Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Humans in all nations and culture chase youth. In 2024 alone, global spending on anti-aging products was roughly $74 billion. But what if the key to slower aging and longer life hides in psilocybin, the compound found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/religious-leaders-tried-psilocybin-and-it-changed-their-lives/">psychedelic mushrooms</a>?



This sounds strange. Yet science now says it might be true.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emory University</a> made a surprising discovery. They found that psilocin, a compound your body produces after eating psychedelic mushrooms, could actually slow down aging in cells. 



Their study appeared in npj Aging, and the results stunned even the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-psilocybin-the-basics">Understanding psilocybin - the basics</h2>



After the body converts psilocybin into psilocin, it binds to serotonin receptors, altering perception, mood, and cognition. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-before-psilocybin-mushrooms-brain-on-psilocybin-mushrooms-any-questions/">Brain imaging shows</a> that under psilocybin, rigid brain networks loosen their grip, allowing parts of the brain that don’t usually communicate to connect in unexpected ways. 



This rewiring effect can temporarily dissolve the ego and create a sense of unity or interconnectedness, often described as a profound spiritual experience.



But <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/">the magic</a> isn’t just in the moment - it’s in what comes after. Clinical studies show that a single guided psilocybin session can ease symptoms of depression, anxiety, and PTSD, sometimes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-may-boost-our-ability-to-learn-and-explore/">with lasting effects</a>. 



Scientists believe this happens because psilocybin disrupts entrenched thought loops and gives people a window to view their life and habits from a new angle. 



Combined with therapy, it can help someone reframe trauma or break out of destructive mental patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-study-psilocybin-and-aging">How to study psilocybin and aging</h2>



The researchers grew human lung and skin cells and added psilocin. Normally, these cells grow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-aging-how-some-people-live-past-100-years/">old</a> and stop dividing. But this time, something else happened.



At a lower dose, cells lived almost 30% longer. A higher dose pushed that to more than 50%. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-experimenting-with-new-approach-to-fight-and-stop-human-aging-necrosis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells stayed active</a>. They kept dividing far longer. They showed fewer signs of stress and less damage.



The treated cells had more sirtuin1, a protein that helps cells survive stress. They also showed less DNA damage. And there was another surprise - these cells kept their telomeres intact.



<a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Telomere" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Telomeres</a> protect DNA from damage. As people grow older, telomeres shrink, leading to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/">age</a>-related diseases. In this study, psilocin stopped that shrinkage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-lived-longer-with-psilocybin">Mice lived longer with psilocybin</h2>



For years, scientists tossed around the “psilocybin-telomere hypothesis.” They suspected psychedelics could help protect telomeres and slow aging. But no one had ever proved it. Until now.



This wasn’t just a lab trick. The team also tested psilocybin in aging mice, equal in age to 60 to 65-year-old humans. First, the mice got a low dose of psilocybin. Then they received higher doses once a month for ten months.



They waited and watched. The outcome was hard to ignore. About 80% of the treated mice survived the entire study. In the untreated group, only half survived.



The treated mice also looked healthier. They had better fur, fewer white hairs, and even some new hair <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/">growth</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cells-stay-younger">How cells stay younger</h2>



Psilocybin activates serotonin receptors. These receptors are not just in the brain - they are everywhere in the body. They exist in the heart, lungs, skin, immune cells, and more.



In this study, psilocin boosted <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/sirtuin-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sirtuin1</a> in cells. This protein helps the body manage oxidative stress. Less stress meant cells stayed younger for longer.



The researchers now believe psilocybin touches many aging pathways. It protects DNA, lowers stress, preserves telomeres, and may slow aging itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-may-improve-aging-even-later">Psilocybin may improve aging even later</h2>



“Most cells in the body express <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dopamine-and-serotonin-shape-behavior/">serotonin</a> receptors, and this study opens a new frontier for how psilocybin could influence systemic aging processes, particularly when administered later in life,” said study co-author Dr. Louise Hecker.



Her words say it all: this isn’t just about mental health anymore.



“Our study opens new questions about what long-term treatments can do. Additionally, even when the intervention is initiated late in life in mice, it still leads to improved survival, which is clinically relevant in healthy aging,” Hecker said.



The message is clear: it’s never too late to change how we age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-way-to-age">A better way to age</h2>



This discovery comes at a crucial time. A recent report showed that life expectancy in the United States still falls behind other countries. Americans not only live shorter lives but also struggle with quality in later years. 



“This study provides strong preclinical evidence that psilocybin may contribute to healthier aging, not just a longer lifespan, but a better quality of life in later years,” says study co-author Dr. Ali John Zarrabi.



Zarrabi worries about extending life without improving well-being. He doesn’t want people trapped in bodies that no longer work.



“As a palliative care physician-scientist, one of my biggest concerns is prolonging life at the cost of dignity and function. But these mice weren’t just surviving longer. They experienced better aging,” said Zarrabi.



His words strike a deep chord. Aging isn’t only about years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-just-the-beginning-for-psilocybin">Just the beginning for psilocybin</h2>



The researchers know their work is just beginning. They must study psilocybin in humans. They need to find the safest doses and study long-term effects.



There are hurdles. Psilocybin is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-americans-are-microdosing-psilocybin-mdma-cannabis-lsd/">controlled substance</a>. Getting approval and funding takes effort. But many researchers remain hopeful.



Psilocybin already holds FDA “breakthrough therapy” status for depression. This could help speed up future research on aging.



A psychedelic drug helping people live longer might sound strange. But science rarely cares about what sounds strange. It cares about results. And right now, psilocybin’s results are impossible to ignore.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41514-025-00244-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Aging</a>.



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Study shows psilocybin from 'magic mushrooms' delays aging and significantly extends lifespan

Humans in all nations and culture chase youth. In 2024...

Music education is gaining recognition as a vital well-being tool, and a recent study sheds new light on its importance for young people.



The research, led by Dr. Jason Goopy at Edith Cowan University (<a href="https://www.ecu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ECU</a>), stresses that learning music offers more than entertainment. It provides real emotional and social benefits to students.



The team reviewed 30 academic sources, most of which revealed strong positive links between music <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-rewires-the-brain-to-quickly-navigate-emotion/">learning</a> and well-being. The results showed that music education supports confidence, social connections, and overall engagement with learning.



"Music can play a crucial role in supporting the well-being of children and adolescents. From listening to active participation, young people worldwide use music as an activity and resource for well-being," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-programs-and-student-well-being">Music programs and student well-being </h2>



Dr. Goopy emphasized that music education in schools goes beyond music <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-doesnt-just-hear-music-it-becomes-the-rhythm/">appreciation</a> and learning an instrument. “It can strengthen self-confidence, social connections and engagement in education."



"We found that music education can foster a sense of belonging, improve emotional awareness and encourage perseverance, all of which contribute to a young person's overall well-being," said Dr. Goopy.



The findings suggest that schools should treat music as essential - not as just another extracurricular activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-boosts-focus-and-confidence">Music boosts focus and confidence</h2>



The analysis also showed that music learning improves self-confidence, emotional regulation, and personal fulfillment. 



“Music learning creates opportunities for self-expression, collaboration and achievement, all of which contribute to students living well and healthy,” Dr. Goopy said.



Young people also benefit from improved motivation and stronger relationships with teachers and peers. These positive changes ripple through their academic and personal lives.



The research identifies effective practices for enhancing well-being through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-reveal-how-music-can-heal-the-brain/">music</a>. These include group music activities, songwriting, focused listening, and collaborative decision-making.



Such activities encourage participation, creativity, and emotional expression. They also help students build skills in patience, leadership, and emotional awareness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-helps-children-feel-connected">Music helps children feel connected</h2>



The study highlights the social impacts of music <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-has-the-power-to-change-the-mood-of-our-memories/">learning</a>. Many young people reported stronger friendships, improved teamwork, and a sense of belonging.



Shared musical experiences help students feel connected. Programs that promote collaboration tend to bring students closer together. Music classes can also strengthen ties between teachers and students.



Music learning improves academic motivation and focus. Students often feel more engaged and achieve better results in other subjects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-features-of-successful-programs">Key features of successful programs</h2>



The research points out what makes some music programs really stand out. It all starts with students making music together. When they play, sing, or create as a group, students feel more connected.



Music programs help students set future goals. They also encourage students to think about careers involving music.



