Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Abstract,Space,Collage,With,Earth,Planet,And,Spiral,Galaxy,Collision.

About 4.56 billion years ago, when our Sun was still in its infancy, the solar system was nothing more than a swirling disk of gas and rocky dust. It was within this cosmic nursery that the fundamental building blocks of Earth and other inner planets, known as "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-building-blocks-of-life-form/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetesimals</a>," gradually formed. 



These kilometer-sized entities emerged from the accumulation of dust over millions of years, growing steadily like snowballs gaining mass in a winter landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-planetesimal-formation">Understanding planetesimal formation</h2>



Scientists have long been intrigued by the conditions under which these planetesimals originated. A question of particular interest is the presence of water during their formation. 



Was our planet inherently wet, or did it <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-origins-of-water-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acquire its water</a> later? 



This question is pivotal in understanding not only the history of Earth but also the evolution and the building blocks of our entire solar system.



A recent breakthrough in this field comes from a study combining meteorite analysis with advanced thermodynamic modeling. 



The study was led by Damanveer Grewal, a former <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caltech</a> postdoctoral scholar, and the research was conducted in the laboratory of <a href="https://www.gps.caltech.edu/people/paul-d-asimow" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paul Asimow</a>. 



Their findings suggest that the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-may-have-learned-how-earth-got-its-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetesimals</a> in the inner solar system were formed amidst water, challenging many existing theories about our solar system's infancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-time-capsules">Cosmic time capsules</h2>



Iron meteorites, remnants of the metallic cores of these ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-explains-the-absence-of-super-earths-in-our-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetesimals</a>, serve as time capsules preserving details from the solar system's earliest days. 



These meteorites, which managed to evade incorporation into growing planets and instead journeyed through the solar system before landing on Earth, are crucial in this study. 



Their chemical compositions provide clues about their formation environments, particularly whether they originated near the cooler, water-rich regions far from the Sun, or closer to the Sun where heat would have prevented the existence of water ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-water-in-earth-s-building-blocks">Role of water in Earth's building blocks</h2>



Interestingly, while these meteorites contain no water today, scientists can deduce its former presence by examining its influence on other elements. 



Water, composed of hydrogen and oxygen, can induce oxidation -- a process where the oxygen atom from water interacts with other elements. 



A classic example is iron (Fe) reacting with water (H2O) to form iron oxide (FeO), leading to further oxidation products like Fe2O3 and FeO(OH) found in rust. Mars, with its iron oxide-rich surface, exemplifies this process, hinting at its past watery conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-signatures-yield-clues">Chemical signatures yield clues</h2>



Damanveer Grewal, a former <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caltech</a> postdoctoral scholar and the lead author of the study, has delved deep into the chemical signatures of iron meteorites to unearth secrets of the early solar system. 



Although any original iron oxide has long disappeared, the research team could estimate the extent of iron oxidation by analyzing the proportions of nickel, cobalt, and iron in these meteorites. 



Any deviation in the expected ratios of these elements suggests that some of the iron was oxidized and therefore indicates the historical presence of water.



"Iron meteorites have been somewhat neglected by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-revelation-new-image-sheds-light-on-the-birth-of-giant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet-formation</a> community, but they constitute rich stores of information about the earliest period of solar system history, once you work out how to read the signals," says Asimow. 



"The difference between what we measured in the inner solar system meteorites and what we expected implies an oxygen activity about 10,000 times higher."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-origin-of-earth-s-water">Rethinking the origin of Earth's water</h2>



The team discovered that meteorites thought to originate from both the inner and outer solar system showed similar amounts of 'missing' iron metal. 



This consistency suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-discovery-about-earths-formation-raises-probability-of-finding-life-on-other-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetesimals</a> from both regions formed in environments where water was present, implying that the foundational elements of planets like Earth were exposed to water from the very beginning.



This evidence challenges many current astrophysical models. If these planetesimals formed in Earth's current orbital position, then the inner solar system must have been cooler than what models currently propose.



Alternatively, they might have originated further out in the solar system, where cooler conditions prevailed, before migrating inward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-study">Implications and future study</h2>



Grewal highlights the broader implications of this finding. "If water was present in the early building blocks of our planet, other important elements like carbon and nitrogen were likely present as well," says Grewal. "The ingredients for life may have been present in the seeds of rocky planets right from the start."



Asimow adds a caveat. He explains, "The method only detects water that was used up in oxidizing iron. It is not sensitive to excess water that might go on to form the ocean."



Asimow continued, "So, the conclusions of this study are consistent with <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/earth-formed-from-dry-rocky-building-blocks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth accretion models</a> that call for late addition of even more water-rich material."



In summary, this important study reshapes our understanding of the solar system's early days, while also opening new avenues for exploring the origins of life on Earth and potentially other planets.



The full study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41550-023-02172-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



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Earth's building blocks contained water before it was a full planet

About 4.56 billion years ago, when our Sun was still...

Animal,Protein,Sources-,Meat,,Fish,,Cheese,And,Milk.

A recent study led by the <a href="https://oceanconservancy.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Conservancy</a> and the University of Toronto has uncovered startling evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-inhale-the-equivalent-of-a-credit-card-in-microplastics-each-week/">microplastic</a> contamination in a vast majority of protein sources, including those beyond seafood.&nbsp;



The research reveals a disturbing penetration of plastic particles into our everyday diet. The experts estimate that American adults could be consuming up to 3.8 million microplastics per year from protein alone.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-findings">Alarming findings</h2>



The researchers tested 16 different protein types, ranging from meats like beef and chicken to plant-based alternatives. What is particularly concerning is that microplastic contamination was uniformly present across all protein sources. The results showed that 88% of the samples contained microplastic particles.



Study co-author Dr. Britta Baechler, a marine biologist and associate director of plastics science at Ocean Conservancy, highlighted the ubiquity of plastic pollution.



