<p>Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.</p>



<p>This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



<p>In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.</p>



<p>For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. </p>



<p>If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. </p>



<p>The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.</p>



<p>In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



<p>Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. </p>



<p>Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.</p>



<p>In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<p><a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. </p>



<p>They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.</p>



<p>About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. </p>



<p>"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



<p>Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.</p>



<p>With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. </p>



<p>Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.</p>



<p>"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.</p>



<p>Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



<p>Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. </p>



<p>"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.</p>



<p>Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. </p>



<p>All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.</p>



<p>The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. </p>



<p>This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



<p>Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. </p>



<p>They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.</p>



<p>The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



<p>"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."</p>



<p>Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. </p>



<p>Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.</p>



<p>Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Forest Ecology and Management</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

<p>The global wildlife trade is placing a growing and undeniable risk to the world’s most unique and archaic animal species and the essential roles they play in maintaining our planet's ecosystems, according to new research led by the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/">University of Sheffield</a>. </p>



<p>This could have profound implications for the evolutionary trajectory of our planet and disrupt key ecological functions integral to the overall health of our global ecosystems.</p>



<p>In a study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06371-3"><em>Nature</em></a>, the researchers have discovered that numerous species of birds and mammals which hold evolutionary and functional importance are falling prey to the wildlife trade across large expanses of the world.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-far-reaching-and-severe-consequences">Far-reaching and severe consequences</h2>



<p>These trades are not only causing a significant reduction in the biodiversity of our planet, but are also likely to disrupt essential ecological processes, and by extension, negatively impact human communities that rely on these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystems-classified-for-the-first-time-across-the-entire-planet/">ecosystems</a> for survival.</p>



<p>"Thousands of species are traded globally and many of these are done so unsustainably. We urgently need to focus conservation resources towards trade hotspots, such as those in the tropics, to prevent extinctions," said study senior author Professor David Edwards.</p>



<p>The urgency of the situation is starkly apparent as we stand on the precipice of losing some of the most evolutionarily and functionally distinct animals, with potential severe consequences for our planet's ecosystems.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>The research, an amalgamation of prior studies on traded birds and mammals with global evolutionary and trait datasets, aimed to map diverse aspects of trade diversity. </p>



<p>This included functional diversity, highlighting the vast range of traits and roles species play in ecosystems beyond just the quantity of species, and phylogenetic diversity, which represents the evolutionary history within a wildlife community.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Communities boasting higher functional and phylogenetic diversity tend to be more resilient to disturbances, suggesting the crucial need to protect these diverse ecosystems.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The research revealed disturbing trends. Hotspots of traded birds and mammals, including those that play key roles in ecosystem functioning, were largely located in the tropics – some of the most biodiverse regions on the planet.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Regions in South-East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa showed the highest levels of traded phylogenetic diversity, whereas parts of South America emerged as epicentres of traded functional diversity.</p>



<p>"This high level of use suggests that if trade here is unsustainable, it risks substantially altering the evolutionary history present within these communities and the functioning of these ecosystems," said study lead author Liam Hughes.</p>



<h2 id="h-wildlife-trade-hotspots">Wildlife trade hotspots&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Surprisingly, even after accounting for the greater species diversity in the tropics, these regions still emerged as global centers of traded functional and phylogenetic diversity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Simultaneously, hotspots in North America and Europe were highlighted, where the trade could potentially impact local ecological processes, suggesting that the effects of wildlife trade aren't confined to tropical regions alone.</p>



<h2 id="h-evolutionary-distinct-species">Evolutionary distinct species</h2>



<p>Furthermore, the research found that larger species were disproportionately represented in trade. This is concerning because these species play unique roles in ecosystems. </p>



<p>For instance, the African Forest Elephant, an evolutionarily distinct creature, plays a critical role in creating openings in Congo forests and in seed dispersal, yet their numbers have been declining due to relentless ivory poaching.</p>



<p>The study urges for further investigation into our limited understanding of trade sustainability for the myriad species in trade. This should include a greater focus on the roles these species play in their ecosystems.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Species that are evolutionarily distinct contribute more to the functioning of our ecosystems, so it’s essential for the health of ecosystems that we protect these species and ensure that they are not being exploited unsustainably," said Hughes.</p>



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Ultimately, it is vital to understand that removing certain species for trade could cause ripple effects across entire ecosystems, much like removing bricks from a building which could result in the entire structure crumbling down.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"At present we understand frighteningly little of the scale of the issue or its wider implications for ecosystems," said study co-author Dr. Oscar Morton.</p>



<p>Therefore, it is crucial that conservation resources are promptly redirected towards these major hotspots in the global wildlife trade, to prevent irreversible damage to our planet's biodiversity and the healthy functioning of our ecosystems.</p>



<p>—--</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Wildlife trade threatens the most evolutionarily and functionally distinct animals

The global wildlife trade is placing a growing and undeniable...

<p>In a recent study, scientists at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a> have unveiled a complex battle that takes place within the microscopic world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-have-been-found-in-clouds/">bacteria</a>. This battle is waged between eavesdropping viruses known as bacteriophages (or phages) and the bacteria they seek to infect.</p>



<p>Viruses, in their quest to replicate, can adopt one of two strategies: either they remain hidden within the host, stealthily replicating without causing harm, or they mount a full-scale attack, bursting forth from the host cell and seeking to infect others.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The latter strategy is often a suicide mission, as the virus destroys the very cell it depends on. For a virus, the decision of when to shift from this "chill mode" into "kill mode" is crucial for its survival.</p>



<h2 id="h-eavesdropping-viruses">Eavesdropping viruses</h2>



<p>In 2019, Princeton biologist Bonnie Bassler and her then-graduate student Justin Silpe made a remarkable discovery. They found that one particular virus had a unique advantage: it could "eavesdrop" on the communication between bacterial cells, listening in for a chemical signal known as the "We have a quorum!" message. This process, termed quorum sensing, allows bacteria to communicate when they have reached a critical number. This discovery was an award-winning breakthrough.</p>



<p>“The world is loaded with viruses that can surveil appropriate host information,” explains Bassler. “We don’t know what all the stimuli are, but we showed in this paper that this is a common mechanism.”</p>



<h2 id="h-switching-to-kill-mode">Switching to kill mode</h2>



<p>In the world of bacteriophages, the strategy isn't simple. Phages can infect a bacterium simultaneously, coexisting peacefully while the cell continues to replicate, a state known as polylysogeny. This is no peaceful cohabitation; rather, it's a state of mutually assured destruction, waiting for a trigger to switch into kill mode. High-dose UV radiation, chemicals, and even some drugs can be that trigger.</p>



<p>Yet, Bassler's team found something unexpected. Through the use of high-resolution imaging, postdoctoral research associate Grace Johnson was able to watch individual bacterial cells infected with two phages. When she activated a universal kill signal, she saw not a clear winner, but three subpopulations of bacteria, each responding differently to the phages.</p>



<p>“No one ever imagined that there would be three subpopulations,” said Bassler. “That was a really exciting day,” added Johnson.</p>



<h2 id="h-manipulating-viruses">Manipulating viruses&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team sought a way to trigger only one of the two phages at a time, and Silpe found the triggers. When he exposed the cells to his specific cue, only the targeted phage replicated.</p>



<p>“I didn’t think it would work,” he confessed. “I expected that because my strategy did not mimic the authentic process found in nature, both phages would replicate. It was a surprise that we saw only one phage. No one had ever done that before, that I’m aware of.”</p>



<h2 id="h-warfare-inside-of-a-single-cell">Warfare inside of a single cell</h2>



<p>“I don’t think anybody even thought to ask a question about how phage-phage warfare plays out in a single cell because they didn’t think they could, until Grace J. and Justin did their experiment,” Bassler said. “Bacteria are really tiny. It’s hard to image even individual bacteria, and it’s really, really hard to image phage genes inside bacteria. We’re talking smaller than small.”</p>



<p>Bassler noted that the majority of the world’s bacteria have more than one phage chilling inside of them, but no one has been able to manipulate and image them her team did.</p>



<p>“The cunning strategy where they could induce one phage, the other phage, or both phages on demand - that was Justin’s coup, and then to be able to actually see it happening in a single cell? That’s also never been done. That was Grace J. We can see the phage warfare at the level of the single cell.”</p>



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



<p>But this research goes beyond just observing an extraordinary microscopic war. It opens a window into the largely unexplored realm of viral genes.</p>



<p>“Yes, here, we discovered the functions of a few phage genes, and we showed that their jobs are to enable this completely unexpected chill-kill switch and that the switch dictates which phage wins during phage-phage warfare," said Bassler. "That discovery suggests there remain potentially even more exciting processes left to find."</p>



<p>“Phages started the molecular biology era 70 years ago, and they’re coming back into vogue both as therapies and also as this incredible repository of molecular tricks that have been deployed through evolutionary time. It’s a treasure trove, and it’s almost completely unexplored.”</p>



<p>Published in the current issue of <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06376-y"><em>Nature</em></a>, this research could hold the keys to new biological insights and future medical innovations. The story of eavesdropping viruses may have only just begun, but its implications resonate across the vast landscape of biology.</p>



<p>—--</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Eavesdropping viruses: The unseen war within our cells

In a recent study, scientists at Princeton University have unveiled...