These programs do not just teach music. They help students grow in other ways too, building skills like teamwork, patience, and confidence. 



Above all, successful music programs balance fun with just the right amount of challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-education-as-a-well-being-strategy">Music education as a well-being strategy </h2>



Music education should be embraced as a well-being strategy - not just an art form. The researchers recommend integrating well-being goals into music programs.



The review highlights the lack of large-scale research on music learning and well-being. Most existing studies use small sample sizes and qualitative methods.



The authors urge for new tools to measure mental health outcomes in music education. They recommend combining both qualitative and quantitative methods for future studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-access-to-music-learning">Expanding access to music learning</h2>



Access to music education remains unequal. Many young people from disadvantaged backgrounds benefit the most from such programs.



Schools and communities must ensure all students have equal opportunities to learn music. Doing so will promote both personal growth and community well-being.



“This research sends a clear message: learning music is more than just an artistic indulgence,” said Dr. Goopy.



“It actively contributes to young people's ability to thrive. Every child needs access to quality, sequential and ongoing school music education delivered by confident and capable teachers."



“The opportunity to enhance wellbeing from learning music should be available to every child regardless of what school they attend.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1321103X251323562" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research Studies in Music Education</a>.



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How music education helps young people thrive

Music education is gaining recognition as a vital well-being tool,...

Most people think aging always brings health problems. Inflammation seems like a part of getting older. It slowly builds up, leading to serious diseases. 



Doctors call this slow-burning process “inflammaging.” But not everyone is sure that this process is unavoidable. Some scientists are starting to ask new questions. Does every species experience inflammaging? Is it something we can avoid?



Elaine Guevara from <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> studies primates, a group that includes both lemurs and humans. Her work focuses on aging and how it works in different species.



Recently, Guevara began looking at lemurs for answers. These animals may look far removed from humans, but their biology has much to teach us. In fact, her latest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lemurs-millions-of-years-of-diversity-at-risk/">research</a> suggests that inflammation during aging may not be as inevitable as people believe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemurs-challenge-our-view-of-aging">Lemurs challenge our view of aging </h2>



Guevara's study was focused on two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hormones-influence-power-and-peace-in-lemur-society/">species</a>: the ring-tailed lemur and the sifaka lemur. These species have many similarities but also some key differences. They have different lifespans and distinct life patterns, which makes them perfect for comparison.



Lemurs share an ancient ancestor with humans. This connection makes them valuable for studying human biology. Scientists often use primates to answer tricky questions about human health.



Guevara wanted to see if lemurs show signs of inflammaging as they grow older. The idea was simple. If inflammation rises in both humans and lemurs, it might be a natural part of aging for all primates. But the results took everyone by surprise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemurs-aged-without-more-inflammation">Lemurs aged without more inflammation</h2>



The team expected to see clear signs of inflammaging in lemurs. This would have matched patterns seen in humans. But that is not what happened.



“Contrary to our predictions, neither <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hibernation-allows-lemurs-to-slow-down-their-aging/">species</a> showed age-related change in either marker of oxidative stress," said Guevara.



"Neither lemur species exhibited age-related change in inflammation; if anything, contrary to our prediction, ring-tailed lemurs showed marginal declines in inflammation with age."



The findings challenge what many people think about aging. If lemurs do not show inflammaging, maybe it is not something all species must face.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-inflammaging-really-unavoidable">Is inflammaging really unavoidable?</h2>



Lemurs are not alone in this unexpected pattern. Researchers have seen similar results in other primate species. Christine Drea, a scientist involved in the lemur study, explained the bigger picture.



According to Drea, the research suggests inflammaging is not universal across primates. If that is true, it raises an important question. Could some humans also avoid inflammaging?



The idea turns traditional thinking about aging upside down. Many believed inflammaging was simply part of life, but the study shows it might not be that simple.



Scientists are now looking at aging in a whole new way. They are asking if the right conditions might prevent or delay inflammation in humans too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inflammaging-causes-health-issues">Inflammaging causes health issues</h2>



Inflammaging sounds like a problem only scientists worry about, but it affects millions of people. As people age, their bodies often enter a state of low-level inflammation. This quiet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lemurs-now-prey-for-equally-endangered-fosas/">process</a> can cause serious harm over time.



Inflammaging connects to many common diseases. These include heart problems, strokes, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis.



Doctors and researchers are working hard to find solutions. If they can understand why inflammaging happens, they may find ways to stop it.



The lemur study offers new hope. It suggests that inflammaging is not locked into our biology. That alone is an exciting discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-studying-lemurs">The challenge of studying lemurs</h2>



Studying aging in lemurs is not easy. The animals cannot explain their health. Researchers had to come up with a safe way to collect data.



"Our role at the beginning was planning, designing, brainstorming, comparing and getting these samples,” said Drea.



The team collected urine samples from the lemurs. This method allowed them to study oxidative stress and inflammation without harming the animals.



The research was conducted at the Duke Lemur Center. This facility only allows non-invasive studies. The lemurs remained unharmed throughout the entire project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-lemurs-and-aging">Future research on lemurs and aging</h2>



Guevara now wants to expand her research. Her next focus will be wild lemurs living in their natural environment.



“There are a lot of good reasons to think that aging can be quite different in captivity and in the wild, and that in itself, is informative to evaluating the degree to which human inflammation is intrinsic versus environmental,” she said.



Wild lemurs face many challenges that captive lemurs do not. Their diet, stress, and activity levels all vary. 



By studying lemurs, scientists can learn whether environment shapes aging. The ongoing research could reveal even more about human aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemurs-offer-new-aging-insights">Lemurs offer new aging insights</h2>



People around the world are living longer. However, many of those extra years come with health issues. Inflammaging is a major reason for this.



Guevara believes her work is an important first step toward finding new solutions. "These insights are essential for mitigating disability and improving quality of life in later years."



This study shows that aging does not look the same in every species. Lemurs have shown a very different path. They age without the same inflammation humans often face. 



Researchers now have a fresh question to explore. Can humans also avoid inflammaging? The answer could change how we think about growing older. It could shift how we approach health care for aging populations.



Lemurs may not have provided all the answers yet, but they have certainly started an important conversation.



The study is published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00360-025-01619-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Comparative Physiology B</a>. 



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Lemurs reveal surprising new clues about healthy aging

Most people think aging always brings health problems. Inflammation seems...

Research has shown that, while riding a stationary bike, people judged a 30‑second time interval about 9 percent too quickly. Their perception of time became distorted during exercise such that the external clock felt sluggish while their legs were flying.



<a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/336590/network">Andrew M. Edwards</a>, a sports scientist at <a href="https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canterbury Christ Church University</a>, led the research alongside collaborators at the <a href="https://www.rug.nl/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Groningen</a> and <a href="https://vu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije University</a> of Amsterdam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-is-not-time-during-exercise">Time is not time during exercise</h2>



Exercise distorts time perception, the everyday sense of how long an event lasts. <a href="https://www.keele.ac.uk/media/keeleuniversity/facnatsci/schpsych/weardenpublications/wearden2003.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Classic scalar expectancy</a> theory proposes an internal pacemaker that fires pulses; count more pulses and a moment seems longer, count fewer and it shrinks. 



During intense effort, sensory input and body signals grab attention, widening the attentional “gate” so extra pulses slip through and lengthen our subjective perception of time.



A complementary striatal beat frequency <a href="https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1298&amp;context=jscas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">model</a> points to oscillations in the basal ganglia, a deep brain hub that also coordinates movement and reward, as a neural metronome. 



Neuro‑imaging shows overlapping circuits for timing and reward anticipation, hinting that the same dopamine‑rich loops flag both pace and pleasure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-4-kilometer-pedal-test">Inside the 4‑kilometer pedal test</h2>



Thirty‑three recreational riders, none of them cyclists by trade, completed three four‑kilometer trials on a high‑precision ergometer. 



Between sprints they estimated 30 seconds five times, giving a snapshot of the brain’s stopwatch before, during, and after exertion.



“There was no difference between exercise conditions or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-has-three-dimensions-and-space-is-just-a-byproduct-according-to-new-theory/">time</a> points,” the authors reported, emphasizing that competition alone did not reset the internal clock. 



Whether they rode solo, chased a passive avatar, or tried to beat an active opponent, the time warp held steady. 