“This is a startling reminder of just how prolific plastic pollution has become – humans live on land and yet seafood samples are just as likely to be contaminated with plastics as are terrestrial derived proteins,” said Dr. Baechler. “And there’s no escaping them no matter what you eat, it seems. The plastic pollution crisis is impacting all of us, and we need to take action to address its many forms.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-food-processing-nbsp">The role of food processing&nbsp;</h2>



The experts found a significant variance in microplastic concentration based on the level of food processing. Highly processed items like fish sticks and chicken nuggets had higher microplastic content than minimally processed products.&nbsp;



However, microplastic levels were found to be similar between highly processed products and fresh-caught items. This suggests that there are additional microplastic contamination sources beyond food processing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drawing-conclusions-nbsp">Drawing conclusions&nbsp;</h2>



Study lead author Madeleine Milne urges caution in drawing dietary conclusions from this data.&nbsp;



“It’s tempting to want to draw conclusions like ‘eat less of this and more of that’ to avoid microplastics in your diet; but right now we still know very little about the microplastic burdens in commonly consumed foods," said Milne.



"Our study adds to this knowledge but also demonstrates the need for further research to better understand the bigger picture, including where these microplastics are coming from and the potential human health risks."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastic-fibers">Microplastic fibers</h2>



The study also sheds light on the nature of the contaminants. Nearly half of the microplastics discovered were fibers, which aligns with previous research that identified fibers as the most prevalent form of microplastics in the environment. Fragments constituted about 30% of the microplastics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consumption-rates-nbsp">Consumption rates&nbsp;</h2>



Based on survey data from a separate study by Ocean Conservancy and the University of Toronto, the experts estimate that an average American adult could ingest around 11,500 microplastics per year.&nbsp;



Annual exposure could be as high as 3.8 million microplastics per year if calculated using the highest levels of microplastics found in each individual protein type and the average reported protein consumption rates, noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-plastics-crisis-nbsp">Growing plastics crisis&nbsp;</h2>



“As ocean scientists, my co-authors and I are deeply concerned about the growing plastics crisis in the world’s ocean,” said study co-author Dr. George Leonard, chief scientist at Ocean Conservancy.&nbsp;



“But our study shows that plastics in our food goes well beyond fish and shellfish to a wide variety of other protein sources, as well. Our work is a call to action to reduce plastic pollution in its many forms to ensure a safe and healthy food supply for all consumers.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749123022352" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Pollution</a>.



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Contamination crisis: Microplastics found in 88% of protein food sources

A recent study led by the Ocean Conservancy and the...

The year 2023 has been officially declared the hottest on record, surpassing the previous record set in 2016. According to data from the <a href="https://climate.copernicus.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EU's Copernicus climate change program</a> (CS3), the global average <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/death-valley-may-reach-the-hottest-temperature-ever-recorded-this-week/">temperature</a> last year reached 58.96°F (14.98°C), approximately 0.3°F (0.17°C) higher than in 2016. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenhouse-gas-emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</h2>



This record-breaking temperature has raised concerns among experts about the proximity of global temperatures to the critical 2.7°F (1.5°C) limit set by international climate agreements, with greenhouse gas emissions identified as the primary driver.



The year 2023 saw devastating climate disasters like droughts, floods, wildfires, and lethal heatwaves, predominantly attributed to these emissions.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-variations-nbsp">Regional variations&nbsp;</h2>



Despite experiencing a milder summer with frequent cold air and rain, the UK also witnessed its sixth wettest July and hottest June on record.&nbsp;



This contrast illustrates the global nature of climate change, where regional variations do not negate the overall trend of rising temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tumbling-climate-records">Tumbling climate records</h2>



"2023 was an exceptional year with climate records tumbling like dominoes. Temperatures during 2023 likely exceed those of any period in at least the last 100,000 years," said Samantha Burgess, deputy director of C3S.&nbsp;



The Copernicus Climate Change Service, managed by the European Commission, compiles temperature readings from multiple sources, including weather stations, balloons, and satellites, to provide a comprehensive view of global air temperature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-extremes-nbsp">Temperature extremes&nbsp;</h2>



A concerning milestone reached in 2023 was that every day of the year recorded temperatures 1.8°F (1°C) above the pre-industrial average. Nearly half the days exceeded 2.7°F (1.5°C) above this level, with two days in November surpassing 3.6°F (2°C).&nbsp;



While these figures do not yet breach the Paris Agreement limits, which consider longer-term averages, they set a worrying precedent for future climate patterns.



"The extremes we have observed over the last few months provide a dramatic testimony of how far we are now from the climate in which our civilization developed," said Carlo Buontempo, director of C3S, emphasizing the profound implications for the Paris Agreement and all human endeavors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-record-highs">Additional record highs</h2>



Not only did 2023 record unprecedented global temperatures, but it also saw new highs in atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane, the two most crucial greenhouse gases.&nbsp;



Sea surface temperatures also reached record levels, with August marking the highest global monthly average ever recorded at 69.76°F (20.98°C). While the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) contributed to these high ocean temperatures, it alone does not account for the entirety of the increase.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-is-needed">Action is needed</h2>



As the world continues to rely heavily on fossil fuels for energy generation into 2024, there is a growing possibility that this year could surpass the record set by 2023.



"If we want to successfully manage our climate risk portfolio, we need to urgently decarbonize our economy whilst using climate data and knowledge to prepare for the future,"&nbsp; Buontempo urged.&nbsp;



This call to action highlights the urgency of transitioning to sustainable energy sources and the critical role of climate data in shaping future policies and mitigation strategies.



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Record heat of 2023 likely exceeds that of the last 100,000 years

The year 2023 has been officially declared the hottest on...

Portrait,Of,Asian,Teen,Girl,Lying,In,Bed,And,Grimacing,

Recent research reveals a startling link between air pollution and an increase in sedentary behavior, which ultimately leads to health issues. 



This disturbing study, led by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (<a href="https://www.nihr.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIHR</a>) and Leicester Biomedical Research Centre (<a href="https://leicesterbrc.nihr.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BRC</a>), is the first to scrutinize how regular exposure to environmental pollution correlates with physical inactivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overlooked-health-risk-of-air-pollution-exposure">Overlooked health risk of air pollution exposure</h2>



Sedentary behavior, defined as time spent in stationary activities like sitting or lying down, is notoriously associated with severe health issues, including heart disease, various cancers, and premature mortality. 



Dr. Jonathan Goldney from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> highlights a crucial aspect of this phenomenon. 