Beautiful,Landscape,With,High,Mountains,With,Illuminated,Peaks,,Stones,In

<p>High in the Himalayas, a new discovery has emerged that will ultimately shed light on the mysteries of Earth's past. An international team of scientists from the <a href="https://iisc.ac.in/">Indian Institute of Science</a> (IISc) and Niigata University in Japan has found drops of water preserved in mineral formations that are believed to have originated from an ancient ocean dating back around 600 million years.</p>



<p>"We have found a time capsule for paleo oceans,” said study lead author Prakash Chandra Arya. A detailed examination of these deposits, which contain both calcium and magnesium carbonates, has enabled the researchers to propose a potential sequence of events leading up to a pivotal period of oxygenation in Earth's history.</p>



<h2 id="h-unlocking-earth-s-past">Unlocking Earth's past&nbsp;</h2>



<p>According to the widely held scientific consensus, between 700 and 500 million years ago, the Earth experienced a prolonged period of intense glaciation known as the "Snowball Earth" glaciation. Following this icy era, there was a dramatic rise in the Earth’s atmospheric oxygen levels, known as the Second Great Oxygenation Event.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-less-oxygen-could-extend-your-lifespan-by-50-or-more/">oxygen</a> increase, it's believed, played a crucial role in the emergence of complex life forms. The connection between these two monumental events, however, has remained obscure, due to a lack of well-preserved fossils and the disappearance of oceans from that epoch. But the discovery of marine rocks in the Himalayas could potentially provide a key to these mysteries.</p>



<p>"We don’t know much about past oceans,” said Arya. Questions about the composition, temperature, and acidity of the primeval seas continue to perplex researchers. Gaining insights into these aspects could help us comprehend Earth's past climate patterns, a resource that would be invaluable for improving current climate models.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team's analysis of the Himalayan mineral deposits, which date back to the Snowball Earth glaciation, reveals that these basins experienced a lengthy period of calcium deprivation. This depletion is thought to be due to a drop in riverine input.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“During this time, there was no flow in the oceans, and hence no calcium input. When there is no flow or calcium input, as more calcium precipitates, the amount of magnesium goes up,” said study co-author Professor Sajeev Krishnan. He suggests that the magnesium-rich deposits from this era managed to capture and preserve remnants of ancient ocean water as they crystallized.</p>



<p>This scarcity of calcium would have also resulted in a nutrient deficiency, providing the perfect conditions for the flourishing of slow-growing photosynthetic cyanobacteria. These microorganisms, in turn, likely started releasing an increased amount of oxygen into the atmosphere. Arya explained: “Whenever there is an increase in the oxygen level in the atmosphere, you will have biological radiation (evolution)."</p>



<h2 id="h-ancient-ocean-deposits">Ancient ocean deposits&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The ancient ocean deposits were found scattered along a substantial stretch of the western Kumaon Himalayas, from Amritpur to the Milam glacier and Dehradun to the Gangotri glacier region.&nbsp;</p>



<p>With meticulous laboratory testing, the researchers verified that these deposits were indeed the product of ancient ocean water precipitation and not originating from other sources, like submarine volcanic activity within the Earth’s interior.</p>



<p>The scientists are hopeful that these ancient deposits can unlock details about the prehistoric ocean conditions, such as pH levels, chemistry, and isotopic composition. This knowledge could help answer questions related to the evolution of oceans and, by extension, life on Earth. The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2023.107129"><em>Precambrian Research</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-ancient-oceans">More about ancient oceans</h2>



<p>Ancient oceans, also known as paleo-oceans, hold significant importance in understanding the Earth's past and the evolution of life. These bodies of water existed hundreds of millions to billions of years ago and played a pivotal role in shaping the Earth's climate, geological features, and biological diversity.</p>



<p>While modern oceans cover about 70% of the Earth's surface, it is believed that ancient oceans might have been even more extensive due to the Earth's hotter, more volatile climate. There were fewer landmasses to obstruct the flow of water, leading to vast, interconnected oceanic bodies.</p>



<h3 id="h-composition">Composition</h3>



<p>The chemical composition of these ancient oceans was very different from what we observe today. For instance, the Archean oceans (4 to 2.5 billion years ago) were probably rich in iron. There was less oxygen available because photosynthetic organisms, which produce oxygen, hadn't yet evolved.&nbsp;</p>



<p>When photosynthetic organisms did begin to proliferate around 2.4 billion years ago in what's known as the Great Oxidation Event, they started to release oxygen which reacted with the iron, leading to the formation of iron oxide that settled to the ocean floor. This event drastically changed the composition of the oceans and the atmosphere, setting the stage for the evolution of more complex life forms.</p>



<h3 id="h-research">Research&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Investigating the properties of ancient oceans is a challenging task. Direct evidence, such as water trapped in rocks (like the example in the Himalayas), can provide valuable information. Scientists also study the composition of ancient marine sediments, isotopic ratios, and other geological signatures to infer characteristics of the Earth's early seas.</p>



<p>These insights into ancient oceans are not only important for understanding Earth's past but also for predicting its future, particularly in relation to climate change. Understanding how Earth's climate and life evolved in response to changes in the oceans can help us model and predict how ongoing changes in ocean temperature, acidity, and circulation might influence future climate and ecosystems.</p>



<h2>More about Snowball Earth</h2>



<p>Snowball Earth refers to a geological hypothesis proposing that the Earth was entirely, or nearly entirely, covered in ice for extended periods in the Earth's distant past.</p>



<p>The concept primarily concentrates on the Neoproterozoic era, specifically between 750 to 580 million years ago. The American geologist Joseph Kirschvink coined the term 'snowball Earth' in 1992 to represent a severe global climate condition.</p>



<h3>Geological Evidence</h3>



<p>The evidence supporting the snowball Earth hypothesis is diverse, ranging from glacial sedimentary deposits to isotopic signatures. Glacial tillites and dropstones, found in tropical latitudes, are key evidence suggesting a near-global or global glaciation. Icebergs appear to have deposited these sediments into open water. This suggests that ice covered most, if not all, of the world's oceans.</p>



<p>On a chemical level, the cap carbonates lying above glacial deposits exhibit unusual isotopic ratios of carbon and sulfur. This suggests a rapid change in the carbon cycle at the end of the glaciation period. One possibility is an extraordinary proliferation of photosynthetic life once the ice retreated.</p>



<h3>The Sturtian and Marinoan Glaciations</h3>



<p>The Snowball Earth hypothesis mainly focuses on two glaciations - the Sturtian and Marinoan. </p>



<p>The Sturtian glaciation occurred approximately 720 to 680 million years ago. </p>



<p>The Marinoan glaciation, which followed, lasted from 650 to 635 million years ago. </p>



<p>Both glaciations left a similar geological footprint, providing compelling evidence for the occurrence of global ice cover.</p>



<h3>Triggering Mechanisms</h3>



<p>The exact mechanisms that initiated these severe glaciations remain under debate. Some scientists propose that a decrease in solar radiation output or changes in the Earth's orbit could have triggered such a glaciation. Alternatively, the gradual removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere due to weathering processes might have played a role.</p>



<p>One prevailing theory is that the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia led to increased weathering of silicate rocks. This drew down carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and initiated a global cooling.</p>



<h3>The Earth's Recovery</h3>



<p>The recovery from the snowball Earth condition is another intriguing aspect of the hypothesis. One explanation posits that volcanic outgassing of carbon dioxide could have built up a greenhouse effect over time. This would have eventually lead to ice melt. </p>