After finishing, their estimates snapped back to real‑world accuracy within two minutes, underscoring how tightly the illusion is tied to effort.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-your-brain-during-exercise">Your brain during exercise</h2>



Heart rate climbs, lactate builds, and muscle pain demands focus, pushing athletes toward an associative mindset where every pedal stroke is monitored. 



Laboratory work with treadmill runners shows that as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28858053/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rate of perceived exertion</a> climbs from “somewhat hard” to “very hard,” seconds feel even longer.



The surge in afferent signals may flood cortical networks that normally keep temporal information tidy, so the brain logs more sensory events per unit of real time. 



Electrophysiological <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4830363/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> link this overload to elevated activity in supplementary motor areas, cerebellum, and ventral striatum, regions repeatedly flagged in timing meta‑analyses.



Because those circuits also help schedule movements, distorted timing could feed back into pacing errors, explaining why novice cyclists often start too hard and fade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competition-exercise-and-time-perception">Competition, exercise, and time perception</h2>



Many coaches assume that racing a foe distracts athletes from discomfort, shortening perceived <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-may-not-just-move-forward-experts-say-it-could-rewind/">time</a>. 



The cycling data upend that idea: even when volunteers tried to outsprint a rival and actually finished about 1  seconds quicker, their timing errors matched the solo run.



“More work has to be done to further unravel the role of external stimuli, exercise intensity, and duration on the perception of time during exercise,” wrote Edwards and colleagues, calling for studies that vary course length and sport.



Visual pacers such as <a href="https://runningmagazine.ca/the-scene/is-wavelight-technology-good-for-the-sport/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wavelight technology</a> - a ring of LED lights that guides record attempts in track meets - may offer a stronger cue; analysts note that <a href="https://worldathletics.org/athletes/uganda/joshua-cheptegei-14645612" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joshua Cheptegei’s 10,000‑meter</a> world record was set while chasing the moving lights, which kept every kilometer within 0.8 seconds.



Yet even lights cannot erase internal noise completely, so athletes must still learn to calibrate effort against split times displayed on the track or bike computer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-have-we-learned">What have we learned?</h2>



Knowing that exercise stretches moments can shape better pacing strategies. Endurance coaches often teach swimmers to rehearse key distances with a metronome or music track so the internal clock anchors to an external beat. 



Cyclists can glance at distance markers rather than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-make-bold-claims-that-time-is-an-illusion-question-its-existence/">time</a>, because distance cues remain objective even when seconds feel elastic.&nbsp;



For high‑intensity interval training, pre‑programmed timers remove guesswork, preventing premature burnout caused by overestimating rest breaks. 



Recreational exercisers may welcome the illusion, after all, a half‑hour ride that feels like forty minutes makes the gym session feel “worth it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanswered-questions-and-next-steps">Unanswered questions and next steps</h2>



Does the illusion scale with workout length, or plateau after the first surge of pain signals? Would elite athletes, who spend years refining <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1355442/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interoceptive awareness</a>, show smaller distortions, or merely learn to ignore them?



Brain‑stimulation studies could temporarily mute motor cortex or cerebellum activity to test causal roles in the effect. 



Wearable neuroimaging, now light enough for treadmill use, might map the live interplay between stride cadence, pulse counts, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-explain-why-time-seems-to-fly-by-pass-faster-as-we-age-brain-perception/">subjective time</a>.



Until then, the best takeaway is pragmatic: trust the stopwatch, not your feelings, when pacing the final lap or last hill climb.



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/brb3.3471" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brain and Behavior</a>.



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Scientists learn why time seems to slow down dramatically when difficult activities

Research has shown that, while riding a stationary bike, people...

A single teaspoon of healthy soil can hold as many as a billion bacteria, yards of fungal threads, and a menagerie of microscopic grazers. These organisms form the root microbiome, which helps keep plants fed, watered and defended against drought and disease.



New <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ismej/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ismejo/wraf137/8182121?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> now argues that plants are not just passive tenants in this world but active managers that build hand‑picked below‑ground crews, a process the authors call functional team selection (FTS).



The <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ismej/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ismejo/wraf137/8182121?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> is led by Regents’ Professor <a href="https://directory.nau.edu/faculty?name=nancy%20johnson&amp;person=nj4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nancy Collins Johnson</a> of Northern Arizona University, working with <a href="https://www.ust.cl/personas/curriculum/cesar-marin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">César Marín</a> of Universidad Santo Tomás in Chile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-create-microbiomes">How plants create microbiomes</h2>



A <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/science/microbiome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a> is the collective genomes and activities of bacteria, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-talk-through-fungal-networks/">fungi</a>, viruses, and other tiny life forms that live in and around a host. 



In plants the action centers on the rhizosphere, the thin <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2023-04/NRCS_Healthy%20Soils%20at%20Home_12_22_FINAL%20sent%20to%20printers.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shell of soil</a> that sticks to roots and hums with chemical chatter.



Microbes in this region swap nutrients, growth hormones, and signals with their hosts, often trading nitrogen or phosphorus for sugars. 



Under drought conditions, some bacteria exude sticky <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1253735/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biofilms</a> that help roots hang on to water, improving crop yields in experimental fields.



Yet the community is no free‑for‑all; opportunistic pathogens lurk, and beneficial species can be crowded out by chance or by a sudden fertilizer surge. 



Understanding how plants steer the mix in the root microbiome is therefore critical for sustainable farming.



Scientists <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro2644" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sequence</a> the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/16s-ribosomal-rna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">16S rRNA gene</a> from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/rhizosphere" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rhizosphere</a> samples and routinely detect more than 5,000 operational taxonomic units on a single maize plant. 



That microbial diversity rivals the entire bacterial roster of many animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-gut-microbiome-is-shaped-by-what-we-eat/">gut microbiomes</a>, underscoring how much genetic potential lies just outside a root tip.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-microbiomes-shaped-by-stress">Plant microbiomes shaped by stress</h2>



Johnson’s earlier field <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1942106" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> showed that adding chemical fertilizer for eight years shifted <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/arbuscular-mycorrhiza" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi</a> toward strains that taxed big bluestem grass more than they helped it. 



The finding hinted that low‑nutrient stress is not just tolerated but needed to keep the symbiosis honest.



Other <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2020.622926/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> echo the pattern: under conditions of water scarcity, maize roots release flavonoids that attract drought‑tolerant microbes, whereas well‑watered plants skip the recruitment drive. 



Selective pressure, in other words, acts like an admissions test for the root community.



This ecological sorting sets the stage for evolution, because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/">microbes</a> that pass the test multiply and share genes for the traits the plant needs. Over time the soil becomes a living memory of past hardships.



Plants secrete up to 40 percent of the carbon they fix as root exudates, a spill that serves as both payment and message to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fagro.2021.753474/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a>. 



Compounds such as malic acid call in growth‑promoting <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7699/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bacillus</a>, while terpenes can ward off unwanted invaders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-functional-team-selection-fts-idea">Functional team selection (FTS) idea</h2>



Johnson and Marín propose that four ingredients - selection force, host constitution, microbial diversity, and time - determine whether a functional team selection <a href="https://ecoevorxiv.org/repository/view/6944/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(FTS) pathway</a> opens. 



When the mix is right, a plant and its hand‑picked allies act as one adaptive system rather than as separate parts.



“Functional teams are unlikely to evolve in benign environments with no stress and ample resources because they lack the selection pressure that is required to curate the composition of the microbiome,” Johnson said. 



Her remark underlines why crop inoculants bought off the shelf often disappoint farmers who apply them to fertile, irrigated soils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-microbiomes-and-fts">Plants, microbiomes, and FTS</h2>



The framework leans on the recently articulated <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2310223120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Law of Increasing Functional Information</a>, which holds that complex systems tend to explore ever more effective configurations when variation meets selection. 



Roots and microbes, stars and minerals all follow comparable rules, differing only in the building blocks they shuffle.



<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2310223120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hazen and colleagues</a> illustrated the law with examples that range from heavy‑element synthesis in stars to enzyme evolution on Earth, arguing that a drive toward functional novelty bridges physics and biology. 



By situating FTS within that broader law, Johnson’s team claims no special exemption for life; they simply place roots and their microbiomes on the same playing field as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/">galaxies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-agriculture">Lessons for agriculture</h2>



Worldwide sales of <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2021.606815/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial biofertilizers</a> are booming, yet meta‑analyses show that many products fail to colonize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/">roots</a> or boost yields once they leave the greenhouse. 