“We know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-increased-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollution</a> is associated with cardiometabolic and respiratory diseases, and in 2019 the World Health Organization estimated that 99% of the global population breathe air containing high levels of pollutants," Goldney said.



“Levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-will-increase-dramatically-in-a-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollution</a> may affect people’s ability to exercise, or their enjoyment of exercise. It may also be considered a risk factor for increasing levels of sedentary behavior  by encouraging sitting time indoors and discouraging active time outdoors, further increasing the risk of chronic disease in a feedback loop.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



The study focused on 644 individuals at risk of type 2 diabetes, participants in the ‘<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27589017/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Walking Away from Type 2 Diabetes</a>’ intervention, which encourages walking to boost physical activity. 



These individuals wore accelerometers for a week at a time. This allowed the researchers, including Professor Melanie Davies CBE, Director of the NIHR Leicester BRC, to track their physical activity and sedentary time over three years.



Dr. Goldney elaborates, saying, “The participants in the study wore accelerometers around their waists for seven consecutive days during waking hours. This gave us their daily minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and sedentary time on three occasions over a three year period – and an incredible opportunity to look for any long term trends.”



The research team then juxtaposed this data with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/short-term-exposure-to-air-pollution-increases-stroke-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollution</a> levels from the previous three years, focusing on particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide, common pollutants in health research. 



Notably, the study accounted for other influential factors like social deprivation and the built environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-air-pollution-laziness-and-health">Air pollution, laziness, and health</h2>



The findings were significant. Although pollutant levels didn't affect moderate-to-vigorous physical activity or step count, they correlated with an increase in sedentary time. 



Specifically, a rise of 1 μgm−3 in atmospheric nitrogen dioxide was linked to an additional 1.52 minutes of sedentary time per day each year, with the highest exposure levels relating to up to 22 extra minutes of inactivity daily.



Dr. Goldney stresses the implications of these findings. “We observed this association regardless of how concentrations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breast-cancer-incidence-linked-to-high-particulate-air-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollutants</a> were measured, including as a three-year average (year of start of observation with the two preceding years), or as the average pollutant concentration during the 12-month observation period," he explained.



“If levels of air pollution are causing this increase in sedentary time, interventions to reduce ambient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-link-between-air-pollution-and-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollution</a> concentration such as low emissions zones could have a really positive impact on individual’s levels of sedentary behavior, and a significant effect on public health,” Dr Goldney concluded.



In summary, this study sheds light on a lesser-known consequence of air pollution, urging action to mitigate environmental pollutants for the sake of public health and well-being.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jpubhealth/advance-article/doi/10.1093/pubmed/fdad263/7475686?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Public Health</a>.



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Exposure to air pollution makes people lazy, resulting in poor health

Recent research reveals a startling link between air pollution and...

In a remarkable discovery, astronomers using NASA’s <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> have uncovered a cosmic enigma. They've identified a brown dwarf, known as W1935, that exhibits unusual infrared emission from methane that resembles an aurora. 



This finding is noteworthy, particularly because W1935, a celestial body larger than Jupiter yet smaller than a star, is relatively cold and does not orbit a host star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brown-dwarfs-methane-emission-and-aurorae">Brown dwarfs, methane emission, and aurorae</h2>



Typically, methane in emission is a feature observed in gas giants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-fresh-look-at-jupiter-through-an-ultraviolet-lens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-image-of-saturn-and-its-ring-spokes-from-the-hubble-space-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn</a>, where the emission is fueled by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steve-phenomenon-looks-like-an-aurora-acts-like-an-aurora-but-what-is-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aurorae</a>. 



Earthly aurorae, those beautiful and eerie lights, are created by solar particles interacting with our planet's magnetic field. 



Jupiter and Saturn experience similar processes, though they also receive contributions from their active moons.



However, for isolated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-finds-the-smallest-known-free-floating-brown-dwarf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brown dwarfs</a> like W1935, the absence of a host star and, consequently, a stellar wind, makes the presence of this methane emission aurorae a real head-scratcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-s-brown-dwarf-aurorae-revelations">Webb's brown dwarf aurorae revelations</h2>



The discovery of W1935's aurorae unfolds like a cosmic detective story. Led by astronomer Jackie Faherty from the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Museum of Natural History</a> in New York, the research team was initially allocated time on the Webb telescope to study 12 cold brown dwarfs. 



Among these was W1935, discovered by citizen scientist Dan Caselden through the Backyard Worlds Zooniverse project, along with W2220, identified using NASA’s Wide Field Infrared Survey Explorer.



The Webb telescope, with its extraordinary detail, revealed that W1935 and W2220 are nearly identical in composition, sharing similar brightness, temperatures, and spectral features, including water, ammonia, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. 



However, the striking difference was W1935's methane emission, a distinct infrared wavelength signature to which Webb is uniquely sensitive.



Jackie Faherty expressed surprise at this discovery, saying, “We expected to see methane because it's common in these dwarfs. But instead of absorbing light, it was glowing. My first thought was, what the heck? Why is methane emission coming out of this object?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-theories-and-models">Exploring theories and models</h2>



To unravel this mystery, the team employed computer models. These models indicated that while W2220 showed a typical atmospheric energy distribution, W1935 presented a temperature inversion -- its atmosphere gets warmer with increasing altitude. 



“This temperature inversion is really puzzling,” said Ben Burningham, a co-author from the <a href="https://www.herts.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hertfordshire</a> and the lead modeler. 



“We have seen this kind of phenomenon in planets with a nearby star that can heat the stratosphere, but seeing it in an object with no obvious external heat source is wild.”  without an external heat source.”



To find clues, the researchers looked closer to home, examining the planets in our solar system. They noted that temperature inversions are common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-turbulent-atmosphere-includes-a-high-speed-jet-stream/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-has-megastorms-that-affect-its-weather-for-centuries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn</a>, often attributed to external heating by aurorae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aurorae-a-common-thread-in-cosmic-observations">Aurorae: A common thread in cosmic observations</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-activity-will-intensify-over-the-next-18-months/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aurorae</a> have been previously suggested to explain observations in warmer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wind-speed-measured-on-a-brown-dwarf-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brown dwarfs</a>. While infrared signatures from these radio-emitting dwarfs have been elusive, W1935 stands out as the first extraterrestrial brown dwarf aurorae candidate with methane emission.