<p>When the ice began to retreat, a positive feedback effect would take over. Ice reflects sunlight, but the newly exposed rock and water would absorb sunlight. This accelerated the warming and lead to a swift end to the glaciation.</p>



<h3>Life During Snowball Earth</h3>



<p>Despite the harsh climatic conditions, life appears to have survived during the snowball Earth periods. Some microorganisms, like cyanobacteria, could have continued photosynthesis in open water refugia near the equator or beneath the ice. </p>



<p>The dramatic changes in climate and environment during these periods might have spurred the evolution of multicellular life. In addition, these changes may have also spurred the radiation of complex life in the Ediacaran and Cambrian periods that followed the last Snowball Earth event.</p>



<h3>Criticism and Alternatives to Snowball Earth Hypothesis</h3>



<p>While many widely accept the snowball Earth hypothesis, it does encounter criticism and competes with alternative theories. Critics argue that some areas of the Earth may have remained ice-free, suggesting a 'slushball Earth' scenario. They base their arguments on the existence of certain sedimentary structures that typically form in non-glacial environments and on the survival and evolution of life during these periods.</p>



<p>Snowball Earth represents a significant hypothesis in understanding our planet's climatic past and the resilience and evolution of life. The extreme conditions of this period showcase Earth's potential for radical change and provide crucial insights into the Earth's climate system.</p>



<p>—--</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Ancient ocean water discovery is unlocking secrets of Earth's past

High in the Himalayas, a new discovery has emerged that...

<p>Breast milk, often hailed as the "liquid gold" of nutrition for newborns, has a number of amazing components to help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lab-grown-babies-revolutionary-science-or-ethical-disaster/">babies</a> grow and develop.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In a new study from <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a>, researchers have identified a specific sugar molecule present in human breast milk that may be pivotal to both the growth of young brains and the aging ones. The research offers insights that could potentially revolutionize infant nutrition and adult brain health.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>The research was conducted at the Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging (HNRCA) at Tufts University. The experts pinpointed a micronutrient in human breast milk known as myo-inositol, demonstrating its significant positive effects on the developing brains of infants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This finding deepens our understanding of the connection between diet and brain health and has promising implications for enhancing infant formulas in scenarios where breastfeeding may not be an option.</p>



<p>Published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2221413120"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a>, the study establishes the key role of this micronutrient in early life. The research also sets the stage for exploring how myo-inositol might function in the brain throughout aging.</p>



<h2 id="h-fascinating-insights">Fascinating insights&nbsp;</h2>



<p>One of the most compelling aspects of the research was the discovery that myo-inositol is most abundantly found in human breast milk during the initial months of lactation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This is a critical phase when the infant's brain is rapidly forming neuronal connections known as synapses. Interestingly, the researchers found this to be consistent across mothers from various ethnic backgrounds and geographic locations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By profiling and comparing milk samples from Mexico City, Shanghai, and Cincinnati, the researchers found a global uniformity in the presence of myo-inositol.</p>



<h2 id="h-human-experiences-shape-the-brain">Human experiences shape the brain</h2>



<p>Thomas Biederer is the senior scientist on the Neuroscience and Aging Team at the HNRCA, senior author on the study, and faculty member at the Yale School of Medicine. He emphasizes the fascinating complexity of human experiences in shaping brain development.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Forming and refining brain connectivity from birth is guided by genetic and environmental forces as well as by human experiences,” said Biederer. He further explores the idea that diet, as one of the environmental forces, provides a rich field for study.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Biederer notes the particular sensitivity of the brain to dietary factors during infancy, given the more permeable nature of the blood-brain barrier.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As a neuroscientist, it’s intriguing to me how profound the effects of micronutrients are on the brain,” says Biederer. “It’s also amazing how complex and rich human breast milk is, and I now think it is conceivable that its composition is dynamically changing to support different stages of infant brain development.”</p>



<h2 id="h-universal-role-in-brain-development">Universal role in brain development</h2>



<p>The uniform presence of myo-inositol across different geographic locations underscores its universal role in human brain development. But its significance does not end with infancy.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers also uncovered connections between brain inositol levels and several adult mental health conditions, such as major depressive disorders, bipolar disease, schizophrenia, Down’s syndrome, and Alzheimer's disease.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These findings open doors to many pressing questions about the cause-and-effect relationship between inositol levels and these diseases, as well as the optimal levels of myo-inositol for brain health throughout life.</p>



<p>Biederer cautions against immediate changes to adult diets, stating that it's too soon to recommend an increase in myo-inositol consumption, although he acknowledges the potential benefits for infant formulas.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The current research does indicate that for circumstances where breastfeeding is not possible, it may be beneficial to increase the levels of myo-inositol in infant formula,” he says.</p>



<h2 id="h-many-questions-remain">Many questions remain</h2>



<p>Several questions still need answers:</p>



<p>Is the low level of inositol in individuals with depression or bipolar disorder a causative factor for these conditions, or could it be a side effect of the medications used in their treatment?&nbsp;</p>



<p>What does the presence of abnormally high levels of myo-inositol in people with Down’s syndrome and Alzheimer’s disease suggest? Could excessive myo-inositol be harmful? And perhaps most intriguingly, what is the "ideal" level of myo-inositol necessary for optimal brain health at different life stages?</p>



<p>Biederer and his team at the HNRCA are presently working on answering these questions. Their research is now geared towards understanding how micronutrients like myo-inositol might influence cells and connectivity in the aging brain. The goal is to shed light on how dietary factors interact with age-related brain anomalies.</p>



<p>The study received support from Reckitt Benckiser / Mead Johnson Nutrition and a generous contribution from the Robert and Margaret Patricelli Family Foundation. The researchers maintain that the findings and interpretations are solely their own and do not represent the official views of the funders.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-breast-milk">More about breast milk</h2>



<p>Breast milk is a fascinating and complex substance that plays a crucial role in infant development. Here's a deeper look into its characteristics, components, and benefits:</p>



<h3 id="h-composition">Composition</h3>



<p>Breast milk contains the perfect balance of nutrients that an infant needs for growth and development. This includes proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and immune-boosting substances. Its composition changes during different stages of lactation, and even within a single feeding session, to meet the infant's changing needs.</p>



<h4 id="h-colostrum">Colostrum</h4>



<p>This is the thick and yellowish milk produced in the first few days after birth. It's rich in antibodies and immune cells that provide the baby's first line of defense against infections.</p>



<h4 id="h-transitional-milk">Transitional milk</h4>



<p>As the name suggests, transitional milk bridges the gap between colostrum and mature milk, gradually increasing in volume and fat content.</p>



<h4 id="h-mature-milk">Mature milk</h4>



<p>Mature milk is rich in fats, lactose, water-soluble vitamins, and more than 200 different types of proteins that help with digestion and provide antibodies.</p>



<h3 id="h-health-benefits-for-infants">Health benefits for infants</h3>



<p>Breast milk is often referred to as the "gold standard" for infant nutrition, and for good reasons:</p>



<h4 id="h-nutritional-content">Nutritional content</h4>



<p>It provides all the essential nutrients required for the first six months of life.</p>



<h4 id="h-immune-support">Immune Support</h4>



<p>It contains antibodies and immune cells that protect against various infections and diseases.</p>



<h4 id="h-digestibility">Digestibility</h4>



<p>The proteins and fats in breast milk are easier for infants to digest compared to cow's milk or formula.</p>



<h4 id="h-brain-development">Brain development</h4>



<p>As seen in the Tufts University study, breast milk contains specific nutrients like myo-inositol that promote brain development.</p>



<h4 id="h-emotional-bonding">Emotional bonding</h4>



<p>Breastfeeding fosters a close emotional connection between the mother and baby.</p>



<h3 id="h-health-benefits-for-mothers">Health benefits for mothers</h3>



<p>Breastfeeding also offers benefits for mothers:</p>



<h4 id="h-weight-loss">Weight loss</h4>



<p>It helps in losing pregnancy weight as it burns extra calories.</p>



<h4 id="h-cancer-protection">Cancer protection&nbsp;</h4>



<p>Some studies suggest that breastfeeding may reduce the risk of breast and ovarian cancers.</p>



<h4 id="h-convenience-and-cost-effectiveness">Convenience and cost-effectiveness</h4>



<p>Breast milk is readily available and doesn't incur additional costs like formula feeding.</p>



<h3 id="h-challenges-and-alternatives">Challenges and alternatives</h3>



<p>While breastfeeding is highly beneficial, it might not be possible for every mother due to medical, personal, or professional reasons. In such cases, infant formulas are available as an alternative.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Although they do not replicate the complexity of breast milk, ongoing research, like the study at Tufts University, is aimed at enhancing the nutritional content of formulas to come closer to the benefits offered by breast milk.</p>



<p>—--</p>



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Nutrition for neurons: The role of breast milk in shaping our brains

Breast milk, often hailed as the "liquid gold" of nutrition...

