Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

An international team of astronomers has utilized the NASA/ESA <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/">Hubble Space Telescope</a> to examine the atmosphere of the exoplanet WASP-121 b, revealing fascinating insights into its changing environment.



The team, working over several years, reprocessed observations from 2016, 2018, and 2019. This effort resulted in a unique dataset allowing them to not only analyze WASP-121 b's atmosphere but also to compare its state across these years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temporal-variations">Temporal variations</h2>



The findings were remarkable. The experts observed clear evidence of temporal variations in WASP-121 b’s atmosphere.&nbsp;



Sophisticated modeling techniques suggested these changes could be attributed to weather patterns on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-exoplanet-k2-18-have-the-right-conditions-to-support-alien-life/">exoplanet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-distant-exoplanets">Observing distant exoplanets</h2>



Observing distant exoplanets is challenging. Their vast distance from Earth and the overshadowing brightness of their host stars make it difficult to gather data.&nbsp;



Hubble’s advanced capabilities and the accumulation of long-term data, however, have made such detailed observations possible.



WASP-121 b, or Tylos, is a well-studied "hot Jupiter" situated about 880 light-years away and completing an orbit every 30 hours. Its close proximity to its host star results in extremely high temperatures, particularly on the star-facing hemisphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detailed-data-assembly">Detailed data assembly</h2>



The team's approach involved combining four sets of Hubble observations using the Wide Field Camera 3. This included two sets of phase-curves and observations of the exoplanet transiting both in front of and behind its star.



Exoplanet data processing is both time-consuming and complex. Despite this, the team's efforts paid off, allowing them to directly compare data across different observation sets.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="Xsla9cU1ZJ-3297475-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-view-of-wasp-121-b">Dynamic view of WASP-121 b</h2>



Quentin Changeat is an ESA research fellow at the Space Telescope Science Institute and one of the principal investigators of the team.



“Our dataset represents a significant amount of observing time for a single planet and is currently the only consistent set of such repeated observations," said Changeat.



"The information that we extracted from those observations was used to characterize (infer the chemistry, temperature, and clouds) of the atmosphere of WASP-121 b at different times. This provided us with an exquisite picture of the planet, changing in time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weather-patterns">Weather patterns</h2>



Upon analyzing the data, the team noticed variations over time, including shifts in the exoplanet's hot spot and spectral signatures. The observations hinted at a changing atmosphere, potentially explained by massive cyclones due to temperature differences on the exoplanet.



According to the experts, this research represents a significant step forward in potentially observing weather patterns on exoplanets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-simulations-nbsp">Advanced simulations&nbsp;</h2>



“The high resolution of our exoplanet atmosphere simulations allows us to accurately model the weather on ultra-hot planets like WASP-121 b,” explained Jack Skinner, a postdoctoral fellow at the California Institute of Technology and co-leader of the study.&nbsp;



“Here we make a significant step forward by combining observational constraints with atmosphere simulations to understand the time-varying weather on these planets.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications">Broader implications</h2>



Quentin also remarked on the broader implications of their study. Understanding weather on exoplanets is crucial for comprehending the complexity of their atmospheres and, by extension, the search for potentially habitable exoplanets.



“Weather on Earth is responsible for many aspects of our life, and in fact the long-term stability of Earth’s climate and its weather is likely the reason why life could emerge in the first place,” added Quentin.&nbsp;



“Studying exoplanets’ weather is vital to understanding the complexity of exoplanet atmospheres, especially in our search for exoplanets with habitable conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-exoplanet-observation">The future of exoplanet observation</h2>



The team anticipates that future observations, especially with the Hubble and powerful telescopes like Webb, will unveil more about weather patterns on distant exoplanets, potentially leading to discoveries of worlds with stable, habitable climates.



The research marks a significant milestone in our understanding of exoplanetary atmospheres and their dynamic nature, paving the way for future explorations and discoveries in the vast universe.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA&nbsp;



Video Credit: NASA, ESA, Q. Changeat et al., M. Zamani (ESA/Hubble)



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Alien weather: The changing atmosphere of exoplanet WASP-121 b

An international team of astronomers has utilized the NASA/ESA Hubble...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.amsterdamumc.org/en/about/organization/about-amsterdam-umc.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amsterdam University Medical Center</a> have made a significant discovery regarding the persistent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-fatigue-impairs-athletic-performance/">fatigue</a> experienced by long Covid patients. 



The experts have identified a biological cause for this debilitating symptom: reduced energy production by mitochondria in muscle cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The study participants, including 25 long Covid patients and 21 healthy controls, were subjected to a 15-minute cycling test.&nbsp;



The test resulted in a prolonged worsening of symptoms in the long-Covid group, known as post-exertional malaise (PEM). This exacerbation of fatigue occurs after physical, cognitive, or emotional exertion, beyond an individual's tolerance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muscle-tissue-changes">Muscle tissue changes</h2>



"We're seeing clear changes in the muscles in these patients," said Professor Michèle van Vugt. These changes were evident in blood and muscle tissue analyses conducted one week before and one day after the cycling test.