This brown dwarf is also significantly colder than similar celestial bodies, with an effective temperature of about 400 degrees Fahrenheit (200 degrees Celsius), warmer than Jupiter but still remarkably cool.



W1935 represents a unique instance of a solar system phenomenon occurring without the influence of a star. 



As Faherty notes, “With W1935, we now have a spectacular extension of a solar system phenomenon without any stellar irradiation to help in the explanation.” 



“With Webb, we can really ‘open the hood’ on the chemistry and unpack how similar or different the auroral process may be beyond our solar system,” she added.



In summary, the Webb telescope continues to provide invaluable insights, allowing astronomers to 'open the hood' on celestial chemistry and explore how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uranus-has-an-infrared-aurora-that-offers-clues-to-life-on-icy-worlds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">auroral processes</a> may operate beyond our solar system.



These findings are being presented at the 243rd meeting of the <a href="https://aas.org/meetings/aas243" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Astronomical Society</a> in New Orleans.



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Cosmic enigma: Aurorae discovered on an isolated brown dwarf

In a remarkable discovery, astronomers using NASA’s James Webb Space...

Plastic,Particles,In,The,Air

Microplastic particles, even at the most remote corners of our planet, have become a matter of concern. The mystery lies in how these relatively large and predominantly fiber-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-inhale-the-equivalent-of-a-credit-card-in-microplastics-each-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> travel, reaching places like Arctic glaciers and ice sheets. 



Atmospheric transport models suggest that such large particles would typically fall out of the atmosphere near their sources. 



To shed light on this paradox, an interdisciplinary group of scientists from the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>, Austria, and the Max Planck Institute for <a href="https://www.ds.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dynamics and Self-Organization</a> in Göttingen, Germany, conducted an intriguing study that combined laboratory experiments and model simulations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamics-of-traveling-microplastics">Dynamics of traveling microplastics</h2>



In the laboratory experiments overseen by Mohsen Bagheri of the Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, the team focused on understanding the settling dynamics of microplastic fibers <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-clouds-may-be-affecting-the-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traveling in the atmosphere</a>.



Surprisingly, the literature had very little data on this topic, primarily due to the challenges involved in conducting controlled experiments on such tiny particles. 



The team capitalized on advancements in submicron-resolution 3D printing and developed a novel experimental setup to track individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citizen-scientists-uncover-microplastics-in-the-remote-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics in the air</a>. 



Through their experiments, they discovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-embedded-in-tissues-of-whales-and-dolphins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastic fibers</a> settle significantly slower than spheres of the same mass.



Bagheri notes, "With advances in submicron-resolution 3D printing and the development of a novel experimental setup that allows tracking of individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-sea-ice-algae-heavily-contaminated-with-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> in air, we were able to fill this knowledge gap and improve existing models in this study."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-of-non-spherical-particles">The path of non-spherical particles</h2>



To further investigate the microplastic travel phenomenon, the researchers integrated a model describing the settling process of non-spherical particles into a global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-rain-the-growing-threat-of-airborne-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric transport</a> model. 



The differences between spherical and fiber-like microplastics travel were stark. The model revealed that fibers with lengths of up to 1.5 mm could reach the most remote regions of Earth, while spheres of the same mass settled much closer to their plastic source regions.



Daria Tatsii is the first author of the study and a member of the Department of Meteorology and Geophysics at the University of Vienna. 



"With the novel laboratory experiments and modelling analysis, we certainly reduce uncertainties about the atmospheric transport of fibers and can finally explain via modelling why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-shows-how-microplastics-are-harming-global-soil-and-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> reach very remote regions of the planet," Tatsii explained.



"An important result of the study is that our analysis is applicable not only to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-exposure-linked-to-changes-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>, but also to any other particles such as volcanic ash, mineral dust, and pollen."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-microplastics-long-distance-travel">Implications of microplastics long-distance travel</h2>



The study's findings have broad implications for our understanding of atmospheric processes and potential environmental risks. 



The model indicated that plastic fibers could reach greater heights in the atmosphere than spheres of the same mass. 



Andreas Stohl is the study's initiator and a researcher from the University of Vienna. He highlights the potential consequences. 



"This could have implications for cloud processes and even for stratospheric ozone since it seems possible that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-driving-the-surge-of-microplastics-found-in-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastic</a> fibers are abundant in the upper troposphere and might even reach the stratosphere. For instance, we cannot rule out that chlorine contained in these particles is harmful to the ozone layer," Stohl said. 



"However, right now, we do not even know how much plastic, and in which sizes and shapes, is emitted into the atmosphere, and we also do not know what happens to it under the extreme conditions of the upper troposphere and stratosphere. We are lacking very basic data. But given the dramatic increase in global plastic production, we have to be watchful," Stohl concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-shapes-of-microplastic-particles">Unique shapes of microplastic particles</h2>



Amidst the uncertainties surrounding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-contaminate-all-lakes-and-freshwater-environments-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>, one thing is clear: the distinct shapes of these particles must be considered when evaluating their environmental impact. 



Their research highlights the importance of addressing the complex dynamics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-pollution-found-in-every-aquatic-species-tested/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastic</a> fiber settling and their potential implications in atmospheric processes and ozone depletion.



By combining innovative laboratory experiments with advanced modeling techniques, the researchers have made significant strides in unraveling the mysteries surrounding the global travel of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-deadly-and-widespread-environmental-pollutants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastic</a> particles. 



However, further research and data collection are necessary to fully understand the extent of plastic pollution and its impacts on our environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-future-holds">What the future holds</h2>



In summary, the study sheds light on the surprising journey of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consumption-of-microplastics-cant-be-avoided-and-they-damage-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> to some of the earth's most remote regions. 



Through laboratory experiments and modeling, the scientists unveiled the slower settling rates of fiber-like microplastics compared to spherical particles of the same mass. 



These findings, combined with the potential for microplastic fibers to reach great heights in the atmosphere, introduce implications for cloud processes and the depletion of the ozone layer. 



With the ever-increasing production of plastic, it is crucial to gather more data and conduct further research to mitigate the environmental risks associated with microplastic pollution. 