<p>Scientists have discovered that bees and wasps have independently developed remarkably similar architectural techniques, despite their diverse evolutionary backgrounds and the distinct materials they use for construction.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The two species share a common practice: the creation of hexagonal cells. But what's even more intriguing is their consistent approach to solve a complex building challenge that arises when a perfect hexagonal structure can't be achieved.</p>



<p>Similar to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-threaten-australian-tiger-sharks/">sharks</a> and whales have developed analogous body structures to adapt to their aquatic environments, bees and wasps construct hexagonal cells for their nests. This configuration offers an optimal balance of strength and storage area while reducing the need for construction materials.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, bees and wasps can't always build a perfect hexagonal cell. This is especially true when both species need to accommodate differently-sized hexagons within a single comb sheet.</p>



<h2 id="h-studying-bees-and-wasps">Studying bees and wasps</h2>



<p>Certain honey bee and wasp species construct two distinct hexagon sizes: smaller cells house workers, while the larger ones accommodate drones and queens. This discrepancy in cell sizes brings forth a significant architectural issue. How can these two different-sized hexagons fit seamlessly within a single comb sheet?</p>



<p>To investigate, researchers gathered nest images from around the world that portrayed both worker and reproductive cells within the same comb. The team was led by Dr. Michael L. Smith, assistant professor in the Department of Biological Sciences at <a href="https://www.auburn.edu/">Auburn University</a> and affiliate member of the Max Planck Institute for Animal Behavior.</p>



<p>Applying custom-built software, the experts meticulously extracted per-cell measurements from an impressive number of cells, reaching 22,745.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study revealed that in species like Metapolybia mesoamerica, there was no architectural conundrum to unravel. Both worker and reproductive cells were identically sized. By contrast, species like Apis andreniformis presented a significant challenge, with reproductive cells being up to 2.7 times larger than worker cells.</p>



<p>Through this investigation across ten species, Smith and his team found a common pattern: as the discrepancy between worker and reproductive cells grew, the insects began to construct non-hexagonal cells. These were mainly 5- and 7-sided cells built in pairs, with the 5-sided cell created on the worker side, and the 7-sided cell on the reproductive side.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The pattern appeared across all bee and wasp species that had to deal with cell size variation. This observation was fascinating, given these insects' renowned affinity for hexagonal structures.</p>



<h2 id="h-bees-and-wasps-came-to-the-same-conclusion">Bees and wasps came to the same conclusion&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team developed a mathematical model that predicts the number of non-hexagonal cells to incorporate, building upon their findings on the cell-size difference.</p>



<p>The researchers found that some species consistently outperformed the model's expectations by incorporating intermediate-sized cells into the transition region, reducing the need for non-hexagonal cells.</p>



<p>Despite an evolutionary separation of over 179 million years, bees and wasps appear to have independently arrived at the same architectural solution to handle this scalable issue. Even with distinct building materials and the independent origins of hexagonal cells, they all adopt the same constructional approach.</p>



<h2 id="h-striking-results">Striking results</h2>



<p>"Once we were able to plot out all the data, the results were striking – you could see how the bees and wasps used intermediate-sized cells to make a gradual change, but also how consistently the non-hexagonal cells were arranged in the comb,” said Dr. Smith.</p>



<p>This study contributes to our understanding of how collective systems can build adaptive and resilient structures without centralized control. The construction of these combs doesn't rely on a single "architect." Instead, hundreds, or even thousands, of individual bees and wasps contribute to the final product.</p>



<p>The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002211"><em>PLOS Biology</em></a>, was supported by the National Science Foundation, the German Research Foundation, a Packard Fellowship for Science and Engineering, and GETTYLABS.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-bee-nests">More about bee nests</h2>



<p>Bee nests are fascinating structures that bees build to house their colonies. They are intricate and efficient systems built for both the protection and nurturing of the hive's members. Here's a closer look at some of the features of bee nests:</p>



<h3 id="h-material">Material</h3>



<p>Bees use wax, which they produce from glands in their abdomen, to build their nests. The most well-known structure inside a bee nest is the honeycomb, composed of hexagonal cells made of beeswax.</p>



<h3 id="h-honeycombs">Honeycombs</h3>



<p>Honeycombs are a marvel of natural engineering. Each cell in a honeycomb is a perfect hexagon, a shape that allows for the most efficient use of space with the least amount of building material. Bees use the cells for a variety of purposes, such as storing honey and pollen, and raising their young.</p>



<h3 id="h-organization">Organization</h3>



<p>Bee nests are highly organized structures. There are cells for worker bees, queen bees, and drones. The size and position of these cells differ based on their purpose. Worker bee cells are usually smaller, while queen cells are larger and often positioned at the bottom or edge of the comb.</p>



<h3 id="h-temperature-control">Temperature control</h3>



<p>Bee nests also have a remarkable system for temperature control. Worker bees control the temperature inside the hive by either fanning their wings to cool it down, or huddling together to generate heat.</p>



<h3 id="h-protection">Protection</h3>



<p>Bee nests are designed with protection in mind. They often have a single entrance which makes it easier for the bees to defend against predators and intruders.</p>



<h3 id="h-location">Location</h3>



<p>Depending on the species, bees build their nests in various locations. Some prefer hollow trees or cavities in rocks, while others may build in the ground. Some bee species even build their nests in human-made structures.</p>



<p>Each species of bee has its unique way of constructing and organizing its nest, and studying these methods gives scientists insight into their complex social structures and behaviors.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Bees and wasps use the same nest-building tricks despite independent evolution

Scientists have discovered that bees and wasps have independently developed...

<p>Parents often worry about their children's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-counteracts-negative-effects-of-sleep-deprivation/">sleep</a> - contemplating whether they're getting too little or too much. A research team from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> (UEA) has recently revealed insights that may alleviate some parental anxieties about their children's nap times.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study offers an intriguing look into the world of infant sleep patterns. The findings help to clarify the relationship between sleep and early childhood learning.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>The research was focused on how the frequency and length of naps can mirror a child's cognitive development and needs.</p>



<p>The results suggest that the frequency of children's naps reflects their cognitive requirements. In other words, some infants consolidate information more efficiently during sleep, resulting in fewer naps, while others with smaller vocabularies and poorer cognitive skills may need more frequent napping.</p>



<h2 id="h-no-need-to-worry-about-nap-times">No need to worry about nap times</h2>



<p>Dr. Teodora Gliga, the lead researcher on the project, stresses that parental anxieties about their child's sleep patterns may be misplaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Parents worry that their kids don't nap as much as expected for their age, or nap too frequently and for too long, but our research shows that how frequently a child naps reflects their individual cognitive need. Some are more efficient at consolidating information during sleep, so they nap less frequently."</p>



<p>Dr. Gliga also notes a correlation between cognitive function and nap frequency: "Children with smaller vocabularies or a lower score in a measure of executive function, nap more frequently."&nbsp;</p>



<p>She urges parents not to fret about this, but rather to allow the natural course to take its shape. "Young children will naturally nap for as long as they need and they should be allowed to do just that."</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study observed the sleep habits of 463 infants aged between eight months and three years during the lockdown in 2020.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Parents were surveyed regarding their children's sleep patterns, their ability to focus on a task, keep information in their memory, and their linguistic capacity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The survey also took into account the socio-economic status of the families, gathering data about their postcode, income, and education level. Furthermore, the experts considered the amount of screen time and outdoor activities the child was exposed to.</p>



<p>“Lockdown gave us an opportunity to study children’s intrinsic sleep needs because when children are in childcare, they rarely nap as much as they need to," said Dr. Gliga. “Because nurseries were closed, it meant less disturbance to the children’s natural sleep patterns. None of the children taking part were attending day care."</p>



<h2 id="h-remarkable-insights">Remarkable insights</h2>



<p>“What we found is that the structure of daytime sleep is an indicator of cognitive development. Infants with more frequent but shorter naps than expected for their age had smaller vocabularies, and worse cognitive function."</p>