"We saw various abnormalities in the muscle tissue of the patients. At the cellular level, we saw that the mitochondria of the muscle, also known as the energy factories of the cell, function less well and that they produce less energy," explained Professor Rob Wüst.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights">Critical insights</h2>



"So, the cause of the fatigue is really biological. The brain needs energy to think. Muscles need energy to move. This discovery means we can now start to research an appropriate treatment for those with long Covid," said Professor van Vugt.&nbsp;&nbsp;



One of the theories about long Covid is that coronavirus particles may linger in the body. "We don't see any indications of this in the muscles at the moment," said Van Vugt.&nbsp;



Furthermore, heart and lung functions appeared normal in the patients, indicating that the persistent fatigue is not due to abnormalities in these organs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-treatment-nbsp">Implications for treatment&nbsp;</h2>



The findings have significant implications for managing the symptoms of persistent Covid. The results suggest that intense exercise is not always good for patients with long Covid.&nbsp;



"A low exercise capacity is one of the hallmark signs of long Covid, associated with a substantial burden for daily life," wrote the researchers. "The ventilatory and central cardiovascular system did not limit exercise capacity in long Covid patients, but our results confirm previous suggestions of a peripheral impairment in skeletal muscle metabolism in long Covid patients."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advice-for-patients-nbsp-nbsp">Advice for patients&nbsp;&nbsp;</h2>



Brent Appelman, a researcher at Amsterdam UMC, advises patients to exercise within their own limits. "In concrete terms, we advise these patients to guard their physical limits and not to exceed them."&nbsp;



"Think of light exertion that does not lead to worsening of the complaints. Walking is good, or riding an electric bike, to maintain some physical condition. Keep in mind that every patient has a different limit," said Appelman.&nbsp;



"Because symptoms can worsen after physical exertion, some classic forms of rehabilitation and physiotherapy are counterproductive for the recovery of these patients," added Professor van Vugt.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-long-covid">Understanding long Covid</h2>



An estimated one in eight patients develop long Covid, also known as post-Covid syndrome (PCS). A major study involving nearly 10,000 Americans found that long Covid can affect almost every tissue and organ in the body, with symptoms like fatigue, brain fog, dizziness, and gastrointestinal issues.&nbsp;



Notably, long COVID was more prevalent and severe in those infected before the 2021 Omicron variant. Researchers also identified 12 symptoms that most distinguish long Covid cases, including post-exertional malaise and issues with sexual desire or capacity. 



Further research has proposed several mechanisms for long Covid pathogenesis, including immune dysregulation, microbiota disruption, autoimmunity, clotting and endothelial abnormality, and dysfunctional neurological signaling.&nbsp;



Studies have observed alterations in immune cells, such as T cells and B cells, in individuals with long Covid, as well as elevated levels of certain cytokines. Elevated levels of autoantibodies have also been found in long Covid patients.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44432-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Cause of fatigue in long Covid patients has finally been revealed

Researchers at the Amsterdam University Medical Center have made a...

The,Green,Mamba,(dendroaspis,Viridis),,A,Venomous,Snake,Native,To

Brazilian researchers have discovered two new peptides in snake venom that possess significant potential to treat high blood pressure. The peptides were found in the venom of two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venom-snakes-dangerous/">snake</a> species native to Brazil.



In two recently published studies, experts analyzed the venom of the lancehead pit viper Cotiara (Bothrops cotiara) and the South American bushmaster (Lachesis muta).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-untapped-potential-nbsp">Untapped potential&nbsp;</h2>



The research highlights the untapped potential of venoms, as well as the biotechnological capabilities of these natural substances.



Alexandre Tashima, the principal investigator of both studies, is a professor at the Federal University of São Paulo’s Medical School (<a href="https://sp.unifesp.br/epm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPM-UNIFESP</a>).



“Venoms never cease to surprise us. Even with so much accumulated knowledge, fresh discoveries are possible, such as unpredictable fragments that are parts of known proteins. Despite all the available technology, a great deal remains to be studied in these toxins,” said Professor Tashima.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cotiara-venom">Cotiara venom</h2>



One such discovery is the peptide named Bc-7a, found in B. cotiara’s venom. While it originates from a protein causing hemorrhaging in prey, it is closer in functional terms to peptides such as those used in captopril, a drug that lowers blood pressure by inhibiting the activity of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).



Overall, the researchers identified 197 peptides in Cotiara - 189 of which are new discoveries. This is a significant increase from 73 peptides found in the same snake’s venom in 2012.



According to the researchers, the difference is due to the use of faster and more sensitive equipment than was available a decade ago, and to the larger number of peptide sequences now available in databases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-south-american-bushmaster-nbsp">South American bushmaster&nbsp;</h2>



The study on bushmaster venom from L. muta, published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006291X23011749" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications</a>, has identified 151 peptides, with 126 previously unknown.&nbsp;



Among these, the metalloproteinase-derived peptide Lm-10a stands out. This peptide, a fragment of a hemorrhagic toxin, inhibits ACE and shows potential as a future drug ingredient to treat hypertension.



The analysis suggested that Lm-10a from both L. muta and Bc-7a from B. cotiara resulted from fragmentation processes during venom maturation in the snake’s venom gland and that many more peptides could be obtained from the toxins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed-nbsp">Further research is needed&nbsp;</h2>



While these findings are promising, Professor Tashima emphasized the need for further research to fully understand and harness the potential of these peptides.&nbsp;



“Despite advances in sequencing technology and the production of large amounts of data in recent years, much remains to be discovered about the vast universe of peptides and their biological roles," said Tashima. "We must take advantage of our good fortune in being able to study these species, many of which will be extinct before they’ve even been discovered."



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2023.10.010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biochimie</a>.



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Snake venom may be key to treating high blood pressure

Brazilian researchers have discovered two new peptides in snake venom...

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern Denmark</a> have discovered a significant link between hearing loss and the heightened risk of developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-owners-are-much-less-likely-to-develop-dementia/">dementia</a>. 