As we strive to protect our planet's delicate ecosystems, it is evident that the peculiar shapes of microplastic particles cannot be neglected in our investigations.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.3c08209" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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-----

Microplastics are able to travel thousands of miles because of their shape

Microplastic particles, even at the most remote corners of our...

Man,Ear,Listening,,Copy,Space,Background

In a study led by the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">University of California, San Francisco</a> (UCSF), scientists have discovered a gene that plays a pivotal role in hearing loss, opening new avenues for treatment. This gene, known as TMTC4, is linked to cell death in the inner ear, a key factor in deafness.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



The research, published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.172665" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Clinical Investigation Insight</a>, holds promise for developing strategies to prevent hearing loss, which until now has been largely irreversible.



Hearing loss can result from various factors including loud <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-noise-affects-the-color-of-songbirds-beaks/">noise exposure</a>, aging, and certain medications, with few options beyond hearing aids or cochlear implants for treatment. The UCSF team’s research, however, marks a significant step in understanding the inner ear's mechanisms during hearing loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-common-cause-of-hearing-loss">Common cause of hearing loss</h2>



The study connects findings from animal research on hearing loss to a rare type of inherited deafness in humans. It was observed that mutations in the TMTC4 gene trigger a chain reaction known as the unfolded protein response (UPR), leading to the death of hair cells in the inner ear.&nbsp;



Notably, this UPR activation is also seen in hearing loss due to loud noises or certain drugs, suggesting it could be a common underlying cause of various forms of deafness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-target-for-preventing-deafness-nbsp">Target for preventing deafness&nbsp;</h2>



There are several drugs that block the UPR, and stop hearing loss in laboratory animals, the researchers note, advocating for testing these drugs in people at risk of hearing loss.



"We now have solid evidence that TMTC4 is a human deafness gene and that the UPR is a genuine target for preventing deafness,” said Dylan Chan, MD, PhD, co-senior author of the paper and director of the Children’s Communication Center (CCC) at UCSF's Department of Otolaryngology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights-into-hearing-loss-prevention">Key insights into hearing loss prevention</h2>



The research initially began with an observation by Elliott Sherr, MD, PhD, co-senior author and director of the UCSF Brain Development Research Program. Sherr noticed that many young patients with brain malformations had mutations in TMTC4.&nbsp;



This led to the discovery that mice with TMTC4 mutations showed signs of accelerated age-related hearing loss, linking these mutations to self-destructive processes in hair cells.



This discovery was further validated through international collaboration. In 2020, scientists from South Korea, led by Bong Jik Kim, MD, PhD, found genetic mutations in TMTC4 in two siblings experiencing hearing loss in their mid-20s. These findings were consistent with those observed in the animal studies by Chan and Sherr.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The potential implications of this research are far-reaching. Beyond addressing hearing loss, the study suggests that targeting the UPR could also be beneficial in treating other diseases where nerve cells are overwhelmed and die, such as Alzheimer's or Lou Gehrig's disease.



“If there's any way that we can get in the way of the hair cells dying, that's how we're going to be able to prevent loss,” Chan concluded, highlighting the transformative impact this discovery could have on treating and preventing deafness and possibly other neurodegenerative diseases.



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Drugs that can prevent hearing loss are already available in the marketplace

In a study led by the University of California, San...

Malaria,Infectious,Mosquito,Bite,On,Green,Background.,Leishmaniasis,,Encephalitis,,Yellow

Recent research from <a href="https://wustl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a> sheds new light on the varying heat tolerances among mosquito populations, a discovery with significant implications for global health. 



In a world increasingly threatened by vector-borne diseases, understanding mosquito behavior in response to rising temperatures is more crucial than ever.



Traditionally, models predicting vector-borne disease risks have operated under the assumption that all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-great-for-mosquitoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito populations</a> share similar heat tolerances. 



This new study, however, challenges that notion, suggesting that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-aims-to-control-mosquitoes-by-deactivating-their-sperm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquitoes</a> are better equipped to withstand heat waves than others. 



Such findings indicate that current models might be underestimating the potential for disease spread in warmer climates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-mosquito-heat-tolerance">Studying mosquito heat tolerance</h2>



This research was led by senior scientist <a href="https://www.katiewestbymosquito.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Katie M. Westby</a> at <a href="https://tyson.wustl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyson Research Center</a>.



Westby and her team focused on the critical thermal maximum (CTmax) -- the highest temperature an organism can tolerate -- of the Aedes albopictus, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiger-mosquitoes-colder-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiger mosquito</a>. This species is a known carrier of diseases like West Nile, chikungunya, and dengue. 



“We found significant differences across populations for both adults and larvae, and these differences were more pronounced for adults,” Westby said.



This study is pivotal, as it highlights significant variations in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-biting-season-extended-by-light-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito</a> heat tolerance across different populations of this globally invasive species.



Westby's team analyzed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soap-can-make-you-more-or-less-attractive-to-mosquitoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquitoes</a> from eight distinct populations across four U.S. climate zones, ranging from New Orleans, Louisiana to Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. 



By raising larvae from these various regions to adulthood under controlled laboratory conditions, the researchers were able to conduct thorough tests on their thermal limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-research-team-learned">What the research team learned</h2>



Surprisingly, the study found that adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mosquitoes-find-tasty-humans-from-hundreds-of-meters-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquitoes</a> generally had lower heat limits compared to their larvae. This disparity is likely due to the differing environments experienced by aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults. 



“Larvae had significantly higher thermal limits than adults, and this likely results from different selection pressures for terrestrial adults and aquatic larvae,” said Benjamin Orlinick, first author of the paper and a former undergraduate research fellow at Tyson Research Center.



“It appears that adult Ae. albopictus are experiencing temperatures closer to their CTmax than larvae, possibly explaining why there are more differences among adult populations.”



Notably, adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-hearing-could-be-targeted-to-combat-deadly-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquitoes</a> tend to endure temperatures closer to their thermal heat maximum, accounting for the greater variance observed among adult populations.



One key finding of the research is the correlation between higher precipitation levels and increased heat tolerance in mosquitoes. 



This suggests that in wetter climates, mosquitoes may better endure higher temperatures, possibly because increased humidity reduces their risk of dehydration.