<p>“We also found that this negative association between vocabulary and frequency of naps was stronger in older children."</p>



<p>Dr. Gliga noted that while the majority of parents said that their child’s sleep was unaffected by lockdown, parents from lower socio-economic backgrounds were more likely to report a worsening in sleep.</p>



<p>“Screen time increased during lockdown and outdoor activities decreased but these did not explain differences in children’s sleep," said Dr. Gliga.</p>



<h2 id="h-children-need-their-natural-nap-times">Children need their natural nap times</h2>



<p>“Previous work suggested that caregivers should encourage frequent naps, in pre-school children. Our findings suggest that children have different sleep needs - some children may drop naps earlier because they don’t need them anymore. Others may still need to nap past three years of age."</p>



<p>“In the UK, preschools enrolling three to five-year-olds have no provisions for napping. Caregivers should use a child’s mental age and not chronological age to ascertain a child’s sleep needs," said Dr. Gliga.</p>



<p>The study sheds a new light on the importance of respecting children's natural sleep patterns, underlining that the variance in nap times may be less about a problem and more about an individual's developmental needs.</p>



<p>The findings could have substantial implications for understanding infant development and may serve to guide future research in this area.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The UEA team collaborated with several other universities, including the University of Oxford, Oxford Brookes University, the University of Leeds, and the University of Warwick. Funding was granted by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC).</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <a href="https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/26929384"><em>JCPP Advances</em></a>.</p>



<p>—--</p>



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Children's nap times can tell you about their brain development

Parents often worry about their children's sleep - contemplating whether...

<p>In an unprecedented scientific breakthrough, researchers at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> have revealed the first-ever instance of genetically engineering virgin birth, also known as parthenogenesis, in an organism that typically reproduces sexually.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study was focused on the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. The researchers demonstrated that the induced ability for parthenogenesis can be passed down through subsequent generations of female flies.</p>



<p>Most animals rely on sexual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-oceans-may-reduce-blue-whale-reproduction/">reproduction</a>, a process that involves fertilization of a female's egg by a male's sperm. By contrast, parthenogenesis allows an egg to evolve into an embryo without the need for sperm. This effectively eliminates the necessity for males in the reproductive equation. </p>



<h2 id="h-genetic-engineering">Genetic engineering </h2>



<p>Dr. Alexis Sperling, a researcher at the University of Cambridge and the first author of the paper, explained the breakthrough: “We’re the first to show that you can engineer virgin births to happen in an animal - it was very exciting to see a virgin fly produce an embryo able to develop to adulthood, and then repeat the process.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>“In our genetically manipulated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-biting-flies-pose-a-bigger-threat-to-public-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a>, the females waited to find a male for half their lives - about 40 days - but then gave up and proceeded to have a virgin birth.”</p>



<p>The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.07.006"><em>Current Biology</em></a>, highlights how only one to two percent of the second-generation female flies with the capability for parthenogenesis managed to produce offspring. This only occurred in the absence of males. If male flies were present, the females resorted to conventional sexual reproduction.</p>



<p>This ability to switch to parthenogenesis could act as a strategic survival tactic. For instance, a solitary generation of virgin births could potentially keep the species alive and flourishing.</p>



<h2 id="h-conducting-the-virgin-birth-study">Conducting the virgin birth study </h2>



<p>To investigate, the research team initially sequenced the genomes of two strains of Drosophila mercatorum, a separate species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drosophila-flies-prefer-to-lay-their-eggs-in-untouched-fruit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit fly</a>. One strain was dependent on males for reproduction, while the other exclusively used parthenogenesis. </p>



<p>Through this process, the researchers were able to identify the genes that were activated or deactivated during fatherless reproduction.</p>



<p>Armed with the knowledge of potential virgin birth genes in Drosophila mercatorum, the team manipulated what they believed to be corresponding genes in Drosophila melanogaster. The experiment was successful - Drosophila melanogaster gained the ability to reproduce through parthenogenesis.</p>



<p>This monumental research spanned six years and involved more than 220,000 virgin fruit flies. One of the key factors contributing to this discovery was the researchers' choice to use Drosophila melanogaster. This species of fruit fly has been a model organism in genetic research for over a century due to its well-understood genes.</p>



<h2 id="h-virgin-birth-among-insects">Virgin birth among insects</h2>



<p>Dr. Sperling, who conducted this research in the Department of Genetics, has now shifted to the Cambridge Crop Science Centre, where she will focus on crop pests. She aims to delve deeper into the increasing frequency of virgin birth among insects, particularly in pest species.</p>



<p>“If there’s continued selection pressure for virgin births in insect pests, which there seems to be, it will eventually lead to them reproducing only in this way. It could become a real problem for agriculture because females produce only females, so their ability to spread doubles," said Dr. Sperling.</p>



<p>While virgin birth is a natural occurrence among certain egg-laying animals, such as birds, lizards, and snakes, it is relatively rare among animals that generally reproduce sexually. Zoo animals, particularly females isolated for extended periods with little hope of finding a mate, often exhibit parthenogenesis.</p>



<p>This research not only redefines the boundaries of our understanding of reproduction but also raises intriguing questions about the potential consequences of such genetic manipulation in the future.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-virgin-birth">More about virgin birth</h2>



<p>Parthenogenesis, commonly referred to as "virgin birth," is a form of asexual reproduction where growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization. The term comes from the Greek "parthenos," meaning "virgin," and "genesis," meaning "origin."</p>



<p>While parthenogenesis is quite rare in mammals, certain animal groups exhibit it more frequently. These include insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds. </p>



<p>The offspring produced through this method are usually female and genetically similar to the mother, but they are not exact clones. This is because the genetic material comes entirely from the mother, without any contribution from a male.</p>



<h3 id="h-types-of-parthenogenesis">Types of parthenogenesis&nbsp;</h3>



<p>There are several types of parthenogenesis. In "automixis," the egg cells undergo a kind of self-fertilization. Here, meiosis, the process that halves the number of chromosomes in the egg cell, is followed by a duplication or fusion of the genetic material, which restores the full complement of chromosomes. </p>



<p>In "apomixis," on the other hand, the egg cell doesn't undergo meiosis, which means the offspring has the same genetic makeup as the mother.</p>



<h3 id="h-survival-strategy">Survival strategy&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The biological benefit of parthenogenesis is primarily related to survival. If females in a population are unable to find males to mate with, parthenogenesis allows the continuation of the species. This can occur in environments with low population density or situations where isolation affects the females.</p>



<p>However, sexual reproduction still offers the advantage of genetic diversity, which is critical for the long-term survival and adaptability of a species.</p>



<h3 id="h-new-realm-of-possibilities">New realm of possibilities&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The discovery of the ability to induce parthenogenesis artificially, such as in the case of the fruit flies mentioned earlier, opens a new realm of possibilities for scientific research.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, understanding the genetics behind parthenogenesis might lead to advances in fertility treatments. But it also poses important ethical and ecological considerations, given the potential consequences of manipulating reproduction in this way.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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For the first time, scientists have genetically engineered virgin births

In an unprecedented scientific breakthrough, researchers at the University of...