FTS suggests that success will improve when products are matched to the stresses and nutrient limits of specific root microbiomes rather than offered as universal cures.



Breeders could also select crop varieties that reward resident mutualists instead of favoring short‑term fertilizer responses. 



That shift would align genetic improvement with the slow buildup of local microbial teams instead of tearing them down each season.



Adopting FTS thinking could also cut greenhouse‑gas emissions because successful microbial teams often help plants capture nitrogen from air and recycle soil carbon, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00253-024-13347-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trimming demand</a> for energy‑intensive fertilizer. Lower fertilizer demand translates to fewer nitrous oxide emissions, a potent greenhouse gas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fts-from-soil-to-other-systems">FTS from soil to other systems</h2>



The authors argue that FTS can illuminate animal guts, coral reefs, and even human‑made bioreactors because each hosts a crowd whose joint output beats any single member. 



Testing the idea across systems may reveal design rules for building resilient microbiomes in medicine and industry.



A similar logic already guides fecal microbiota transplants that restore healthy gut ecosystems after recurrent infections, proving that designed consortia can outperform single‑strain probiotics. 



Cross‑talk between fields may speed the jump from proof of concept to routine practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-research-goes-next">Where research goes next</h2>



Johnson and Marín want field trials that run for multiple plant generations, use minimal fertilizer, and track microbial genomes alongside plant performance. 



Such studies would put FTS to the test by asking whether curated teams stay stable and beneficial when weather and management shift.



Meanwhile ecologists are building network models that predict which microbes form keystone partnerships under drought, salinity, or heat waves. 



If those models hold, future crops may come with recommended microbial seed mixes tailored to local stress profiles instead of chemical input schedules.



The study is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ismej/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ismejo/wraf137/8182121?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The ISME Journal</a>.



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Plants have microbiomes like humans do, now scientists have learned how they work

A single teaspoon of healthy soil can hold as many...

Sport does more than entertain. For billions of fans, it nourishes a deep need for belonging, identity, and meaning, working on the mind in much the same way religion or faith does.



Recent analysis shows that the thrill of victory and the agony of defeat satisfy ancient psychological drives, binding fans together and shaping how they see the world.



The evidence is set out in <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Psychology-of-Sports-Fans/Smith/p/book/9781032957838?srsltid=AfmBOoo4MMEoDr0QwxFlKFNnKVhhdIFiSBKhmt2eNa1oAFkaUgvoilQB">The Psychology of Sports Fans</a>, a new book by Aaron C. T. Smith, a professor at the <a href="https://www.canberra.edu.au/">University of Canberra</a> and <a href="https://www.lboro.ac.uk/">Loughborough University</a>.



Drawing on studies from neuroscience, evolutionary psychology, and cultural anthropology, Smith argues that devotion to a club or athlete taps “superordinate ideologies” that sit at the core of a person’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychedelics-sexuality-and-self-discovery-what-a-new-study-reveals/">identity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-belief-drives-sports-devotion">Belief drives sports devotion</h2>



From Japanese baseball diamonds to New Zealand rugby grounds, the phenomenon crosses cultures and persists because it meets basic social and emotional needs.



“Our minds possess an incredible ability to believe; an ability that has been crucial for survival throughout human history,” Smith said.



“Now, like a muscle that’s been trained to the extreme, we can’t resist flexing our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/highlighting-scientific-consensus-on-climate-change-shifts-beliefs/">beliefs</a>. Investing in certain beliefs, particularly those associated with sports and players, brings us significant personal and social rewards.”



That powerful capacity once helped early humans rely on group <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-single-cells-to-complex-life-was-cooperation-the-first-step/">cooperation</a> to stay alive. Today it fuels banners, chants, and weekend rituals.



Belief in a team creates strong emotional bonds that override geography, age, and even language. People all over the world attach their sense of self to colors, symbols, and collective memories that define in-groups and out-groups, strengthening community ties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotion-links-sports-and-religion">Emotion links sports and religion</h2>



Cognitive shortcuts reinforce the attachment. Optimism bias lets followers expect glorious comebacks no matter the score. 



Confirmation bias filters news so that only flattering facts stick. Because these mental habits operate automatically, allegiance often survives losing streaks that would destroy a purely rational investment.



As Smith put it, supporting a team feels like a personal victory or defeat. The brain registers a last-minute goal in much the same way it records personal success, flooding circuits with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-helps-us-learn-from-positive-and-negative-experiences/">dopamine</a>. Conversely, a crushing loss can mimic real heartbreak.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sports-memories-echo-religion">Sports memories echo religion</h2>



The book describes how pivotal moments in sport burn into long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smartphones-are-teaching-us-how-to-supercharge-our-memory/">memory</a>. French fans still relive the 1998 FIFA World Cup triumph with pristine clarity. Such recollections become emotional touchstones.



“Memory becomes part of the mental scaffolding that supports sports faith,” Smith said. Selective recall then keeps the devotion alive, foregrounding moments of glory while fading the dull or painful.



Smith introduces the idea of “partitioned reality.” Supporters carve out a mental zone where stadium logic applies. Within that zone, miraculous comebacks feel plausible and seasons unfold like epic sagas.



Outside the zone, the same individuals may be sober accountants or careful scientists. The partition lets them embrace narratives that stretch probability without violating their everyday reasoning.



“Fans learn to cope with the highs and lows of their team’s performance, experiencing vicarious resilience that strengthens their bond,” Smith explained. Triumph teaches euphoria, while adversity trains endurance, both inside a safe, rule-bound arena.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sports-rituals-reinforce-belief">Sports rituals reinforce belief</h2>



Emotions alone do not keep devotion alive. Heuristics - swift mental rules of thumb - shore up belief when facts threaten it. A team’s downturn can be blamed on biased referees, unlucky injuries, or a rebuilding year instead of poor play.



“Heuristics act as cognitive guardrails, stabilizing fans’ beliefs and protecting their emotional investment,” Smith said. These guardrails prevent disillusionment and safeguard the social rewards that fandom offers. 



Shared chants in a stadium, synchronized celebrations in a living room, or witty banter on an online forum echo religious gatherings where collective emotion intensifies personal conviction.



The communal charge also enhances <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supportive-adults-help-protect-children-from-mental-health-issues/">mental health.</a> Research cited in the book shows that group support lowers stress markers and increases a sense of purpose. 



In times of crisis, donning a familiar jersey can restore continuity and hope. Fans do not merely watch a contest; they enact identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sports-mimic-global-religion">Sports mimic global religion</h2>



The massive reach of sports - nearly five billion devotees worldwide - suggests that it fills a universal niche. 



Followers create myths of founding legends, holy relics in signed jerseys, and pilgrimage sites in historic arenas. They pass stories down generations, forging continuity that rivals established faith traditions.



“Fans don’t just support a team; they believe in it. They have faith in the athletes who represent them, in the colors they wear, and in the history they honor,” Smith said. That belief may not promise salvation, but it grants community, excitement, and meaning.



When the whistle blows, neurons fire, biases activate, and memories are enriched. Victory feels transcendent, defeat stings like loss, and every season offers renewal.



In that ritual cycle, the psychology of sports fandom shows how deeply it resembles religion - revealing that, through games played on grass or ice, people are still practicing the age-old act of belief.



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Your brain reacts to sports like it does to religion

Sport does more than entertain. For billions of fans, it...

Positive,Tourist,Woman,Taking,Picture,Outdoors,For,Memories,,Making,Selfie

A stray burst of joy can do more than lift a mood. New evidence shows that positive emotions can mark even the blandest picture for long‑term storage in the brain, turning forgettable squiggles into sticky memories.



The work comes from <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Xi-Jia-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Xi Jia</a> of <a href="http://sie.hznu.edu.cn/Portal/Home.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hangzhou Normal University</a> and collaborators at <a href="https://en.njnu.edu.cn/about-nnu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanjing Normal University</a>. Their team asked 44 adults to learn meaningless squiggle shapes while viewing photos designed to spark positive, neutral, or negative feelings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-emotions-better-memory-retrieval">Positive emotions, better memory retrieval</h2>



Scientists often track <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4309118/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory encoding</a> by measuring the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3016705/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">event‑related potential (ERP)</a>, a voltage change over the parietal cortex that peaks 400–1200 milliseconds after a clue appears. 