“The overall trend is for increased heat tolerance with increasing precipitation,” Westby said. “It could be that wetter climates allow mosquitoes to endure hotter temperatures due to decreases in desiccation, as humidity and temperature are known to interact and influence mosquito survival.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquitoes-heat-and-climate-change">Mosquitoes, heat, and climate change</h2>



The study also highlights the importance of understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skin-compounds-make-some-people-mosquito-magnets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquitoes</a> adapt to local climates and the potential for these insects to adjust to rapidly changing global temperatures. 



According to Westby, genetic variation in heat tolerance is crucial for adaptation to rising temperatures.



“Standing genetic variation in heat tolerance is necessary for organisms to adapt to higher temperatures,” Westby said. “That’s why it was important for us to experimentally determine if this mosquito exhibits variation before we can begin to test how, or if, it will adapt to a warmer world.”



Looking forward, the team at Washington University plans to explore further into the limits of mosquito behavior, particularly how high temperatures impact their blood-feeding habits and potential adaptations to warmer conditions. 



This research is vital for grasping the full impact of climate change on disease transmission, as real-world conditions often vary significantly from laboratory settings.



In summary, this disturbing study challenges existing models of disease risk while opening new avenues for understanding and mitigating the impact of climate change on public health.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2023.1248673/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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-----

Bad news – mosquitoes prefer heat and actually thrive in the warming climate

Recent research from Washington University in St. Louis sheds new...

Researchers at <a href="https://wustl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a> have proposed a new theory explaining the fundamental purpose of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-we-sleep-study-reveals-new-clues-behind-this-mystery/">sleep</a>.&nbsp;



Led by Professor Keith Hengen and supported by a team of experts from various disciplines, the study delves into the complex relationship between sleep and the brain's operational efficiency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimizing-the-brain">Optimizing the brain</h2>



The research builds upon the concept of "criticality," a principle commonly discussed in physics but now applied to neurobiology.&nbsp;



Hengen, along with physicists like Ralf Wessel and biology graduate students Yifan Xu and Aidan Schneider, explored how sleep acts as a reset mechanism for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-implant-may-allow-people-to-communicate-through-their-thoughts/">brain</a>, maintaining its optimum computational state.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-computer-nbsp">Biological computer&nbsp;</h2>



“The brain is like a biological computer,” said Hengen. “Memory and experience during waking change the code bit by bit, slowly pulling the larger system away from an ideal state. The central purpose of sleep is to restore an optimal computational state.”



Hengen highlighted the importance of sleep, comparing it to biological necessities like food and water. "You'll die without it," he said, emphasizing its critical role in sustaining life.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoring-the-balance">Restoring the balance</h2>



The study challenges the long-standing view that sleep merely reduces tiredness, proposing instead that it restores the brain to a state of criticality.&nbsp;



In this context, criticality refers to a system teetering between complete regularity and randomness, a condition that maximizes the brain's ability to encode and process information efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-order-and-chaos-nbsp">Order and chaos&nbsp;</h2>



Wessel said physicists have been thinking about criticality for more than 30 years, but they never dreamed the work would have implications for sleep.&nbsp;



In the world of physics, criticality describes a complex system that exists at the tipping point between order and chaos. “At one extreme, everything is completely regular. At the other extreme, everything is random,” said Wessel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-departure-from-previous-theories-nbsp">Departure from previous theories&nbsp;</h2>



A 2019 paper by Hengen and Wessel established that the brain actively maintains this state of criticality. The new study takes this idea further by providing direct evidence that sleep is essential in restoring the brain's computational power.&nbsp;



This marks a significant departure from previous theories that sleep replenishes certain unknown chemicals depleted during waking hours.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reset-mechanism">Reset mechanism</h2>



Hengen and Wessel theorized that learning, thinking, and being awake must push the brain away from criticality and that sleep is perfectly positioned to reset the system.&nbsp;



“We realized this would be a really cool and intuitive explanation for the core purpose of sleep,” said Hengen. “Sleep is a systems-level solution to a systems-level problem.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neural-avalanches-nbsp">Neural avalanches&nbsp;</h2>



To validate their theory, the team observed the brain activity of young rats, focusing on neural cascades or avalanches, which are indicative of how information flows through the brain. These cascades vary in size, and their distribution changes with the state of wakefulness or sleep.&nbsp;



The researchers discovered that a diverse range of cascades occurred right after the rats woke up from restorative sleep, but as wakefulness persisted, these cascades began to skew towards smaller sizes.&nbsp;



This shift served as a predictor for the onset of sleep, suggesting a direct link between the distribution of neural avalanches and the need for sleep.



“You can follow these little cascades of activity through the neural network,” said Hengen. “At criticality, avalanches of all sizes and durations can occur. Away from criticality, the system becomes biased toward only small avalanches or only large avalanches. This is analogous to writing a book and only being able to use short or long words.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intriguing-results">Intriguing results</h2>



The researchers found they could predict when rats were about to go to sleep or wake up by tracking the distribution of avalanches. When cascade sizes were reduced to a certain point, sleep wasn’t far away.



“The results suggest that every waking moment pushes relevant brain circuits away from criticality, and sleep helps the brain reset,” Hengen said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-criticality-in-physics">Criticality in physics</h2>



In an interesting parallel, Wessel refers to the concept of criticality in physics, initially observed in piles of sand on a grid. The dynamics of these sand piles, which self-organize into a complex system characterized by spontaneous avalanches of varying sizes, mirror the neural cascades in the brain.&nbsp;



This similarity underscores the interdisciplinary nature of the study, blending principles of physics with biological phenomena.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-something-complex-and-wondrous">Something complex and wondrous</h2>



According to Hengen, every neuron is like an individual grain of sand following very basic rules. Neurons are essentially on/off switches that decide whether or not to fire based on straightforward inputs.&nbsp;



Hengen noted that criticality maximizes a bunch of features that sound very desirable for a brain. If billions of neurons can reach criticality - the sweet spot between too much order and too much chaos - they can work together to form something complex and wondrous, said the researchers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41593-023-01536-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a>.



-----



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Sleep restores the balance between order and chaos in our brains

Researchers at Washington University in St. Louis have proposed a...