The extensive study, involving over half a million participants, sheds new light on the cognitive challenges posed by hearing impairments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comprehensive-analysis-nbsp">Comprehensive analysis&nbsp;</h2>



For the investigation, the researchers analyzed data from 573,088 individuals. The study is the largest of its kind to date. 



"Previous studies have suggested that there could be a link between hearing loss and dementia. Our study is larger than the previous studies, and we have demonstrated a link between hearing loss and dementia," said Professor Manuella Lech Cantuaria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-link">Understanding the link</h2>



Hearing loss, particularly in severe cases, requires individuals to expend more mental energy in listening, which may detract from other cognitive functions vital for brain health. 



These cognitive functions include the mental processes necessary for thinking, problem-solving, and similar activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights">Key insights</h2>



The results of the study are alarming yet informative. The team found that individuals with hearing loss have an increased risk of developing dementia by up to 13 percent compared to those with normal hearing.&nbsp;



The risk escalates with the severity of hearing loss. Severe hearing impairment was associated with a 20% greater risk of dementia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-hearing-aids">The role of hearing aids</h2>



The researchers also examined whether there was a difference in dementia risk based on the use of hearing aids. The results suggest that hearing aids might prevent or delay the onset and progression of dementia.



"We found that the risk of developing dementia was 20% higher for people who didn’t wear hearing aids compared to people with normal hearing. People who used hearing aids had a 6% increased risk of developing dementia. This suggests that wearing a hearing aid can prevent or delay the development of dementia," explained Professor Cantuaria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications">Broader Implications</h2>



The study's implications are profound, especially considering the growing number of dementia cases worldwide.&nbsp;



Around 800,000 Danes currently suffer from hearing loss, a number expected to rise due to increasing life expectancy and noise exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-dementia-nbsp">More about dementia&nbsp;</h2>



Dementia is a broad term that describes a decline in cognitive function that is severe enough to interfere with daily life. It primarily affects memory, but also significantly impairs other mental functions like reasoning, problem-solving, and language skills.&nbsp;



Unlike normal aging, where memory might gradually diminish, dementia can cause dramatic changes in personality, behavior, and the ability to perform everyday tasks.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alzheimer-s-disease-nbsp">Alzheimer's disease&nbsp;</h3>



The most common type of dementia is Alzheimer's disease, which accounts for a substantial percentage of cases. Alzheimer's is characterized by a buildup of certain proteins in and around brain cells, leading to cell death and brain shrinkage over time.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-types-of-dementia-nbsp">Other types of dementia&nbsp;</h3>



Other types of dementia include vascular dementia, often caused by stroke or other conditions affecting blood flow to the brain, and Lewy body dementia, marked by abnormal protein deposits in brain cells.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symptoms">Symptoms</h3>



Symptoms of dementia can vary widely, but they typically start gradually and worsen over time. Early signs might include simple forgetfulness, confusion with time or place, difficulty in finding the right words, or changes in mood and personality.&nbsp;



As the condition progresses, symptoms become more pronounced, leading to more profound memory loss, difficulties in communication, and a decline in the ability to care for oneself.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treatment">Treatment</h3>



Dementia is primarily a condition of older age, but it is not an inevitable part of aging. Its exact causes are still not fully understood, but factors like genetics, lifestyle, and overall health play a role.&nbsp;



There is currently no cure for most types of dementia, but there are treatments that can help manage symptoms. These include medications to improve symptoms or slow progression, as well as various therapies like cognitive stimulation and lifestyle changes to support brain health.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research">Research</h3>



Research continues to advance in understanding dementia, with a focus on early detection, prevention strategies, and finding more effective treatments. The condition's impact on individuals, families, and healthcare systems underscores the importance of ongoing support and education for those affected.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaoto.2023.3509" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Otolaryngology–Head &amp; Neck Surgery</a>.



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Hearing loss linked to a greater risk of dementia

Researchers from the University of Southern Denmark have discovered a...

In an era where environmental concerns are escalating, an international study has redefined the importance of groundwater, classifying it as a keystone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predators-play-an-overlooked-role-in-ecosystem-restoration/">ecosystem</a> that is vital for sustaining biodiversity and mitigating the impacts of climate change. This new perspective demands greater protection of groundwater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underappreciated-role-of-groundwater">Underappreciated role of groundwater</h2>



Despite being fundamental to life on Earth, groundwater's significance in sustaining biodiversity is often overlooked.&nbsp;



The research team, including Professor Robert Reinecke of <a href="https://www.uni-mainz.de/">Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz</a>, emphasizes the need to view groundwater as a critical ecosystem.



"Groundwater is not only in itself a major ecosystem but is also of critical relevance to ecosystems on the Earth's surface," explained Professor Reinecke.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-largest-unfrozen-freshwater-reserve">Largest unfrozen freshwater reserve</h2>



Groundwater is the planet's largest reservoir of unfrozen freshwater, and is essential for almost half of the global urban population's drinking water needs. Countries like Denmark rely entirely on groundwater for their drinking water.&nbsp;



"Throughout the world, some 1,000 cubic kilometers of water are pumped to the Earth's surface every year. Sadly, we consume far more than what is naturally replenished," said Professor Reinecke.&nbsp;



This overconsumption has put about a third of the largest groundwater basins at risk of depletion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overlooked-ecosystem-dependence-nbsp">Overlooked ecosystem dependence&nbsp;</h2>



Ecosystems' reliance on groundwater has been consistently ignored in global biodiversity conservation efforts.&nbsp;



Approximately 52 percent of all surface areas interact significantly with groundwater. This interaction is critical as groundwater feeds wetlands, rivers, and other surface water areas.&nbsp;