In Jia’s experiment the ERP signal during positive trials grew stronger, and that uptick forecast which shapes participants would recognize, 24 hours later.



“Positive emotions enhanced the retrieval of meaningless squiggles compared to negative emotions,” wrote Jia and colleagues. 



That single sentence lines up with a broader observation called the positivity effect, where people, especially <a href="https://gero.usc.edu/labs/matherlab/files/2019/03/MatherCarstensen2005.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">older adults</a>, remember cheerful images better than grim ones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flashing-squiggles-in-the-lab">Flashing squiggles in the lab</h2>



Each shape-photo pair appeared three times, a design that let the researchers probe how repetition cements memory. 



During learning, electrodes captured electroencephalography <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/eeg/about/pac-20393875" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(EEG)</a> patterns at over 100 scalp sites, giving millisecond‑level views of brain activity.



“Greater item‑specific spatiotemporal pattern similarity across repetitions predicted better later recall,” stated <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rong-Pan-16" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rong Pan</a>, a co‑author of the report who was from <a href="http://sie.hznu.edu.cn/Portal/Home.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hangzhou Normal University</a>. 



Greater item‑specific similarity in those EEG patterns across the three presentations predicted next‑day success, but only in the positive condition.



Neutral or negative photos, by contrast, did not boost pattern similarity, hinting that a good mood nudges the brain to replay its own activation template while the material is still fresh in the mind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cheerful-emotions-better-memory-recall">Cheerful emotions, better memory recall</h2>



The <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6870483/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parietal ERP “old/new” effect</a>, long linked to recollection, blossomed during positive but not during negative learning. 



This effect aligns with theories that happiness recruits frontal–parietal networks, freeing mental bandwidth for deeper encoding rather than threat monitoring.



At the right frontal electrodes, remembered shapes showed a 380-600 millisecond burst of pattern reinstatement, suggesting early executive loops help stamp data with a cheerful tag. 



Because the shapes carried no meaning, their fate depended almost entirely on the emotional flavor of the surrounding picture, underscoring how context shapes memory traces.



The findings narrow the gap between laboratory studies that use words or faces and real‑world scenes that are crowded with mixed feelings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-dopamine-boost-behind-the-scenes">A dopamine boost behind the scenes</h2>



Animal and human work shows that bursts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-enhances-brain-function-during-exercise/">dopamine</a> in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-has-a-meal-memory-that-controls-hunger/">hippocampus</a> help lock in new experiences. 



Positive images, which are rich in motivational value, may trigger that neuromodulatory spray from the ventral tegmental area, sharpening plasticity in circuits that store the incoming squiggle.



Such chemistry could explain why the same EEG pattern pops up on every repetition: dopamine may cue the hippocampus to replay the just‑formed code, strengthening synapses with each pass. 



In everyday life the positive trigger might be a laugh, a compliment, or an upbeat soundtrack, any cue that nudges <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-fuels-learning-in-young-songbirds/">dopamine</a> levels high enough to prime memory networks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positivity-lessons-for-everyday-memory">Positivity lessons for everyday memory</h2>



Students cramming dull material just before exam time might benefit from pairing it with upbeat music, humorous examples, or brief videos that create authentic positive emotions rather than forced cheer. 



Teachers could also space repetitions, as reinstated patterns appear to grow with each encounter, suggesting a compounding return on emotional context. 



Workplace trainers might alternate challenging content with short clips chosen to evoke pride or amusement, planting stronger recall traces for otherwise dry procedures. 



The data also carry implications for mental health, because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-adult-depression-linked-to-worse-memory-skills/">depressed mood</a> and negative emotions could curb the very neural reinstatement needed for durable memory formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-remains-unknown">What remains unknown</h2>



The study focused on young adults, leaving open whether the same positivity leverage works in children or older people whose emotion circuits differ. 



Photographs, while evocative, offer only a slice of real‑life complexity, so future work should use videos or virtual reality to capture richer moods.



The team also measured memory after one day; tracking recall across weeks would show if the benefit endures or fades with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-can-boost-memory-in-a-surprising-way/">sleep</a> and daily interference. 



Lastly, pinpointing the neural source of the reinstatement burst, perhaps with magnetoencephalography or intracranial recordings, could tie the EEG signature to specific cortical hubs.



For now, the squiggle experiment reminds us that a smile, even a fleeting one, can leave a literal trace in the mind. That trace, it turns out, may help decide what stays with us long after the moment has passed.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2025/06/24/JNEUROSCI.0009-25.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.



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Brainwaves reveal that positive emotions enhance memory

A stray burst of joy can do more than lift...

Finding motivation to exercise can be the greatest challenge in working out. This might be part of the reason why less than a quarter of people achieve the activity goals recommended by the World Health Organization.



 Yet new evidence shows that if we choose routines tailored to who we are, moving our bodies can feel less like a chore and more like fun.



A research team at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL), working with the Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health and the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, has now examined this connection in detail.



Their study followed adults through an eight-week home program of cycling and strength <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/studies-learn-the-exact-amount-of-time-you-should-spend-training-to-build-muscle/">training</a> and compared them with a control group who stuck to stretching.



The scientists combined laboratory fitness tests with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-has-a-profound-influence-on-gene-expression/">personality</a> surveys and weekly enjoyment ratings to see how the Big Five traits - extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, and openness - shape experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-joy-depends-on-personality">Joy depends on personality</h2>



But what if exercise could be more enjoyable? One way of achieving this could be opting for types of exercise that fit our personalities. That suggestion proved correct.



“We found that our personality can influence how we engage with exercise, and particularly which forms of exercise we enjoy the most,” said study lead author Flaminia Ronca from UCL’s Institute of Sport, Exercise, and Health.



“Understanding personality factors in designing and recommending physical activity programs is likely to be very important in determining how successful a program is,” added senior author Paul Burgess, a scientist at the UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience.



The team recruited 132 volunteers aged between their twenties and late fifties. Half received a structured plan with four sessions per week that blended easy long rides, threshold training, high-intensity intervals, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-impairs-the-brains-response-to-nutrient-intake/">bodyweight</a> strength work. 



Each session was guided by heart-rate measurements taken in the lab. Everyone logged how much they enjoyed each session on a seven-point scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-guides-workout-choices">Personality guides workout choices</h2>



“Our brains are wired in different ways, which drives our behaviors and how we interact with our environment,” said Ronca. “So it’s not surprising that personality would also influence how we respond to different intensities of exercise.”



The data confirmed that everyday intuition. Participants high in extraversion flocked to the hardest rides and reported the greatest pleasure during maximal lab tests, mirroring earlier findings that sensation seekers chase bigger stimulation.



Contrary, people scoring high on neuroticism preferred private workouts. While they are fine with high intensity, they need short breaks in between.



Others who scored high on conscientiousness and openness exercised consistently, either out of discipline or curiosity, regardless of enjoyment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-links-to-performance">Personality links to performance</h2>



The numbers behind those preferences were striking. Extraversion predicted a higher baseline aerobic capacity and peak cycling power. This suggests that outgoing personalities may already gravitate to vigorous activities and build fitness through them.



Conscientiousness predicted more weekly activity and leaner body composition, echoing the idea that disciplined people keep health promises even when motivation dips.



Neuroticism, often linked with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-and-anxiety-the-mental-health-impacts-of-wildfires/">anxiety</a>, showed a different pattern: these participants liked gentle sessions conducted at home and were less consistent in uploading heart-rate data, but they still completed the program.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exercise-soothes-anxious-minds">Exercise soothes anxious minds</h2>



What was particularly interesting was the relationship between personality, changes in fitness, and stress, the researchers said.



Before the intervention, the stress levels of both groups were similar. After the intervention, however, especially people who scored high in neuroticism showed a strong reduction in stress.



“It’s fantastic news, as it highlights that those who benefit the most from a reduction in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-stress-makes-us-take-more-risks-in-financial-decisions/">stress</a> respond very well to exercise,” Ronca said.



The drop did not depend on how much their aerobic capacity improved, hinting that simply sticking with an activity they could manage was enough to calm the mind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-follow-your-fitness-instinct">Follow your fitness instinct</h2>



The authors stress that enjoyment, not willpower alone, keeps people moving. The most important part of exercising is choosing something we enjoy and staying motivated even if we don’t find it right away.