Coral,Nurseries,-,Environmental,Protection,Concept.,The,Diverse,Coral,Colony

When we envision coral reefs and coral nurseries, we often picture static rock-like structures dotting the ocean floor. These underwater gardens, vital to marine life, have long been the focus of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-plastic-pollution-increases-with-depth-and-near-protected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>. 



Typically, these efforts are directed at preserving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recent-coral-recovery-in-the-great-barrier-reef-has-paused/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">existing corals</a> and shielding them from known dangers like pollution, overfishing, and runoff from coastal populations.



However, a transformative study near Miloliʻi, on the southwestern side of Hawai’i Island, is reshaping our approach to coral conservation. The intriguing research was spearheaded by <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> scientists and their collaborators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indigenous-knowledge-and-modern-science">Indigenous knowledge and modern science</h2>



At the forefront of this research is an impressive group of scientists. Together, they emphasize the significance of safeguarding marine ecosystems, both down-current and up-current of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-growth-cannot-keep-pace-with-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reefs</a>. 



These are the areas where coral larvae, the coral keiki, are more likely to flourish. The survival of these coral nurseries is key in the face of the escalating threats posed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-coral-reefs-have-naturally-increased-their-heat-tolerance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. 



Rachel Carlson, an ASU affiliate scientist, is the study’s first author. She highlights the importance of integrating local, indigenous knowledge with Western science in mapping a sustainable future for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-study-proves-humans-are-major-ecosystem-disruptors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral populations</a>. 



“There’s a lot of indigenous knowledge about coral spawning and fish populations in West Hawaiʻi. In this study, we addressed an open question: how connected are coral populations between embayments along this coastline?” said Carlson. 



“What we essentially found is that the major factors in helping the coral keiki, known as larvae, settle down and survive are the nearshore current and the structure of the reef.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-coral-nurseries-from-above">Monitoring coral nurseries from above </h2>



This study addressed a critical question: the connectivity of coral populations along certain coastlines. It found that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-corals-survive-warming-waters-by-remembering-heat-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival of coral</a> larvae nurseries hinges on the nearshore currents and the reef's structure. 



These larvae tend to settle in areas with larger boulders and uneven surfaces, which they find more conducive.



An exciting aspect of this research is the utilization of ASU’s <a href="https://asnerlab.org/projects/global-airborne-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Airborne Observatory</a>. This specialized aircraft, equipped with advanced remote sensing technologies, has mapped seafloor features significant for coral settlement. 



Greg Asner, director of ASU's <a href="https://globalfutures.asu.edu/gdcs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science</a> and the study’s senior author, underscores this as "foundational research" that enhances our understanding of reef connectivity and identifies potential sites for effective coral restoration.



“First, it gives us an understanding of the connectivity of different parts of reefs along our coastline and tells us the level of connectivity in the context of the birth, settlement, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poo-from-fish-that-eat-coral-is-beneficial-for-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">growth of corals</a> miles apart," Asner explained. 



"Second, our unique remote sensing capabilities can identify reef sites where coral restoration could be most viable in the future. Finally, these findings provide a critical building block for future restoration efforts by our ʻĀkoʻakoʻa team and collaborators," concluded Asner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-and-community-engagement">Cultural and community engagement</h2>



The <a href="https://news.asu.edu/20230613-solutions-turning-tide-our-coral-reefs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ʻĀkoʻakoʻa Reef Restoration Program</a>, a regional initiative combining cultural leadership, education, science, and government engagement, has been instrumental in supporting this research. 



Kaʻimi Kaupiko, president of Kalanihale, a non-profit managing the Miloliʻi Community-based Subsistence Fishing Area, reflects on the cultural and ecological significance of reefs. 



Kaupiko states, "We as lineal descendants of the Miloliʻi area have always relied on the reef for our ʻOhana (families). Our reef is our sustenance and is of enormous cultural value to us."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-scope-of-coral-protection">Expanding the scope of coral protection</h2>



This study brings a new perspective to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-study-provides-answers-to-how-coral-reefs-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef protection strategies</a>. Asner compares it to understanding the importance of a forest, not just individual trees. 



Robin Martin is an associate professor with the ASU <a href="https://oceans.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Ocean Futures</a>. Martin echoes this sentiment, stressing that reef connectivity is an underutilized tool in global reef restoration efforts. 



“In Hawai‘i and worldwide, we're trying to figure out where we should place protections and restore areas to help reefs,” Martin said. 



“This study is highly technical, but it needs to be part of that conversation and part of that work because if you aren’t protecting the up-current reefs, you are cutting off important reproductive areas.”



The research suggests that protection should encompass not only areas with dense coral coverage but also the paths through which coral larvae travel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-nursery-conservation-efforts">Coral nursery conservation efforts</h2>



This research opens new possibilities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crust-forming-algae-have-the-potential-to-dominate-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation strategies</a>, potentially extending much further than current practices. 



As Asner notes, the extensive coastline of west Hawaiʻi island poses unique challenges and opportunities for coral restoration. 



“These kinds of studies of connectivity, flow, and movement are needed because the west Hawaiʻi island coastline is longer than the whole circumference of any other island,” Asner said. 



“We have a lot of degraded reefs along our coastline, so knowing where and how to help baby corals thrive is fundamental to the ʻĀkoʻakoʻa restoration effort.”



Understanding the movement and settlement patterns of coral larvae is fundamental to the success of the ʻĀkoʻakoʻa restoration effort.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-student-contributions-are-vital">Student contributions are vital</h2>



The involvement of students in the study represents a fusion of cultural knowledge and scientific inquiry. Kaupiko highlights this integration, emphasizing the ecological connectedness of the region and the need for comprehensive management and protection strategies.



"Our students participated in the coral study, and that also helped us to connect the dots between cultural knowledge and Western science,” said Kaupiko. 



“The study supports our CBSFA by showing that our area is ecologically connected, and thus it needs to be managed and protected as one connected reef and coastline."



In summary, this important study in Hawai‘i represents a pivotal shift in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-oceans-intensify-viruses-that-kill-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral conservation</a> strategies. By combining cultural insights, advanced scientific research, and community collaboration, it offers a holistic approach to preserving and restoring the delicate balance of coral ecosystems. 



Their innovative work benefits the reefs of Hawai‘i while also setting a precedent for coral conservation efforts worldwide.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2311661121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Coral ‘nurseries’ need protection equal to that of established coral reefs

When we envision coral reefs and coral nurseries, we often...

