts,” Schmerr explained. 



“As a result, the reworked surface material can be micron-sized to boulder-sized, but all very loosely consolidated. Loose sediments make it very possible for shaking and landslides to occur," he concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-missions-to-a-shrinking-moon">Future missions to a shrinking moon</h2>



As NASA progresses with its Artemis <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-spacecraft-captures-stunning-photo-of-earth-and-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> missions, including a crewed flight planned for late 2024, understanding and mitigating these risks becomes crucial. 



The Artemis missions aim not only to revisit the moon but to establish a long-term presence, with moon-based observatories, outposts, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-will-melt-lunar-dust-to-build-roads-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">settlements</a>.



“As we get closer to the crewed Artemis mission’s launch date, it’s important to keep our astronauts, our equipment and infrastructure as safe as possible,” Schmerr said. 



“This work is helping us prepare for what awaits us on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/near-earth-asteroid-may-be-a-fragment-of-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> -- whether that’s engineering structures that can better withstand lunar seismic activity or protecting people from really dangerous zones.”



In summary, the recent findings about the moon's shrinkage and the associated seismic risks mark a significant milestone in our understanding of the moon. 



As we venture back to the lunar surface, armed with this new knowledge, the challenges we face in establishing a sustainable human presence on the moon become clearer. 



This important research aids in the safe planning of future moon missions while enhancing our knowledge and understanding of lunar geology and its implications for human exploration.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ad1332" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Planetary Science Journal</a>.



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The moon is shrinking, causing moonquakes and problems for astronauts

The moon, Earth's closest celestial neighbor, has undergone significant changes...

A,Man,Entered,Into,The,Water,Of,A,Flooded,Orchard

As relentless storms cause widespread flooding across California, a study led by researchers from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> and co-authored by <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a> geographer Katy Serafin sheds light on the driving force behind the torrential downpours: atmospheric rivers.



Analyzing 30 years of weather and economic loss data, the team discovered that when atmospheric rivers occur sequentially, the economic damage more than triples the expected losses compared to standalone events. 



These findings surpass initial expectations, showing the negative impacts of consecutive atmospheric rivers when they strike around the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rivers-in-the-atmosphere">Rivers in the atmosphere</h2>



These elongated regions, often described as "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/projected-atmospheric-rivers-could-drench-east-asia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers in the sky</a>," are responsible for transporting a large portion of water vapor outside the tropics. 



Their strength varies, with the average river carrying water vapor roughly equivalent to the flow at the mouth of the Mississippi River. 



In extreme cases, they can transport up to 15 times that quantity. Upon landfall, they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-sky-prevent-the-seasonal-recovery-of-arctic-sea-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">release moisture</a> as rain or snow.



While atmospheric rivers contribute approximately half of California’s annual precipitation and replenish the state’s snowpack, they can also be associated with extreme events that lead to catastrophic damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-management-nbsp">Water management&nbsp;</h2>



The study, published January 19 in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adi7905" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, highlights atmospheric rivers’ crucial role in providing up to half the region’s annual water while emphasizing the challenge of managing <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/simultaneous-atmospheric-rivers-over-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">substantial water delivery</a> in short time spans.



“When it rains, it can take a while for that rain to move through a watershed naturally, and in many places, we also trap water in reservoirs for use during dry conditions for irrigation and other purposes,” Serafin said. 



“Emergency and water managers are constantly balancing flood risks with water shortage needs, especially in <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/atmospheric-river-drenches-california/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">states like California</a> where you move between exceptionally dry and exceptionally wet years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-losses-from-atmospheric-rivers">Economic losses from atmospheric rivers</h2>



Serafin, now an assistant professor in the Department of Geography, mentored lead author Corinne Bowers while a postdoctoral researcher at Stanford. 



She continued as an advisor throughout Bowers’ completion of her PhD last year. Together with co-author Jack Baker, they aimed to better understand a correlation in previous studies.



In their initial research effort, they found that stronger atmospheric rivers (rated on a scale of 1 to 5) led to higher economic losses in California.