"Interaction in this context means that water from rivers and lakes enters the groundwater while groundwater, in its turn, rises to the surface and feeds wetlands, rivers, and other kinds of surface water areas."&nbsp;



Professor Reinecke added that groundwater is also a valuable habitat for thousands of different subterranean creatures, including cavefish, blind eels, and transparent shrimp.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keystone-species-nbsp">Keystone species&nbsp;</h2>



"Disregarding the importance of groundwater as an ecosystem ignores its critical role in preserving surface biomes," wrote the researchers.&nbsp;



"To foster timely global conservation of groundwater, we propose elevating the concept of keystone species into the realm of ecosystems, claiming groundwater as a keystone ecosystem that influences the integrity of many dependent ecosystems."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-groundwater-protection">Groundwater protection</h2>



In Germany, as pointed out by Professor Reinecke, groundwater is not legally recognized as a habitat but merely as a resource, which limits its protection.&nbsp;



He stresses the urgent need for policy changes, citing data from the German Environment Agency that reveals poor chemical quality in about 32 percent of German groundwater bodies, primarily due to nitrate and pesticide pollution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-agenda">Conservation agenda</h2>



The researchers advocate for eight key themes to establish a science-policy integrated groundwater conservation agenda. They emphasize the intersection of above and below ground ecosystems and the role of groundwater in maintaining the planet's health.



"Water is indispensable to life on Earth. If we don't pay sufficient attention to the ecological integrity of the freshwater resources of our planet, we not only put the sustainability of whole ecosystems at risk but we also jeopardize our own way of life," concludes Reinecke.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17066" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>. 



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.

Groundwater is a keystone ecosystem vital for our planet's health

In an era where environmental concerns are escalating, an international...

The human gut, a bustling hub of microbial activity, has long fascinated scientists for its profound impact on our health. A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> has unraveled another layer of this mystery, revealing the surprisingly resourceful ways bacteria thrive in the low-oxygen environment of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consumption-of-microplastics-cant-be-avoided-and-they-damage-gut-health/">gut</a>. 



The research provides insights into the gut microbiome's complexity and its significant influence on human health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extra-digestive-organ-nbsp">Extra digestive organ&nbsp;</h2>



Often referred to as an "extra digestive organ," the gut microbiome is made up of a vast collection of bacteria and other microorganisms essential for digesting foods and producing vital nutrients.&nbsp;



These microorganisms not only aid in breaking down food but also generate metabolites that significantly impact human health.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-poor-gut-environment">Oxygen-poor gut environment</h2>



The study highlights how certain gut bacteria, through a vast arsenal of genes, efficiently produce energy in the oxygen-poor gut environment. This capability extends far beyond what is observed in their counterparts living outside the human body.



The study identified 22 metabolites utilized by three distantly related families of gut bacteria (Burkholderiaceae, Eggerthellaceae, and Erysipelotrichaceae) for respiration in the gut's anaerobic environment.&nbsp;



Remarkably, these bacteria possess hundreds of genes for enzymes processing these alternate metabolites, a significant contrast to their extra-gut counterparts.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resourceful-gut-bacteria">Resourceful gut bacteria</h2>



The results suggest that anaerobic gut bacteria may have the ability to produce energy from hundreds of other compounds as well.



"These are examples of some of the peculiar metabolisms that act on all these different metabolites produced by the gut microbiome,” said study senior author Dr. Sam Light. “This is interesting because one of the main ways the microbiome impacts our health is by making or modifying these small molecules that can then enter our bloodstream and act like drugs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metabolic-processes-nbsp">Metabolic processes&nbsp;</h2>



In most environments, cells use oxygen for respiration. However, the gut's anaerobic nature has led to the evolution of cells that utilize different molecules.&nbsp;



Cells can produce energy via two main metabolic processes: fermentation and respiration. While fermentation involves direct energy generation from molecule breakdown, respiration requires an electron donor and acceptor. In the gut, several known types of bacteria use carbon dioxide and sulfate as electron acceptors in their respiratory metabolisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights-nbsp">Critical insights&nbsp;</h2>



The study's in-depth analysis of over 1,500 human gut bacteria genomes revealed a surprising distribution of genes producing reductases, enzymes critical for different respiratory electron acceptors.&nbsp;



A noteworthy observation was that while most genomes encode only a few reductases, a subset encodes more than 30 different types.&nbsp;



These bacteria, belonging to diverse and distantly related families, demonstrate a resourcefulness in utilizing various organic metabolites, likely due to the gut's constant and complex food supply.



"There is so much organic matter in the gut that comes from the food we eat. It’s chemically complex, and you need more enzymes to accommodate it in that environment,” said Dr. Light. “We think this variety of genes enables gut bacteria to use a lot of different things that come their way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



Some of the metabolites have intriguing implications for human health. For instance, higher levels of the amino acid byproduct imidazole propionate are found in people with type 2 diabetes. Other metabolites like resveratrol and itaconate play roles in metabolic and immune system processes.



Dr. Light hopes that more research like this will help us understand the function of different microbes in the gut, which can be used to improve health.



“I'm hoping our understanding of these different metabolisms and how they work will enable us to come up with strategies to intervene - either through the diet or pharmacologically - to modulate the flow of metabolites through these various pathways,” said Dr. Light.&nbsp;



"So, in whatever context, like type 2 diabetes or following an infection, we could control which metabolites are being produced to have a therapeutic benefit.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41564-023-01560-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Microbiology</a>.



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Gut bacteria have very clever ways of supporting human health

The human gut, a bustling hub of microbial activity, has...