Detail,Of,Bee,Or,Honeybee,In,Latin,Apis,Mellifera,,European

Have you ever wondered why certain flowers are more appealing to bees? New research on bees and nutrition seems to have found the answer to this question. 



Recent research from the USDA Forest Service’s <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/rmrs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rocky Mountain Research Station</a> and the <a href="https://www.unr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nevada, Reno</a> sheds light on this. 



Their study reveals how the nutritional value of plant pollen influences bee foraging behavior and community composition in gardens. 



This finding is crucial, especially when considering larger implications such as combating the decline in pollinator populations through improved rangeland restoration strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutritional-requirements-of-bees">Nutritional requirements of bees</h2>



The study delved into the foraging habits of wild bees, uncovering that different bee species have varied nutritional requirements. 



“Nutrition is widely recognized as a key factor in addressing pollinator declines, and plants vary in the protein and lipid content of the pollens they offer to bees,” explains lead author Dr. Anthony Vaudo, a research biological scientist at RMRS. 



He emphasizes the importance of pollen nutrition, particularly for developing bee larvae, which rely on pollen as their primary food source.



“We wanted to bring focus to that aspect of nutrition and foraging and its direct effects on the health of the developing bees,” he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-plants-and-bee-nutrition">Implications for plants and bee nutrition</h2>



Dr. Vaudo and his team analyzed the protein and lipid content in the pollen of 109 plant species in the Great Basin region. These plants bloom simultaneously, providing a comprehensive view of the nutritional landscape available to bees. 



The research discovered that the nutritional content of pollen in different plant communities predicts the types of bee communities they attract.



An intriguing aspect of their findings is that many bees do not show loyalty to specific plant families or genera. Instead, their preferences are based on more fundamental nutritional needs. 



This insight is especially relevant when selecting seeds for conserving bee habitats and plant communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhancing-bee-conservation-efforts">Enhancing bee conservation efforts</h2>



The study also reveals that plants within related genera offer similar pollen nutrition, making them functionally akin for bees. This knowledge could predict how a bee might choose a host plant in new environments. 



“This has exciting opportunities for future restoration research and could change the way bee communities can be conserved or improved," Vaudo said. 



"For example, designing a restoration project with more nutritionally diverse plants and testing to see if they attract more bees or a higher diversity of bees.” 



He highlights a beneficial feedback loop where increased pollination leads to more seed production, supporting healthier bee populations and offering resilience in changing environments.



"This idea of nutritional diversity can support healthier bee populations and hopefully provide resilience in changing environments," explained Vaudo.



In summary, this research not only enhances our understanding of bee foraging behavior but also opens new avenues for conservation efforts. 



By considering the nutritional needs of bees, we can design more effective strategies to nurture and preserve these vital pollinators, ensuring the health of our ecosystems and agricultural productivity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2317228120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Different bee species have unique nutritional needs and appetites

Have you ever wondered why certain flowers are more appealing...

Researchers have uncovered startling evidence that frequent visits to oil palm plantations significantly increase mortality rates among infant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/south-african-primates-face-multiple-threats/">primates</a>, particularly southern pig-tailed macaques.&nbsp;



This finding highlights a disturbing trend where agricultural practices are directly impacting wildlife, including vulnerable young primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perilous-environment-nbsp">Perilous environment&nbsp;</h2>



Southern pig-tailed macaques, native to Peninsular Malaysia, are increasingly drawn to oil palm plantations.&nbsp;



While these areas provide easy access to food, they also expose these primates to a multitude of dangers, including predators, human encounters, and harmful agricultural chemicals. This perilous environment is proving detrimental to the survival of infant macaques.



Researchers from Universiti Sains Malaysia, the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research, Leipzig University, and the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology conducted an extensive study over nearly a decade.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-statistics">Alarming statistics</h2>



The experts discovered that a shocking 57 percent of macaque infants died before their first birthday - a mortality rate far exceeding that in other wild primate populations.&nbsp;



The team observed two groups of macaques in a landscape interspersed with rainforests and oil palm plantations. They found that prolonged exposure to plantation environments tripled the likelihood of mortality among the infant primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contributing-factors-nbsp">Contributing factors&nbsp;</h2>



According to the researchers, this startling mortality rate could be explained by increased encounters with predators and humans, and potential exposure to harmful chemicals such as pesticides.



“Some of these risks are relatively clear: infant macaques are more likely to fall prey to feral dogs that roam in the plantations in packs or to be captured by humans and sold illegally as pets,” explained Dr. Nadine Ruppert from USM, who established and leads the field site.&nbsp;



“But the potential long-term effects of the pesticides used to manage the monocultures on mammalian wildlife are much less obvious and very poorly understood.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accumulation-of-agricultural-chemicals">Accumulation of agricultural chemicals</h2>



The study further revealed an unexpected pattern of increased infant mortality linked to first-time births or long intervals between consecutive births. This contradicts previous findings that shorter interbirth intervals lead to higher mortality.&nbsp;



The accumulation of agricultural chemicals in a mother’s body, which can be passed through breastmilk, is believed to play a significant role. 



"The literature suggests that certain harmful substances used in agriculture can cross the placental barrier and be passed on to the unborn offspring. We also know that certain fat-soluble molecules can be passed on through breastmilk,” said study lead author Dr. Anna Holzner.



“Accordingly, the longer the chemicals accumulate in the mother’s body, the more they could influence foetal development during pregnancy and also during lactation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The study highlights the urgent need to address the threats that agricultural landscapes pose to wildlife. The survival of infant primates, crucial for the maintenance of viable populations, is being jeopardized by our agricultural practices.&nbsp;



“We know that the use of pesticides in agriculture has led to drastic declines in insect populations, so chemical analysis is essential to understand the effects of pesticides on mammalian wildlife,” said study senior author Dr. Anja Widdig.&nbsp;



“Our findings underscore the critical need to implement environmentally friendly cultivation practices that minimise the risks to wildlife populations and also to people living near plantations.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.12.002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.&nbsp;



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Lethal attraction: Plantations are deadly for infant primates 

Researchers have uncovered startling evidence that frequent visits to oil...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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