“It’s okay if we don’t enjoy a particular session,” Ronca said. “We can try something else.”



“We hope that if people can find <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physical-activity-instantly-boosts-your-brain-speed-by-years/">physical activities</a> that they enjoy they will more readily choose to do them,” Burgess added. “After all, we don’t have to nag dogs to go for a walk: being so physically inactive that we start to feel miserable might be a peculiarly human thing to do."



"In effect, our body punishes us by making us miserable," he said. "But for some reason, many of us humans seem poor at picking up on these messages it is sending to our brain.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tailored-exercise-plans-stick-better">Tailored exercise plans stick better</h2>



Taken together, the findings argue for personalized coaching. Intense workouts may suit gregarious gym lovers, while introverted or anxious individuals could thrive on solo sessions that build intensity in short bursts.



Coaches might offer conscientious clients clear long-term goals, and give open types novel routines to satisfy curiosity. By aligning activity with personality, programs may boost adherence and health in populations where finding motivation to exercise is challenging.



The study isn’t the final word - its sample skewed toward educated Londoners and relied on self-reported enjoyment. But it still shows how psychological insight can turn exercise from an obligation into a reward.



Whether you relish the roar of a spin class or the quiet rhythm of a living-room workout, the lesson is the same: when the workout fits the person, the mind as well as the body stands to gain. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1587472/full">Frontiers in Psychology</a>



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Exercise feels better when it's matched to your personality

Finding motivation to exercise can be the greatest challenge in...

People have always been curious about what the Moon is made of. Scientists have studied its surface for decades, but many questions remain. In 2023, something unexpected happened. A meteorite from the moon landed in Africa, and it had a story to tell.



Scientists named it Northwest Africa 16286. It’s not just another Moon rock. It’s about 2.35 billion years old. That makes it a rare discovery.



Researchers revealed their findings at the <a href="https://conf.goldschmidt.info/goldschmidt/2025/meetingapp.cgi" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goldschmidt Conference</a> in Prague. This meteorite is helping to fill a missing piece of the Moon’s volcanic history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-moon-rock-matters">Why this Moon rock matters</h2>



Over time, lunar missions have brought back many samples from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dry-side-of-the-moon-reveals-new-details-about-its-evolution/">the Moon</a>, but those come from small, isolated areas on the Moon's surface. This rock, in contrast, came to Earth on its own.



It got knocked off the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-that-once-threatened-earth-may-target-the-moon/">Moon</a> by an impact. After floating through space, it landed on Earth. That makes it different from any mission sample.



"Lunar rocks from sample return missions are fantastic in the insights they provide us, but they are limited to the immediate areas surrounding those mission landing sites," said Dr. Joshua Snape, a research fellow at the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/">University of Manchester</a> who presented the research at the <a href="https://conf.goldschmidt.info/goldschmidt/2025/meetingapp.cgi" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goldschmidt Conference</a>.



"By contrast, <a href="https://sites.wustl.edu/meteoritesite/items/lunar-meteorites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar meteorites</a> can potentially be ejected by impact cratering occurring anywhere on the Moon’s surface. As such, there’s some serendipity surrounding this sample; it just happened to fall to Earth and reveals secrets about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-earth-get-its-moon-a-new-theory-has-emerged/">lunar</a> geology without the massive expense of a space mission."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-rock-s-chemical-clues">Moon rock’s chemical clues</h2>



Scientists started studying the rock’s features right away. They dated it back to 2.35 billion years ago. That makes it the youngest basaltic <a href="https://airandspace.si.edu/explore/stories/lunar-rocks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar meteorite</a> ever found here on Earth.



This rock didn’t form near the Moon’s surface. Instead, it came from deep inside. It likely formed after lava flowed out and hardened.



Its chemical makeup stood out right away. It had high levels of potassium and moderate titanium. It also contained large crystals of olivine, a mineral found in volcanic rocks.



The researchers also studied its lead isotopes. They found something unusual. The rock came from a part of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprise-arrival-a-fragment-of-the-moon-just-circled-earth/">Moon</a> with a high uranium-to-lead ratio. That suggests the Moon’s interior stayed hot for longer than expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-this-rock-solved-a-moon-mystery">How this rock solved a Moon mystery</h2>



This discovery matters because it fills a huge gap in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-moon-had-active-volcanoes-just-120-million-years-ago/">Moon’s volcanic timeline</a>. Before this, there was little information about this period in lunar history.



“The age of the sample is especially interesting because it fills an almost billion-year gap in lunar volcanic history. It’s younger than the basalts collected by the Apollo, Luna and Chang’e 6 missions, but older than the much younger rocks brought back by China’s <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2020-087A">Chang’e 5</a> mission," explained Dr. Snape. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/moon_rock_basaltic_youngest_UManchester_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/moon_rock_basaltic_youngest_UManchester_1s.webp" alt="Images of the sample obtained using a scanning electron microscope. These are backscattered electron images, and the different shades of grey highlight different chemical compositions of the minerals making up the rock. Credit: University of Manchester" class="wp-image-1977269"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Images of the sample obtained using a scanning electron microscope. These are backscattered electron images, and the different shades of grey highlight different chemical compositions of the minerals making up the rock. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Manchester</figcaption></figure>



He added that the rock's age and composition show that volcanic activity continued on the Moon throughout this timespan, suggesting the existence of a heat generation process within the Moon. 



This process could potentially have involved radiogenic elements that decayed and released heat over a long period of time.



In simpler terms, the Moon stayed active for longer than many scientists thought. This rock proves it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-journey-of-the-rock">Journey of the rock</h2>



The rock’s journey wasn’t smooth. It got hit by an asteroid or meteorite while it was still on the Moon. That impact created glassy pockets and veins inside the rock. These features show how violent its history was.



Dating rocks like this is tricky. But the scientists still got a good estimate. They calculated its age within about 80 million years. That’s accurate enough for this kind of research.



"Moon rocks are rare, so it’s always interesting when we get something that stands out and looks different to everything else," Dr. Snape continued.



This particular rock provides new constraints about when and how volcanic activity occurred on the Moon.



"There is much more yet to learn about the Moon’s geological past, and with further analysis to pinpoint its origin on the surface, this rock will guide where to land future sample return missions," added Dr. Snape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-small-rock-holds-big-clues">This small rock holds big clues</h2>



This meteorite weighs just 311 grams. It is one of only 31 lunar basalts found on Earth. Despite its small size, it offers a huge amount of new information.



The Royal Society funded this research. Scientists plan to publish a full study in a peer-reviewed journal later this year.



The Goldschmidt Conference is the biggest geochemistry conference in the world. Held in Prague from July 6 to 11, the event drew over 4,000 scientists from around the world.



Among many studies at the conference, this Moon rock stood out. It shows how much we still have to learn about the Moon’s long history.



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Meteorite from the moon tells a detailed story about lunar volcanoes

People have always been curious about what the Moon is...

People don’t need training to pick up on biodiversity - just eyes and ears. A new study finds their snap judgments about forest richness match the numbers ecologists collect in the field.



Thus, our everyday senses give a surprisingly accurate readout of nature’s true diversity, a talent that may help explain why greener, livelier places lift our mood.



The research was led by experts at the German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de/">iDiv</a>).



The team asked volunteers with no ecology background to sort forest photos and sound clips by how “diverse” they felt. Researchers then compared those gut rankings with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-declining-fastest-where-they-were-once-common/">bird</a> counts and detailed vegetation surveys from the same sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-senses-detect-biodiversity-well">Our senses detect biodiversity well</h2>



Forty-eight adults completed a visual session using fifty-seven photographs taken in mixed-species woodlands across Germany, Belgium, and Poland. Another 48 adults listened to sixteen 10-second audio recordings from the same patches.



The participants first grouped the images or sounds any way they liked, revealing the features that stood out to them, and then rearranged the material from low to high biodiversity.



The researchers measured the real complexity of each forest in two ways. For pictures they combined tree-species richness, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-cities-lack-sufficient-canopy-cover-despite-visible-trees/">canopy</a> structure, understory structure, and ground-layer cover into a single “actual diversity” score.



For sound they simply counted the different bird species singing in each clip. When the numbers were compared, perceived and measured diversity moved together: a strong correlation of 0.76 for sight and an even stronger 0.87 for sound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lushness-hints-at-species-count">Lushness hints at species count</h2>



When volunteers explained their choices, they kept coming back to elements any hiker would notice. Dense foliage, dappled light, bright greens, and a mix of trunks signaled a thriving community.