As bird populations continue to decline worldwide, a new concern has emerged: the impact of renewable energy facilities.&nbsp;



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a> analyzed feathers from deceased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-birds-dream-of-flying-scientists-say-they-now-know-the-answer/">birds</a> to shed light on this pressing issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unintended-consequence-nbsp">Unintended consequence&nbsp;</h2>



“Bird mortality has become an unintended consequence of renewable energy development,” said Professor Hannah Vander Zanden.&nbsp;



“If we want to minimize or even offset these fatalities, especially for vulnerable populations, we need to identify the geographic origin of affected birds. In other words, are the dead birds local or are they coming from other parts of North America?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-renewable-energy-facilities-and-bird-fatalities-nbsp">Renewable energy facilities and bird fatalities&nbsp;</h2>



Renewable energy facilities, while environmentally friendly, pose a significant risk to birds. Wind turbines, solar panels, and concentrating solar power plants have been associated with bird fatalities.&nbsp;



Birds often collide with wind turbines, mistake solar panels for water bodies, or get singed by solar power plants.&nbsp;



Although these fatalities are less common than deaths caused by domestic cats or building collisions, the need to address this issue is pressing, according to the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



Professor Vander Zanden and her team analyzed stable hydrogen isotope data from the feathers of 871 individual birds across 24 species found dead at California's solar and wind energy facilities.&nbsp;



This analysis, based on the natural markers in feathers linked to the water the birds consumed, allowed the researchers to trace the birds' geographic origins.&nbsp;



"With these markers, we could determine whether the bird was local or if it was migrating from somewhere else," explained Vander Zanden, the principal investigator of UF’s Animal Migration and Ecology Lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights-nbsp">Critical insights&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that birds killed at these facilities came from a wide geographic area across the continent, with both local and nonlocal birds represented.&nbsp;



At solar facilities, most of the deceased birds were nonlocal, with a peak in fatalities during migratory periods in April, and from September through October.&nbsp;



The percentage of migratory birds found at wind facilities nearly matched that of local birds, at 51%, noted Vander Zanden.



“This kind of data can help inform us about best strategies to use to minimize or mitigate the fatalities. For example, facilities management could work with conservationists to improve the local habitat to help protect local birds or improve other parts of the species’ range where the migratory birds originate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The study not only highlights the challenges renewable energy poses to bird populations but also underscores the value of stable isotope data in understanding and predicting future trends in bird populations.&nbsp;



This noninvasive method of studying animal remains provides crucial information for conservation efforts.



“Studying the remains of animals is a noninvasive approach to get information that is otherwise hard to track and apply to conservation,” said Professor Vander Zanden. “It’s a great way to understand the mysteries about animals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-declining-bird-populations">More about declining bird populations</h2>



The decline in bird populations globally is an increasingly urgent environmental issue. Several factors contribute to this decline, including habitat loss, climate change, pollution, and human activities.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-loss">Habitat loss</h3>



The most significant cause of bird population decline is the loss and fragmentation of habitat. Urban development, agriculture, deforestation, and other land-use changes directly remove the natural habitats birds need to survive and reproduce.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change">Climate change</h3>



Shifts in climate patterns affect bird migration, breeding, and food availability. Changes in temperature and weather patterns can disrupt the delicate balance of ecosystems, making it difficult for birds to adapt quickly enough.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution">Pollution</h3>



Pesticides, heavy metals, and plastic pollution harm birds directly and indirectly. Pesticides can be toxic, and birds often ingest plastics or get entangled in them. Also, oil spills and other contaminants severely impact bird populations, particularly in coastal and marine environments.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities">Human activities</h3>



Wind turbines, high-rise buildings, and other structures pose significant threats to birds, mainly through collisions. Additionally, domestic cats are known to be significant predators of birds in many regions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diseases">Diseases</h3>



Emerging diseases can rapidly decimate bird populations. For instance, avian malaria and West Nile virus have had significant impacts on some bird species.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-species">Invasive species</h3>



The introduction of non-native species can disrupt local ecosystems. These invasive species often compete with native birds for food and nesting sites or may even prey upon them.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cobi.14191" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Biology</a>.



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Renewable energy is the latest threat to bird populations

As bird populations continue to decline worldwide, a new concern...

Multicolored,Fungi,On,A,Log,With,Moss

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USDA Forest Service</a> has revealed a significant shift in the Arctic and boreal ecosystems. 



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-lakes-are-releasing-methane-from-melting-permafrost/">permafrost</a> thaws in high-latitude regions like Alaska, a microbial awakening is restructuring food webs, pushing fungi to the forefront as a primary energy source for local fauna. 



This shift highlights the profound impacts of warming climates on terrestrial ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-hotspot">Climate change hotspot</h2>



Alaska, known for its sprawling 113 million-acre interior, is witnessing some of the world's most rapid warming. The thawing of permafrost in this region is not just releasing vast amounts of carbon into the atmosphere, exacerbating global warming, but is also kickstarting a significant decay process.&nbsp;



This decay infuses both above- and below-ground food webs with carbon, dramatically altering the energy flow and affecting the species reliant on these systems.



Philip Manlick, a research wildlife biologist with the USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station, along with his team from the University of New Mexico and the University of Texas at Austin, explored this phenomenon. The focus was on four Arctic and boreal forest animals, including the tundra vole.



The core of the study involved a novel technique: analyzing carbon isotope "fingerprints" in essential amino acids produced only by plants, bacteria, and fungi. These biomarkers allowed researchers to trace how carbon moved between "green" plant-supported and "brown" microbe-driven food webs.



“Understanding how energy moves through food webs helps us understand how ecosystems function and how animals might respond to stressors like climate change,” said Manlick. 