<p>As the climate crisis accelerates, Canada is enduring its most devastating wildfire season to date. The situation paints a grim portrait of the potential impact of uncontrolled forest fires on climate change, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-air-quality-linked-to-cognitive-problems-in-infants/">air quality</a>, and biodiversity.</p>



<p>According to recent reports from the <a href="https://www.ciffc.ca/">Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre</a>, the country has witnessed an astonishing 4,774 fires since the beginning of the year until July 26.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The destruction cuts across more than 121,000 square kilometers, an area larger than South Korea. Notably, this is approximately 7.5 times the total area affected by forest fires in China over a span of two decades from 2000 to 2021.</p>



<h2 id="h-carbon-dioxide-emissions">Carbon dioxide emissions&nbsp;</h2>



<p>With the widespread fires comes an ominous cloud of carbon emissions. Researchers at the Institute of Applied Ecology (IAE) of the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> estimate that the Canadian fires have released one billion tons of carbon dioxide.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"The greenhouse gases emitted from these fires, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, have an undeniable impact on global climate warming, which has become a global environmental event," said Dr. LIU Zhihua, a renowned forest fire expert at IAE.</p>



<p>The escalating numbers were calculated using remote sensing technology, an effective approach for gauging carbon emissions from large-scale wildfires. With this method, carbon emission intensity is evaluated in conjunction with the area of land burned, as observed from satellite imagery.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-methane-and-nitrous-oxide">Methane and nitrous oxide</h2>



<p>Factoring in the emissions of methane and nitrous oxide, which have a greenhouse effect equivalent to 110 million tons of carbon dioxide, the total greenhouse gas emissions from the ongoing Canadian fires is equivalent to approximately 1.11 billion tons of CO2.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A fraction of these wildfires, approximately one-eighth, has impacted permafrost areas, leading to the release of methane trapped in the frozen soil.</p>



<h2 id="h-air-quality-impacts-of-canadian-fires">Air quality impacts of Canadian fires </h2>



<p>Beyond the climate implications, the fires are precipitating a cascade of environmental and health repercussions. The flames have released an array of pollutants into the atmosphere, including particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), organic aerosols, and black carbon.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The wildfire smoke plumes have also crossed national borders during four periods this year - May 17-26, June 6-19, June 23-30, and July 15-20 - significantly deteriorating air quality in the United States.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For example, New York City experienced its worst air pollution since 1960 due to the second smoke episode. Meanwhile, Chicago's air quality index during the third episode exceeded standard levels by a staggering 5.6 times on June 27.</p>



<p>The pollutant particulates are also being swept across continents by the westerly winds, impacting regions as far off as Europe, North Africa, and Asia. During one such atmospheric transport event from June 27-30, PM2.5 levels in Europe increased by over 5 μg/m3. The transport also contributed 1-2 μg/m3 to PM2.5 concentrations in western China.</p>



<h2 id="h-forest-destruction">Forest destruction </h2>



<p>Furthermore, the wildfires are wreaking havoc on forest ecosystems. The uncontrolled flames rapidly consume vegetation, destroying habitats, and depleting food sources for wildlife. The aftermath of wildfires often exposes the soil surface, triggering secondary disasters like soil erosion, sediment runoff, and landslides.</p>



<p>These occurrences highlight how wildfires are no longer merely a traditional ecological disturbance but have morphed into an environmental catastrophe.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These severe forest fires deplete carbon reserves in the vegetation and soil, disrupt the natural succession of forests, and degrade ecosystems. The result is a shift from forests to shrubland or grassland, with a consequent reduction in the carbon sequestration capacity of the ecosystem.</p>



<p>The worsening wildfire situation is not exclusive to Canada. Recent years have seen the Amazon Rainforest burning over 90,000 square kilometers in just 10 months in 2019, and the Australian bushfires devouring more than 243,000 square kilometers in 2019-2020.&nbsp;</p>



<p>With the wildfire season in Canada typically lasting until October, there is a growing concern that the scale of the disaster could escalate further.</p>



<h2 id="h-china-s-fire-prevention-strategy">China's fire prevention strategy&nbsp;</h2>



<p>In the wake of these disastrous events, China, with its extensive forest area of approximately 2.31 million square kilometers (about two-thirds of Canada's forest area), has implemented a comprehensive strategy for forest fire prevention. The Chinese government has adhered to the policy of "Combining prevention and control, with prevention as the primary focus."&nbsp;</p>



<p>These collective efforts have considerably curtailed the occurrence of forest fires, mitigating the disaster losses and notably improving the nation's fire prevention and control capability.</p>



<p>In the past two decades, carbon dioxide emissions from forest fires in China have averaged about 15 million tons per year, constituting only about 0.2% of the CO2 emissions from global wildfires.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Canadian fires have released a billion tons of carbon dioxide

As the climate crisis accelerates, Canada is enduring its most...

<p>In a compelling report recently published by <a href="https://www.sfu.ca/">Simon Fraser University</a> (SFU), researchers have drawn a concerning correlation between delay in the mitigation of methane emissions and the heightened risk of failing to meet the climate goals as set forth in the landmark 2015 Paris Agreement.</p>



<p>The Paris Agreement aims to restrict global temperature rise to well below 2°C, and if possible, to just 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. A critical factor in this ambitious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lighter-colored-and-smaller-winged-tropical-butterflies-are-at-greater-climate-change-risk/">climate change</a> goal is achieving net-zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by around 2050, alongside considerably reducing methane and other greenhouse gas emissions.</p>



<h2 id="h-immediate-action-is-needed">Immediate action is needed</h2>



<p>The SFU study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-00898-z"><em>Communications Earth &amp; Environment</em></a>, advances an argument for immediate, global-scale methane mitigation efforts to be initiated before the decade ends, if we wish to contain global warming levels below the 2°C benchmark relative to pre-industrial times.</p>



<p>The researchers caution against any postponement of these efforts, warning that any delay in methane mitigation actions beyond 2040 would escalate the risk of global warming levels surging past the 2°C mark - this holds true even if we successfully achieve net-zero CO2 emissions.</p>



<h2 id="h-methane-mitigation">Methane mitigation </h2>



<p>Over the past two centuries, methane has been the second-largest contributor (after CO2) to global temperature increases. Human activities are responsible for over 60% of global methane emissions in the past four decades, largely stemming from fossil fuel exploitation, livestock production, agriculture, and waste disposal.</p>



<p>Study co-author Kirsten Zickfeld is a distinguished professor of climate science and director of SFU’s Climate Research Lab. She stressed the urgency of the matter: "We emphasize that actions associated with the <a href="https://www.globalmethanepledge.org/">Global Methane Pledge</a> should not be delayed, because every year of delayed methane mitigation implies further global warming."</p>



<p>Study lead author Claude-Michel Nzotungicimpaye is a former PhD student at SFU and a researcher on Zickfeld’s team. He emphasized the need for policymakers to prioritize methane mitigation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"While policymakers now accept the need for urgent methane mitigation, it is necessary to emphasize the importance of immediate mitigation to comply with the temperature goal in the Paris Agreement – particularly taking into account potential Earth system feedbacks,” said Nzotungicimpaye.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>The SFU team adopted a novel approach in their study, employing an Earth system model with an integrated methane cycle to probe the impact of immediate versus delayed methane mitigation in achieving the 2°C threshold.&nbsp;</p>



<p>They explored the role of feedback in carbon and methane cycles and the potential long-term climate impacts of procrastination or failure to tackle methane emissions in the current century - a topic that has remained relatively uncharted territory until now.</p>



<h2 id="h-shocking-results">Shocking results</h2>



<p>What the study uncovers is profound: for every 10-year delay in methane mitigation there is in an increase of about 0.1°C in peak global warming temperature.</p>



<p>The findings of the study bring into sharp focus the necessity for immediate and extensive reductions in anthropogenic methane emissions worldwide. In tandem with stringent CO2 mitigation measures, these concerted efforts could maximize the chances of capping the rise in average global temperatures at well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, thereby fulfilling the objectives of the Paris Agreement.</p>



<h2 id="h-sources-of-methane">Sources of methane</h2>



<p>Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, with a global warming potential many times greater than that of carbon dioxide, although it's less abundant in the atmosphere. There are several key sources of methane emissions:</p>



<h3 id="h-agriculture">Agriculture</h3>



<p>Livestock production, especially from ruminants such as cows and sheep, is a significant source of methane. The animals produce methane as part of their digestive process, which is then released into the atmosphere. Rice cultivation is another agricultural source of methane, as the flooded paddy fields provide an ideal environment for methane-producing microbes.</p>



<h3 id="h-fossil-fuels">Fossil fuels</h3>



<p>The extraction, transportation, and use of fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas, are significant contributors to methane emissions. Methane is the main component of natural gas, and it often leaks from wells, pipelines, and other infrastructure.</p>



<h3 id="h-waste-management">Waste management</h3>



<p>Landfills are sources of methane, as organic waste (like food and yard waste) decomposes anaerobically (without oxygen) and produces methane. Wastewater treatment facilities can also release methane.</p>



<h3 id="h-biomass-burning">Biomass burning</h3>



<p>When trees, plants, or other organic matter is burned, methane is released into the atmosphere. This happens frequently in forest fires, agricultural burning, and residential wood burning.</p>



<h3 id="h-wetlands-and-other-natural-sources">Wetlands and other natural sources</h3>



<p>Natural sources contribute a significant portion of global methane emissions. Wetlands are the largest natural source, as the moist, low-oxygen conditions are ideal for methane-producing microbes.</p>



<h3 id="h-permafrost-and-hydrates">Permafrost and hydrates</h3>



<p>Methane can be trapped in permafrost and hydrates (a type of ice that contains methane). As global temperatures rise and these structures melt, the trapped methane can be released into the atmosphere.</p>



<h3 id="h-termites">Termites</h3>



<p>Termites produce methane as a byproduct of their digestion process, similar to livestock.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Methane mitigation is crucial for upholding Paris Agreement

In a compelling report recently published by Simon Fraser University...