Using simple image analysis, the team confirmed that a higher “greenness index” matched both the on-the-ground surveys and the ratings people gave. 



In other words, the greener the shot, the richer the habitat and the higher the score. By contrast, photos that looked washed-out or evenly lit tended to come from simpler, species-poor areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hearing-biodiversity-s-quiet-signals">Hearing biodiversity’s quiet signals</h2>



Sound told the same story through a different sense. Listeners paid closest attention to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/">birdsong</a> - its complexity, pitch range, volume, and rhythmic patterns.



Four standard acoustic indices, including the well-known <a href="https://www.authorea.com/users/813436/articles/1214821-the-acoustic-complexity-indices-acis-theoretical-and-applied-perspectives">Acoustic Complexity Index</a>, rose in lockstep with both perceived richness and the tally of bird species. 



Even without technical tools, participants homed in on the same signals: lively, layered choruses meant lots of birds, while sparse or repetitive calls hinted at poorer sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perception-and-wellness-connect">Perception and wellness connect</h2>



Earlier studies show that how biodiverse a place feels has a stronger link to mental health than the species list on a clipboard. That connection motivated the new work.



Lead author Kevin Rozario, a scientist at iDiv, emphasized the value of understanding how people sense biodiversity. 



“It’s important to identify what people perceive with regards to biodiversity, what the contribution of the different senses could be, and under which circumstances people’s perception of biodiversity best aligns with what ecologists measure.” 



Rozario noted that perceived biodiversity is thought to play a role in supporting mental health. The new data reveal that alignment is often tight, at least when people can compare several settings side by side.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-loss-hits-the-senses">Biodiversity loss hits the senses</h2>



The study also underscores a cultural loss that runs alongside species decline. “Not only are we experiencing an extinction of species, but also an extinction of biodiverse experiences,” Rozario explained.



City living, indoor jobs, and digital leisure mean fewer chances to stand among varied trees or wake to a dawn chorus. Preserving those encounters may matter for public health as much as for conservation biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-planning-with-people-in-mind">Forest planning with people in mind</h2>



One clear takeaway is that mixed forests with layered canopies and active birdlife satisfy both ecological targets and human senses.



“We recommend to conserve and restore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">diverse forests</a> characterized by a variety of tree species and structures to also provide habitats for different vocalizing bird species,” Rozario said.



“These conservation measures will have the dual benefit of meeting conservation goals while also increasing people’s experience of biodiversity and therefore likely increasing mental wellbeing.”



Planners can even use quick proxies. A handheld camera that registers shades of green, or a portable recorder that crunches acoustic indices, offers a cheap way to flag sites that feel and are alive. 



Urban designers might favor plantings that stay green through the year or host birds with distinctive songs, boosting the sensory richness visitors notice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-multisensory-picture">Building a multisensory picture</h2>



The study relied mainly on young, university-educated women and on brief comparisons rather than lone encounters. 



Future work will test broader groups and real-time walks to learn how age, culture, and context shape perception. 



Researchers also hope to add smell, touch, and even temperature to build a full, multi-sensory picture of how humans read living landscapes.



For now, the message is clear. Ordinary observers, armed with nothing more than eyes and ears, can still spot the difference between a sparse wood and a thriving one - and that instinct lines up with hard science. 



Protect the layered greenery and the singing birds, and you protect both biodiversity and the quiet joy people draw from it.



The study is published in the British Ecological Society journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.70087">People and Nature</a>.



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Humans can accurately perceive biodiversity through the senses

People don’t need training to pick up on biodiversity -...

Diseño sin título - 1

Earth started out as a ball of liquid fire, its newborn surface closer to a lava lamp than the calm continents we know today. Those incandescent beginnings happened 4.5 billion years ago, yet the evidence is buried miles beneath our feet where direct sampling is impossible.



A new computer model of the infant planet’s mantle says the rock we stand on still remembers that fiery youth, right down to the chemical fingerprints laid down within the planet’s first hundred million years. 



Assistant Professor <a href="https://www.yorku.ca/science/profiles/faculty/charles-boukare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Charles‑Édouard Boukaré</a>, Department of Physics and Astronomy, <a href="https://www.yorku.ca/science/physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York University</a>, led the new study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-earth-was-a-molten-world">Early Earth was a molten world</h2>



When the young Earth cooled, it did not freeze evenly like a lake in winter. It simmered from the top down and the bottom up at the same time, leaving pockets of melt trapped deep inside.



Planetary scientists call that global melt a <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023JB026941" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">basal magma ocean</a>, a deep layer of iron‑rich liquid pooling just above the metal core, and its existence explains why the modern core still loses heat so slowly.



Seismic scans of the modern deep mantle reveal sprawling ultralow velocity zones that slow earthquake waves, hinting they contain that same dense, iron‑heavy melt and supporting the basal ocean concept.



These reservoirs sit beneath the Pacific and Africa today, covering areas wider than the continental United States, yet they are hard to image because they lie nearly eighteen hundred miles down.



Exactly when those structures formed has been uncertain because many <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp0021" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier simulations</a> treated the mantle as a single gooey fluid, erasing the complex dance between liquid and crystal that governs segregation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-magma-to-solid-rock">Modeling magma to solid rock</h2>



The code named Bambari by the researchers divided Earth’s interior into a fine grid and began with a half‑melted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-chemistry-has-remained-stable-for-billions-of-years/">mantle</a>, about fifty percent liquid, a state thought to be realistic after the giant impact that created the Moon.



Temperature contrasts made lighter crystal mush rise while heavier, iron‑loaded droplets sank, all as heat bled into cold space, and the model resolved motions at scales from global overturns to turbulent eddies only a few miles across.



Within a few thousand simulated years the top hundred miles had cooled enough for crystals to lock together, forming down‑plunging sheets that ferried a shallow chemical signal into the deep, a result that surprised the research team.



More crystals formed near the surface than near the core, overturning the textbook view that solidification begins at depth, and the outcome hints that early Earth might have sported a short‑lived rocky crust that repeatedly sank back into the mantle.



Because the falling crystals reheated and partly melted on the way down, they left behind an iron‑rich brew that eventually puddled into an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shifting-ocean-color-is-pushing-marine-life-toward-the-poles/">ocean</a> of liquid rock roughly three hundred miles thick above the core, one that may have persisted for half a billion years and acted as a blanket trapping core heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-chemistry-on-early-earth">Surprising chemistry on early Earth</h2>



Low‑pressure minerals such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-rocks-turned-into-great-cheap-carbon-trappers/">olivine</a> were expected to dominate only the upper mantle, yet Boukaré’s run shows their fingerprints nearly twelve‑hundred miles below.



This finding that forces a rethink of how trace elements were sorted. The reason is mechanical: surface‑grown crystals fell like hailstones, skipping equilibrium reactions at depth.



As they sank, mass balance pumped iron‑rich melt upward where it chilled, creating downwellings enriched in trace elements such as samarium and neodymium, and the pattern repeated until the mantle became mostly solid.



That process stamped unusual <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adg2566" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lu/Hf and Sm/Nd ratios</a> that still appear in 3.8 billion‑year‑old rocks from Greenland, offering a rare chemical time capsule of early differentiation.



“This study is the first to demonstrate that the first‑order features of Earth’s lower mantle structure were established four billion years ago,” said Boukaré.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remnants-in-earth-s-mantle-today">Remnants in Earth's mantle today</h2>



The simulation naturally birthed the two giant “<a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/19/10/963/205223/Geological-consequences-of-superplumes?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">superplumes</a>,” formally known as large low shear‑velocity provinces or LLSVPs, that sit under the Pacific and Africa and rise more than six‑hundred miles off the core.



In the model they form as the dregs of the magma ocean, loaded with iron and slightly radioactive elements that keep them hotter than their surroundings, an explanation that unifies decades of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-map-shows-75-percent-of-the-u-s-at-risk-of-damaging-earthquakes/">seismic</a> and geochemical hints.



That extra heat helps feed volcanic hotspots such as Hawaii and Iceland, linking events separated by billions of years through persistent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-chemistry-has-remained-stable-for-billions-of-years/">mantle</a> circulation.