“In Arctic and boreal ecosystems, it’s well known that the climate is warming, permafrost is melting, and microbes are flourishing. But we know very little about the impacts of this process on terrestrial food webs and the animals they support.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-observations">Long-term observations</h2>



The study's analysis included bone collagen from museum specimens of tundra and red-backed voles and masked shrews, as well as Arctic wolf spiders from different warming scenarios.&nbsp;



“Scientists often argue about the importance of animals to ecosystem processes like carbon cycling, but when they eat resources from different food webs, they move carbon between storage pools,” said Manlick. 



“In the future, we think this tool can be used to trace the fate of carbon through food webs to understand the functional roles of animals in ecosystem functions, like nutrient cycling.”



The team observed a significant shift from plant-based to fungal-based food webs. For example, shrews assimilated up to 90 percent of their carbon intake from fungal sources, marking a more than 40-percent increase compared to historical specimens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-a-shifting-diet">Implications of a shifting diet</h2>



The shift to fungal-based food sources among these animals is believed to stem from increased decomposition, fueled by warming climates. 



This decomposition feeds fungi, which are then consumed by various small animals, transferring brown carbon up the food web.



Arctic wolf spiders were also found to shift from plant-based to fungal-based food webs as the main source of their energy, assimilating more than 50 percent brown carbon under warming conditions, compared to 26 percent at control sites.



“Our study presents clear evidence that climate warming alters carbon flow and food web dynamics among aboveground consumers in Arctic tundra and boreal forest ecosystems - across species, ecosystems, and long- and short-term warming scenarios,” explained Manlick. 



“And we show that these changes are the consequence of a change from predominantly green, plant-based food webs to brown, microbe-based food webs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trophic-pathways-nbsp">Trophic pathways&nbsp;</h2>



The scientists suspect brown carbon is being transferred to aboveground consumers, like the mammals and spiders, in a series of predation events known as trophic pathways.&nbsp;



Increased warming results in increased decomposition in both permafrost on the tundra and in boreal forests. 



Fungi feed on this decomposing plant matter and are, in turn, consumed by arthropods, mites, and earthworms that transfer the fungal carbon upward in the food web where they are consumed by the voles, shrews, and spiders, noted the researchers.



“Climate warming significantly alters the flow of energy through food webs, such that animals who were historically supported by plant-based food webs are now supported by fungal-based food webs derived from belowground decomposition,” said Manlick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-ecological-impact">Broader ecological impact</h2>



The findings not only highlight the crucial role animals play in linking green and brown food webs, but also how climate change is modifying these links. 



These alterations could have far-reaching implications for nutrient cycling and ecosystem functionality.



For instance, the dietary shift in voles towards more subterranean sources may result in reduced plant consumption, potentially increasing carbon storage in aboveground ecosystems. 



This challenges the prevailing notion of "Arctic greening" and suggests a trend towards "browning" of food webs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



With these insights, Manlick and his team plan to delve deeper into the contrasting patterns observed in plants and animals and their implications for the future of these rapidly evolving ecosystems.&nbsp;



The study not only opens a new window into understanding the complex dynamics of high-latitude food webs but also underscores the urgent need to comprehend and mitigate the impacts of climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-023-01893-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Microbial awakening: Arctic food webs are transforming from green to brown

A new study led by the USDA Forest Service has...

The greater blue-ringed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-tale-of-an-antarctic-octopus-and-the-vulnerable-west-antarctic-ice-sheet/">octopus</a>, known for its rapid skin changes, has inspired researchers at the <a href="https://uci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Irvine</a> (UCI) to develop a new technological platform that mimics the octopus’s dynamic skin patterns. 



This innovation has potential applications in various fields, including military, medicine, robotics, and sustainable energy. It is detailed in a recent study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40163-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



“Multifunctional platforms that can dynamically modulate their color and appearance have attracted attention for applications as varied as displays, signaling, camouflage, anti-counterfeiting, sensing, biomedical imaging, energy conservation, and robotics,” the authors explained.&nbsp;



“Within this context, the development of camouflage systems with tunable spectroscopic and fluorescent properties that span the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared spectral regions has remained exceedingly challenging because of frequently competing materials and device design requirements.”



The team's invention is expected to benefit from adjustable fluorescent and spectroscopic properties, ease of manufacturing, and scalability to large areas, potentially covering vehicles, billboards, and buildings.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greater-blue-ringed-octopus">Greater blue-ringed octopus</h2>



The greater blue-ringed octopus (Hapalochlaena lunulata), native to the Western Pacific and Indian Oceans, uses its distinct skin patterns for defense and communication.&nbsp;



With a flash of its blue rings, the octopus can ward off predators. These sparkling blue rings, which stand out against the brown background of the creature’s skin, caught the attention of the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-abilities-nbsp">Fascinating abilities&nbsp;</h2>



Senior co-author Alon Gorodetsky, a UCI professor of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, expressed his fascination with the octopus's skin-changing abilities.&nbsp;



“We are fascinated by the mechanisms underpinning the blue-ringed octopus’ ability to rapidly switch its skin markings between hidden and exposed states,” he said.&nbsp;



“For this project, we worked to mimic the octopus’ natural abilities with devices from unique materials we synthesized in our laboratory, and the result is an octopus-inspired deception and signaling system that is straightforward to fabricate, functions for a long time when operated continuously, and can even repair itself when damaged.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-design-nbsp">Unique design&nbsp;</h2>



The design of their creation involves a thin film with blue and brown circles resembling the octopus's skin, sandwiched between a transparent proton-conducting electrode and an acrylic membrane, with another electrode beneath it.