The researchers noted a significant trend in median flood losses but emphasized a wide range around each median. 



“For example, prior research found that a category 3 or 4 event could produce losses between $10,000 to over $1 billion across the state,” Serafin said. 



“A <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/simultaneous-atmospheric-rivers-over-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">category 5 event</a> could produce losses between about $5 million to over $1 billion.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consecutive-events">Consecutive events</h2>



Based on anecdotal evidence and recent events, the team hypothesized that consecutive atmospheric river events might be <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more damaging</a> than isolated, single events -- contrary to the traditional categorization of losses.



“We’re generally really worried about individual large events that cause hazards and how these events might change in the future -- this applies not only to atmospheric rivers but also to hurricanes, which maybe we’re a little more familiar with here in Florida,” Serafin said.



She recalls the exacerbating impacts felt across the state in the 2022 hurricane season, when Hurricanes Ian and Nicole packed a double punch to coastlines within six weeks of each other, causing major dune erosion and widespread structural damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-impact-of-atmospheric-rivers">Global impact of atmospheric rivers</h2>



Serafin cautions that while compounding weather events is a hot topic right now, and a lot of research has examined clusters of events and their formation, there is less focus on demonstrating the overall impacts of these events.



“Our results further add to the necessity of viewing flood risks from atmospheric rivers in a broad lens, taking into account what has happened over the past few weeks to months with current forecasts and predictions,” she explained.



The researchers hope their findings can provide a new perspective to help the broader public better prepare for flood risks by clearly communicating the compound nature of these risks.



“Our work really shows that we need to consider the likelihood for multiple, back-to-back events for predicting damages, because damage from multiple events could be far worse than from one event alone,” Serafin concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-atmospheric-rivers">More about atmospheric rivers</h2>



As discussed above, atmospheric rivers are long, narrow regions in the atmosphere that transport most of the moisture from the tropics towards the poles. 



These ribbons of vapor can carry an amount of water vapor roughly equivalent to the average flow of water at the mouth of the Mississippi River. 



When these moisture-laden air masses hit a landmass, they often release this water in the form of rain or snow, significantly affecting the weather patterns of the regions they pass over.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-atmospheric-rivers-in-climate-and-weather">Role of atmospheric rivers in climate and weather</h3>



Scientists study atmospheric rivers to understand their impact on climate and weather. These systems play a crucial role in distributing heat and moisture around the planet, which are essential components for weather systems. 



As mentioned previously, these extreme weather events can lead to beneficial rain or snow that replenishes water supplies and supports agriculture. 



However, when atmospheric rivers make landfall, they can also cause extreme weather events, including heavy rainfall that leads to flooding, landslides, and other hazardous conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparation-and-impact-mitigation">Preparation and impact mitigation</h3>



The research into atmospheric rivers helps meteorologists predict these events more accurately, allowing for better preparation and mitigation of their potential impacts. 



For instance, forecasting the path and intensity of an atmospheric river can help communities prepare for possible flooding, safeguarding lives and property.



Understanding atmospheric rivers is also vital for water management. Regions that depend on the precipitation from these systems for their water supply need accurate forecasts to manage their resources effectively. 



This is especially true in places like California, where atmospheric rivers are a major source of the annual precipitation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-technology-improves-forecasting-efforts">New technology improves forecasting efforts</h3>



Efforts to monitor and study atmospheric rivers, like the study discussed above led by Katy Serafin, have increased in recent years, thanks to advancements in satellite technology and atmospheric science. 



These tools allow scientists to track these phenomena more accurately, leading to improved weather forecasts and climate models.



In summary, atmospheric rivers are a critical component of the Earth's weather and climate system. They play a significant role in shaping weather patterns, influencing water resources, and affecting the lives of people around the world. 



As our understanding of these dynamic systems improves, so does our ability to prepare for and respond to the challenges they present.



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Consecutive atmospheric rivers cause far more damage

As relentless storms cause widespread flooding across California, a study...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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