High‑precision noble‑gas measurements in ocean‑island basalts point to ancient, undegassed mantle domains that match the predicted reservoirs, giving independent support to the model’s deep‑time narrative.



Because the model reproduces both seismic and chemical observations, it knits together disciplines that rarely intersect and offers a single story for the planet’s deep past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-other-planets">What this means for other planets</h2>



The equations behind Bambari apply to any rocky world, big or small, making the tool valuable far beyond Earth studies.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-volcanic-clues-hint-at-ancient-life-on-mars/">For Mars</a>, whose lower mass bleeds heat faster, the basal magma ocean would have frozen early, starving the core of insulation and hastening the loss of its magnetic shield within a few hundred million years, a scenario that dovetails with rover <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371698608_Ground_magnetic_survey_on_Mars_from_the_Zhurong_rover" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> showing weak residual magnetism in surface rocks.



For a super‑Earth twice our planet’s size, the same physics predicts a magma ocean that could linger a billion years, sustaining a long‑lived dynamo and perhaps protecting an atmosphere long enough for life to emerge.



“If we know some kind of starting conditions, and we know the main processes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scorching-world-offers-clues-to-planetary-evolution/">planetary evolution</a>, we can predict how planets will evolve,” Boukaré explained. That prospect gives exoplanet hunters a fresh tool for judging habitability without leaving the telescope.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08701-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Scientists manage to simulate what the first days of early Earth were like, 4.5 billion years ago

Earth started out as a ball of liquid fire, its...

A Styrofoam (polystyrene plastic) take‑out food box can outlive its owner and their children. It weathers rain, sunlight, and curbside crushes yet still hangs around, splintering into smaller shards instead of disappearing.



An Australian research team now reports a way to erase 90% of that throw‑away <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-plastic-food-packaging-contains-9936-harmful-chemicals/">plastic</a> in just thirty minutes, using nothing more exotic than air, purple light, and a pinch of table-grade chemicals.



<a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=XqtHx8oAAAAJ&amp;hl=fr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Maxime Michelas</a> of the University of New South Wales School of Chemical Engineering (<a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/engineering/our-schools/chemical-engineering">UNSW</a>), working with colleagues in the <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/science/our-schools/chemistry" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Chemistry</a> and <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a>, describes the method in a recent study. 



Their approach slices stubborn polymers into bite‑size molecules that industry already uses to make solvents, coatings, and flavors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polystyrene-plastic-linger-for-centuries">Polystyrene plastic linger for centuries</h2>



Humanity produces more than four hundred million tons of plastic per year, and the figure keeps climbing even where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-scientists-are-using-air-to-recycle-plastic/">recycling</a> programs thrive. Most items are designed for single use, yet their bonds resist microbial attack and sunshine alike.



Polystyrene poses a special headache. The foamed version is restricted in several U.S. states, yet analysts expect global demand to reach sixty‑two million tons within a decade. 



Its light weight means flakes travel far on the wind, then fracture into microplastics that slip through standard filters and into drinking water.



Medical <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11117644/">journals</a> now link those particles to oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction in animal and cell models. Surgeons have even found plastic fragments embedded in arterial plaque removed from heart patients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-sunlight-into-a-scalpel">Turning sunlight into a scalpel</h2>



Michelas’ team turns the low‑cost salt iron trichloride into an aggressive photocatalyst. 



When a 405‑nanometer LED excites the salt, it spawns chlorine radicals that yank hydrogen atoms off the polymer backbone. 



The orphaned carbon grabs oxygen from the air, the chain snaps, and the plastic’s mass plunges.



The setup looks almost rudimentary. A glass flask sits on a stir plate, air or pure oxygen bubbles through a dichloromethane solution of shredded plastic and five mole percent catalyst, and a small LED panel shines from the side.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dissolving-plastic-by-90">Dissolving plastic by 90%</h2>



Under those conditions the authors report a 90% mass loss for seven commodity polymers in half an hour.



Extending exposure to three hours pushes conversion to 97%, a milestone that once demanded day‑long lamp times.



For the fastest substrates, including <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8435462/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">poly(ethylene oxide)</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/polymethyl-methacrylate" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">poly(methyl acrylate)</a>, most bond‑breaking happens in the first ten minutes. 



Even polyvinyl chloride, notorious for its tight packing and limited solubility, gave up seventy‑eight percent in the half‑hour window.



“I think it’s very important to degrade the polymer and turn it into another feedstock we can use for other things, or just to reduce the amount of microplastics in the world,” noted Dr. Michelas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-trash-to-toolkit-chemicals">From trash to toolkit chemicals</h2>



Breaking chains is only half the story. Gas‑chromatography traces reveal a soup rich in small aldehydes and carboxylic acids that can feed into paint, adhesive, or fragrance manufacture with little additional purification.



Because the catalyst is iron and the reaction runs near room temperature, the energy bill looks minimal compared with pyrolysis or incineration. 



The group demonstrated a fifty‑gram‑per‑liter run that held over eighty‑five percent efficiency, then regained speed simply by bubbling in fresh oxygen when the gas was spent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-energy-math">Checking the energy math</h2>



A 2023 <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/12/3041" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">case study</a> of a decentralized pyrolysis unit showed that processing 360 tons of mixed plastic per year demanded about 560 MWh of electricity, or roughly 1,550 kWh for every ton treated. 



That figure dwarfs the LED‑lit UNSW setup, which relies mainly on ambient heat and the modest power draw of a few lamps.



While the pyrolysis plant did recover energy by burning the oil it made, the upfront input highlights why lower‑temperature chemistry matters. 



Slashing kilowatt‑hours per ton means smaller carbon footprints and lower operating bills, especially in regions where electricity still comes from coal.



For context, running a fifteen‑watt LED strip for half an hour consumes about 0.015 kWh, orders of magnitude below even the leanest pyrolysis benchmarks. 



Multiply that by thousands of lamps in parallel, and the energy tab still lands far south of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128228104000221" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thermochemical routes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-savings-for-cities-and-companies">Savings for cities and companies</h2>



Foamed polystyrene can occupy up to thirty percent of landfill volume by space, prompting bans in California, Maine, and Maryland that steer eateries toward plant‑based or recyclable packaging. 



Yet many municipalities still receive tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ai-designed-material-is-light-as-foam-tough-as-steel/">foam</a>, paying transport costs on material that weighs almost nothing but swallows cubic yards.



A low‑temperature, bench‑scale unit could let waste haulers liquefy that foam onsite, drain the product into drums, and sell it to chemical distributors. Haulers would cut diesel miles, and cities would shrink the footprint of their transfer stations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-polystyrene-plastic-better-health">Less polystyrene plastic, better health</h2>



Environmental <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10151227/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> estimate the average person ingests about five grams of dispersed plastic per week, roughly the weight of a credit card. 



By tackling items most prone to shedding, like takeaway containers, the UNSW chemistry could noticeably dent that intake.



Though the catalyst cannot vacuum particles already loose in rivers, less fragmentation upstream means fewer specks small enough to cross gut or lung barriers. 



Lower exposure could reduce inflammatory burdens now documented in lab studies, easing a growing public‑health worry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-earth-from-polystyrene-plastics">Saving Earth from polystyrene plastics</h2>



No exotic materials are required, so startups could prototype light‑reactor tubes that rely on midday sun instead of LEDs in sunny regions. 



Developers might even graft the concept onto existing plastic‑sorting lines, dropping shredded waste into solvent loops rather than balers.



Regulators drafting extended‑producer‑responsibility rules can nudge investment by counting photochemical conversion toward plastic‑recovery targets. 



Clarity on permitting would address solvent handling and air emissions, two hurdles that often stall new recycling infrastructure.



Further lab work will probe whether iron salts push <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-catalyst-precatalyst-improves-clean-hydrogen-production-to-99-9-efficiency/">hydrogen</a>‑atom transfer in cross‑linked elastomers or complex multilayer films. Each additional success widens the path to a circular economy that values the carbon already in circulation.



Funding agencies often favor technologies that link waste reduction to high‑value outputs, and solvent‑phase depolymerization fits that brief. 



Venture groups in Australia and Singapore have already begun scouting pilot‑scale demonstrations, according to the authors.



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/marc.202400358" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Macromolecular Rapid Communications</a>.



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New chemical process breaks down 90% of plastic in just 30 minutes

A Styrofoam (polystyrene plastic) take‑out food box can outlive its...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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