<p>Cancer continues to pose one of the greatest health challenges in the modern world, but new research brings promising news about the role of physical activity in reducing cancer risk.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study, conducted by the Charles Perkins Centre, <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a>, reveals that just a few minutes of vigorous activity done intermittently throughout the day could lead to a significant decrease in the risk of certain cancers.</p>



<h2 id="h-vigorous-intermittent-lifestyle-physical-activity">Vigorous intermittent lifestyle physical activity</h2>



<p>This vigorous intermittent lifestyle physical activity (Vilpa), is not about hitting the gym or running marathons. Instead, it encompasses the high-energy tasks that many people perform as part of their daily routine. Carrying heavy shopping bags, power walking, or even engaging in vigorous housework - all these activities can count towards reducing cancer risk, according to the researchers.</p>



<p>Playing high energy games with children also falls into this category. It may seem like just another part of parenthood, but these short bursts of activity might also be playing a vital role in preventing the onset of cancer. The importance of this daily physical activity becomes evident when we dive into the specifics of the study's results.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-experts-discovered">What the experts discovered&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The research suggests that doing only four-and-a-half minutes of such vigorous activity, split into one-minute bursts, could reduce the risk of cancer by 18 percent.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Even more promising is the fact that the study found a reduction of up to 32 percent for cancers specifically linked to physical activity. These include liver, lung, kidney, gastric cardia, and myeloid leukemia - conditions for which a lack of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-may-actually-be-the-fountain-of-youth/">exercise</a> increases the risk of development.</p>



<p>"We know the majority of middle-aged people don't regularly exercise, which puts them at increased cancer risk, but it's only through the advent of wearable technology like activity trackers that we are able to look at the impact of short bursts of incidental physical activity done as part of daily living," said study lead author Professor Emmanuel Stamatakis.</p>



<p>"It's quite remarkable to see that upping the intensity of daily tasks for as little as four to five minutes a day, done in short bursts of around one minute each, is linked to an overall reduction in cancer risk by up to 18%, and up to 32% for cancer types linked to physical activity."</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>To investigate, the researchers used wearable technology to monitor the activity levels of over 22,000 people who didn't follow a regular exercise regimen. Their health records were tracked for approximately seven years to observe the occurrence of cancer.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings highlighted a compelling link between as little as four minutes of Vilpa per day and a lower risk of cancer compared to those who did not engage in such activity.</p>



<p>The term Vilpa was coined by the researchers at the Charles Perkins Centre to describe these short, daily bursts of exercise. The concept marks an essential shift in our understanding of exercise and health, suggesting that every little bit of activity counts, even if it doesn't come in the form of traditional exercise.</p>



<p>This revolutionary study, published in <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaoncology"><em>Jama Oncology</em></a>, emphasizes the significance of incorporating more physical activity into our daily routines.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-health-benefits-of-exercise">Health benefits of exercise&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Exercise has long been recognized as one of the best preventative measures we can take for maintaining good health and preventing a variety of diseases. This includes benefits such as:</p>



<h3 id="h-reduced-risk-of-cardiovascular-disease">Reduced risk of cardiovascular disease</h3>



<p>Regular exercise can help reduce the risk of heart disease by improving heart health and reducing risk factors like high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and obesity.</p>



<h3 id="h-improved-mental-health">Improved mental health&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Physical activity has been shown to help reduce symptoms in people with depression and anxiety. It can also contribute to improved mood and feelings of well-being.</p>



<h3 id="h-weight-management">Weight management</h3>



<p>Regular exercise can help maintain a healthy weight or help with weight loss efforts when combined with a balanced diet.</p>



<h3 id="h-strengthened-bones-and-muscles">Strengthened bones and muscles</h3>



<p>Weight-bearing and resistance exercises can help improve bone density and reduce the risk of osteoporosis. Similarly, regular exercise can help build and maintain muscle mass and strength.</p>



<h3 id="h-improved-sleep">Improved sleep</h3>



<p>Regular physical activity can help you fall asleep faster and get better quality sleep.</p>



<h3 id="h-increased-lifespan">Increased lifespan</h3>



<p>Studies have shown that regular exercise can help increase the length of your life and improve the quality of life in your later years.</p>



<h3 id="h-boosted-immune-system">Boosted immune system</h3>



<p>Moderate, regular physical activity helps to boost the immune system and build resilience.</p>



<h3 id="h-improved-cognitive-function">Improved cognitive function</h3>



<p>Regular physical activity, particularly aerobic exercise, can have marked benefits for cognitive health. It improves memory, attention, and cognitive flexibility.</p>



<h3 id="h-reduced-risk-of-type-2-diabetes">Reduced risk of Type 2 diabetes</h3>



<p>Regular exercise can help your body use insulin more efficiently, which can help prevent and manage Type 2 diabetes.</p>



<h3 id="h-lower-risk-of-certain-cancers">Lower risk of certain cancers</h3>



<p>As we saw from the recent study from the Charles Perkins Centre, regular physical activity, even in the form of short bursts of vigorous activities, can significantly lower the risk of certain types of cancer.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

You can reduce your risk of cancer with just 4.5 minutes of daily activity

Cancer continues to pose one of the greatest health challenges...

<p>Mastercard, the second-largest payment-processing corporation worldwide, has delivered a striking blow to the rapidly growing U.S. cannabis industry. In a recent directive, the company instructed its associated financial institutions to discontinue allowing marijuana-related transactions on its debit cards.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This move represents a significant setback to an industry that already finds itself precariously positioned on the margins of the U.S. financial system.</p>



<p>Despite a number of U.S. states moving towards a more permissive stance on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-number-of-americans-are-high-on-marijuana-at-work/">marijuana</a>, sanctioning both its medicinal and recreational use, the plant and its derivatives remain illegal at a federal level. This reality has rendered many banks reluctant to offer services to cannabis companies, leaving the industry in a complex and challenging financial predicament.</p>



<h2 id="h-mastercard-statement-on-cannabis">Mastercard statement on cannabis</h2>



<p>In a statement issued on Wednesday, a spokesperson for Mastercard commented on the development, saying: "As we were made aware of this matter, we quickly investigated it. In accordance with our policies, we instructed the financial institutions that offer payment services to cannabis merchants and connects them to Mastercard to terminate the activity."&nbsp;</p>



<p>The spokesperson further emphasized the company's position, stating that "the federal government considers cannabis sales illegal, so these purchases are not allowed on our systems."</p>



<h2 id="h-concerns-among-industry-members">Concerns among industry members&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Mastercard's directive has drawn a swift reaction from industry figures. Brady Cobb, CEO of Sunburn Cannabis, expressed his concern over the impact of the decision on both the industry and the end consumer. "This move is another blow to the state-legal cannabis industry and patients/consumers who want to access this budding category," said Cobb.</p>



<p>Darren Weiss, President of pot firm Verano, remains committed to advancing the industry's cause in spite of Mastercard's stance. "We will continue to advocate for cannabis reform in Washington through further dialogue with elected officials and stakeholders to advance conversations supporting the growth of safe, legal cannabis across the U.S.," Weiss said.</p>



<h2 id="h-cannabis-legislation">Cannabis legislation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This development comes at a time when discussions about the SAFE Banking Act – legislation that could fundamentally alter the cannabis industry's relationship with banking services – are taking place in the U.S. Senate.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While the passage of this bill could represent a significant breakthrough for cannabis-related businesses, leading Republican Senator John Cornyn recently dismissed Senate Majority Leader Chuck Schumer's plans to enact the bill as "wishful thinking."</p>



<p>Mastercard's decision to halt cannabis transactions on its debit cards, which was initially reported by <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/">Bloomberg News</a>, has spotlighted the ongoing tension between state and federal laws regarding cannabis, and its ripple effects on both business operations and financial institutions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As the U.S. cannabis industry continues to evolve, these complexities underscore the urgent need for a clear, unified legislative framework that can guide its future growth.</p>