The researchers employed acenes, organic compounds made of linearly fused benzene rings, in their molecular-level innovation.&nbsp;



Co-lead author Preeta Pratakshya, a recent Ph.D. graduate from UCI’s Department of Chemistry, elaborated on the significance of these compounds.



“Our nonacene-like molecules are exceptional among acenes because they can survive years of storage in air and over a day of continuous irradiation with bright light in air. No other expanded acene displays this combined long-term stability under such harsh conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remarkable-performance-nbsp">Remarkable performance&nbsp;</h2>



Gorodetsky highlighted the importance of the molecules used in the colored layer, contributing to the device's adjustable spectroscopic properties and ease of manufacturing. He also mentioned the collaboration with Sahar Sharifzadeh, a Boston University professor, who demonstrated that the properties of these molecules can be computationally predicted, paving the way for designing other camouflage technologies.



In laboratory tests, the bioinspired devices showed they could change appearance over 500 times with minimal degradation and self-repair capabilities.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exciting-applications-nbsp">Exciting applications&nbsp;</h2>



Gorodetsky noted the invention's effectiveness across the ultraviolet, visible light, and near-infrared spectrum, which could be used for camouflage or signaling purposes.



“The photophysical robustness and general processability of our nonacene-like molecule – and presumably its variants – opens opportunities for future investigation of these compounds within the context of traditional optoelectronic systems such as light-emitting diodes and solar cells,” he concluded, highlighting the potential of this bio-inspired technology to revolutionize various industries and applications.



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Blue-ringed octopus, a master of deception, inspires new technology

The greater blue-ringed octopus, known for its rapid skin changes,...

The discovery that early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/south-african-primates-face-multiple-threats/">primates</a> likely lived in pairs significantly alters our understanding of primate evolution and social behavior. This revelation comes from a study led by the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>. 



The research challenges the long-held belief that primates, particularly Strepsirrhines or "wet-nosed" primates, were primarily solitary creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance-nbsp">Study significance&nbsp;</h2>



"Was the ancestor of all primates a solitary-living species? Did more social forms of primate societies evolve from this basic and simple society? Until now, the dogmatic answer was yes," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"We used a modern statistical analysis, including variations within species, to show that the ancestral primate social organization was most likely variable. Most lived in pairs, and only 10 to 20% of individuals were solitary."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Charlotte Olivier from the Hubert Curien Pluridisciplinary Institute collected detailed information on the social structures of primate populations in the wild.&nbsp;



Over several years, the researchers created a database which included hundreds of populations from over 200 primate species. This extensive database, built from primary field studies, revealed a surprising diversity in primate social organizations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights">Key insights</h2>



According to the researchers, over half of the primate species recorded in the database exhibited more than one form of social organization.&nbsp;



“The most common social organization were groups in which multiple females and multiple males lived together, for example chimpanzees or macaques, followed by groups with only one male and multiple females - such as in gorillas or langurs. But one-quarter of all species lived in pairs," explained study co-author Adrian Jaeggi.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-statistical-analysis-nbsp">Complex statistical analysis&nbsp;</h2>



The experts calculated the probability of different forms of social organization, including for our ancestors who lived some 70 million years ago. They accounted for variables such as body size, diet, and habitat.&nbsp;



The calculations were based on complex statistical models developed by Jordan Martin at UZH’s Institute of Evolutionary Medicine. Fossil evidence, indicating that ancestral primates were small-bodied and arboreal, strongly supported the pair-living hypothesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-organization-of-primates">Social organization of primates</h2>



“Our model shows that the ancestral social organization of primates was variable and that pair-living was by far the most likely form,” said Martin. He noted that only about 15% of our ancestors were solitary, suggesting that living in larger groups is a relatively recent development in primate history.



The significance of this finding extends to our understanding of human social structures. “Many, but by no means all of us, live in pairs while also being a part of extended families and larger groups and societies,” said Jaeggi.&nbsp;



However, pair-living among early primates did not equate to sexual monogamy or cooperative infant care, noted Jaeggi.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



“It is more likely that a specific female and a specific male would be seen together for most of the time and share the same home range and sleeping site, which was more advantageous to them than solitary living,” said study co-author Carsten Schradin from the University of Strasbourg. For example, pair-living enabled them to fend off competitors or keep each other warm.



"Our results suggest that solitary living is a derived state and as such an adaptation to specific environmental conditions," wrote the researchers. "Future studies will have to determine costs and benefits of solitary living as has been done for pair- and group-living."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2215401120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



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Most early primates lived in pairs and were not solitary creatures 

The discovery that early primates likely lived in pairs significantly...

For nearly two decades, the <a href="https://missouri.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Missouri</a>'s Stay Strong Stay Healthy (SSSH) program has been pivotal in promoting physical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-proves-that-you-really-are-what-you-eat/">fitness</a> among older adults. Since its inception in 2005, the program has transcended state boundaries, benefiting over 20,000 seniors across five states.



Designed for individuals aged 60 and above, SSSH offers an eight-week strength training curriculum, emphasizing exercises like squats, bicep curls, and lunges. It's not just about the physical aspect; the program thrives in creating a warm, welcoming environment where seniors can exercise safely and socially.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-older-adults-stay-independent-nbsp">Helping older adults stay independent&nbsp;</h2>



Stay Strong Stay Healthy is led by Professor Stephen Ball from the MU College of Health Sciences. “One thing I always preach when it comes to physical activity is: some is better than none, more is better than some, and too much is difficult to get.”&nbsp;



“As the United States population is aging, I want to make a difference by helping older adults stay independent as they age and send the message that you don’t need an expensive gym membership with a personal trainer to stay active. We created a community-based program so older adults can exercise with others who look like them in a more comfortable, social environment," said Professor Ball.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enormous-benefits-nbsp">Enormous benefits&nbsp;</h2>



Participants in the MU Extension program consistently report an increase in physical energy and self-confidence. Furthermore, multiple peer-reviewed studies show that the program improves muscle strength, balance, flexibility and sleep. Notably, the training has been proven to reduce participants’ risk for falling - a big concern for aging adults.&nbsp;



“Another benefit we often hear about is the social enjoyment participants have spending time with other older adults,” said Professor Ball. “While it is certainly not expected, participants sometimes take the instructors out for lunch or ice cream after class as a sign of gratitude, appreciation and friendship.”



The program comprises two levels, each spanning eight weeks. A recent study attesting to the success of the Level 2 class found that participants not only maintained but also improved their health gains from Level 1. This advancement is a testament to the program's structured and effective approach.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invaluable-opportunities-nbsp">Invaluable opportunities&nbsp;</h2>



The benefits of Stay Strong Stay Healthy extend to MU students as well, offering them invaluable opportunities to lead classes and hone essential skills like relationship-building and leadership.&nbsp;



“I learned the importance of making the participants feel comfortable - a skill you can only really learn through experience - and I feel like I learned as much from the participants as they learned from me,” said Audrey Guess, an undergraduate student instructor majoring in Health Sciences. “I was originally thinking about a career in pediatrics, but now I think I want to continue to help older adults.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



Professor Ball aims to secure evidence-based status from the National Council on Aging (NCOA), a move that could propel the program to a national platform. Such recognition would not only enhance funding opportunities but also reinforce the program's commitment to reducing fall risks among older adults, thus promoting their independence and quality of life.



MU's Stay Strong Stay Healthy program is more than just a fitness initiative. It's a movement championing the health and independence of older adults, proving that age is just a number when it comes to staying active and healthy.



“We are proud of our impact so far, and we’re just getting started,” said Professor Ball. “Because of the popularity and success of our program, we’re piloting a Level 3 class to help participants continue their forward momentum. Not only are we changing the lives of the participants by improving their health as they age, we are also providing professional development opportunities for our students at MU as well.”



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/07334648231199996" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Gerontology</a>.



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Stay Strong Stay Healthy program shows that fitness has no age limit

For nearly two decades, the University of Missouri's Stay Strong...

Blood,Samples,For,Hdl,Cholesterol,(good,Cholesterol),And,Ldl,Cholesterol

A recent study has revealed a surprising twist in the narrative about "good" <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-can-work-as-well-as-medication-to-lower-cholesterol/">cholesterol</a>, HDL (High-density lipoprotein).&nbsp;



Contrary to its long-held reputation for cardiovascular benefits, high levels of HDL are now linked with an increased risk of dementia, including Alzheimer's disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-good-vs-bad-cholesterol-nbsp">Good vs. bad cholesterol&nbsp;</h2>



Traditionally, HDL has been celebrated for its role in cardiovascular health. It absorbs cholesterol from the blood and transports it to the liver for removal, which is why it's been deemed "good."&nbsp;



Low-density lipoprotein, the so-called "bad" cholesterol, is known for transporting cholesterol particles throughout the body, contributing to the build-up of plaque in arteries, a leading cause of heart disease and stroke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



However, the findings from a study published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanwpc/article/PIIS2666-6065(23)00281-X/fulltext#secsectitle0145">Lancet Regional Health - Western Pacific</a> suggest a complex relationship between high-density lipoprotein and brain health.&nbsp;



The study involved tracking over 18,600 individuals aged 65 and above for six years, during which 4.6 percent of participants developed dementia.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-findings">Key findings</h2>



Surprisingly, those with very high HDL levels faced a 27 percent increased risk of dementia, with the risk spiking to 42 percent in individuals aged 75 and older.



The research team from Australia clarified that these increased risks were independent of other traditional dementia risk factors such as physical activity, education, diabetes, smoking, or alcohol consumption.&nbsp;



The experts defined "very high" levels of HDL as 80 mg/dL or higher, a rarity in the study and not typically associated with dietary factors but possibly indicative of underlying metabolic disorders. The correlation between high HDL levels and increased dementia risk echoes the findings of a study from 2022.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed-nbsp">Further research is needed&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Monira Hussain, the first author and a senior research fellow at <a href="https://www.monash.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monash University</a>'s School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, emphasized the need for further research to understand this phenomenon. 



"While we know HDL cholesterol is important for cardiovascular health, this study suggests that we need further research to understand the role of very high HDL cholesterol in the context of brain health.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



The study's implications extend beyond the scientific community to potentially impact medical practice. The ease of measuring cholesterol levels and the possibility of influencing them through lifestyle changes position cholesterol as a potential biomarker for dementia risk.



Currently, approximately 5.8 million Americans are living with Alzheimer's disease, the most common form of dementia, primarily affecting those over 65. This number is projected to nearly double by 2050. The exact cause of Alzheimer's remains a subject of debate, but abnormal protein build-ups in the brain are believed to play a significant role.



"What we are learning now is that there is a lot more nuance to HDL’s role in the body. As a result, I usually explain to patients that it is more 'neutral' than 'good,'" said cardiologist Corey Bradley. This statement underscores the complexity of cholesterol's impact on the body, signaling a shift in how medical professionals may approach cholesterol management in the context of overall health.



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“Good” cholesterol may increase the risk of dementia

A recent study has revealed a surprising twist in the...

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On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
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</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

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</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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