<h2 id="h-cannabis-use">Cannabis use</h2>



<p>Marijuana, also known as cannabis, is a plant that people use for both recreational and medicinal purposes. The primary psychoactive compound in marijuana is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is responsible for the "high" associated with its use.</p>



<h3 id="h-recreational-use">Recreational use</h3>



<p>Recreational marijuana use is prevalent around the world, with users consuming it to experience a state of relaxation and euphoria. Some other effects include altered sensory perception, heightened mood, laughter, increased appetite, and more. However, it can also lead to negative side effects such as anxiety, panic, hallucinations, troubles with heart rhythms, dry mouth, and red eyes.</p>



<h3 id="h-medicinal-use">Medicinal use</h3>



<p>Medical marijuana is used to treat symptoms like pain, nausea, and appetite loss. It can be beneficial for people with conditions like cancer, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, and glaucoma. Some research suggests that cannabinoids might help with a number of other conditions, but more robust research is needed to understand the benefits and limitations.</p>



<h3 id="h-safety-and-risks">Safety and risks</h3>



<p>While marijuana is often perceived as a safe drug, it does carry risks, particularly with heavy or long-term use. These can include mental health problems (like anxiety or depression), respiratory problems (if smoked), issues with cognition and memory, and in some cases, dependency. It can also have negative interactions with other drugs or medications. It's important for anyone considering marijuana use to understand these risks and to discuss them with a healthcare provider.</p>



<p>Additionally, marijuana use by adolescents can have significant negative effects, including potential harm to cognitive development. It is also recommended that pregnant women avoid using marijuana, as it could potentially have harmful effects on the fetus.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Mastercard has halted cannabis purchases on its debit cards

Mastercard, the second-largest payment-processing corporation worldwide, has delivered a striking...

Sick,Woman,Trying,To,Sense,Smell,Of,Half,Fresh,Orange,

<p>An unexpected symptom has been identified as a potential early warning sign of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-may-also-suffer-from-alzheimers-disease/">Alzheimer's</a> disease: the loss of smell. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en">University of Chicago</a> observed that this surprising symptom was particularly prevalent among those individuals who carry a certain genetic predisposition to Alzheimer's.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings, published in the journal <a href="https://n.neurology.org/"><em>Neurology</em></a>, signal a potential new path to early detection and understanding of this neurodegenerative disease.</p>



<p>Dr. Matthew S. GoodSmith, the lead author of the study, remarked on the significance of the discovery: "Testing a person’s ability to detect odors may be a useful way to predict future problems with cognition."</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>The research focused specifically on individuals carrying the APOE e4 gene variant. This genetic marker has been the subject of considerable attention in the Alzheimer's research community due to its strong association with an increased risk of the disease.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The APOE gene, or apolipoprotein E, has several different forms known as alleles, specifically APOE e2, APOE e3, and APOE e4. The gene's primary function is to carry cholesterol and other fats through the bloodstream.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Each person inherits one APOE gene from each biological parent. While some variants of this gene are not associated with dementia, the APOE e4 allele is most closely linked with an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease. </p>



<p>The risk multiplies for individuals who inherit two copies of the APOE e4 gene. Roughly two to three percent of the population has this condition. In comparison, one in four people carry a single copy of the APOE e4 gene.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Interestingly, the scientists noticed that carriers of the APOE e4 gene were more likely to suffer from a loss of smell and cognitive decline than those without the gene.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Previous studies establishing a relationship between loss of smell and brain inflammation link to this unexpected revelation. Brain inflammation associates with cognitive decline.</p>



<p>The research strengthens our understanding of this correlation, and sheds new light on the complex and multi-dimensional development of Alzheimer's disease.</p>



<h2 id="h-promising-findings">Promising findings&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study involved 865 participants who took part in an at-home survey, which assessed their ability to detect an odor and to accurately identify the scent.</p>



<p>Although this new connection between smell and Alzheimer's disease may seem strange, the study's findings are promising.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The results suggest that screening individuals' sense of smell could serve as a non-invasive, preliminary method of identifying those at high risk of developing Alzheimer's, potentially opening up new avenues for early intervention and treatment.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-loss-of-smell">More about loss of smell</h2>



<p>Loss of smell, or anosmia, is a condition where the ability to detect odors is impaired or completely lost. A variety of causes, broadly categorized into two types, can trigger this condition.</p>



<h3 id="h-conductive-or-obstructive-loss-of-smell">Conductive (or obstructive) loss of smell</h3>



<p>This happens when something physically obstructs the flow of air carrying the odor to the olfactory receptors in the nose. This could be due to causes such as nasal congestion from a common cold, sinus infection, allergies, nasal polyps, or other blockages in the nasal cavity.</p>



<h3 id="h-sensorineural-or-central-loss-of-smell">Sensorineural (or central) loss of smell</h3>



<p>This occurs when there's damage to the olfactory system itself. The types of damage could include the olfactory nerves and the brain areas involved in processing smells. This could be due to many issues. They include aging, certain medications, exposure to toxic substances, neurological disorders like Parkinson's or Alzheimer's disease, or brain injuries.</p>



<p>COVID-19 has a notable link to loss of smell. Many patients with this disease experience anosmia. It often occurs without nasal obstruction or other nose-related symptoms, suggesting the virus may directly affect the olfactory system.</p>



<p>Anosmia can have a significant impact on quality of life. It may affect the sense of taste (as flavor is a combination of taste and smell) and may prevent a person from noticing harmful smells, like gas leaks or smoke.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-alzheimer-s-disease">More about Alzheimer's disease&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurological disorder that results in severe cognitive impairment. It is the most common type of dementia, accounting for an estimated 60-80% of cases worldwide.</p>



<h3>Etiology</h3>



<p>Alzheimer's disease often emerges as a result of complex genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. Age remains the most significant risk factor. The prevalence of the disease doubles approximately every five years after age 65.</p>



<p>Although no single gene directly causes the "late-onset" type, which begins after age 65, certain gene variants increase risk. The Apolipoprotein E-e4 (APOE-e4) variant, for instance, elevates the risk of developing Alzheimer's. On the other hand, early-onset Alzheimer's, which appears before age 65, is less common but tends to have a stronger genetic link. Mutations in three genes—amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin 1 (PSEN1), and presenilin 2 (PSEN2)—are known to cause early-onset Alzheimer's.</p>



<p>Lifestyle and heart health factors linked to Alzheimer's include smoking, obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and high cholesterol. Growing evidence also suggests that chronic exposure to stress and a lack of physical and cognitive activity may contribute to the disease's onset.</p>



<h3>Pathophysiology</h3>



<p>The exact biological processes leading to Alzheimer's disease are yet to be fully understood. The disease is characterized by the accumulation of beta-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. Beta-amyloid is a fragment of the larger amyloid precursor protein. When these fragments clump together, they form hard plaques between neurons, disrupting cell function.</p>



<p>Neurofibrillary tangles are twisted strands of a protein called tau, which supports microtubules in neurons. In Alzheimer's disease, tau undergoes chemical changes. These changes cause it to form tangles, which leads to the failure of the transportation system within neurons and their subsequent death.</p>



<p>Over time, the disease leads to widespread brain tissue loss. The hippocampus, a region of the brain crucial for forming memories, is usually the first to suffer damage. This leads to the characteristic memory problems in early Alzheimer's.</p>



<h3>Clinical presentation</h3>



<p>Alzheimer's disease typically starts with subtle memory loss, often mistaken for normal aging. As the disease progresses, memory impairments become more severe, interfering with daily life. </p>



<p>Difficulties with complex tasks, confusion about time and place, problems with speech and writing, loss of smell, poor judgment, mood and personality changes, and eventually severe disorientation and dependency on others for basic activities of daily living follow.</p>



<h3>Diagnosis from loss of smell</h3>



<p>The diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease primarily relies on detailed clinical assessment, including medical history, cognitive testing, and brain imaging. </p>



<p>While definitive diagnosis can only be confirmed via postmortem examination of the brain, new diagnostic tools such as PET scans for amyloid plaques are offering more certainty during life.</p>



<h3>Treatment and management</h3>



<p>As of now, there is no cure for Alzheimer's disease. Treatment aims to manage symptoms and improve quality of life. Medications such as cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine can help manage cognitive symptoms for a limited period. These include memory loss and confusion.</p>



<p>Behavioral interventions, occupational therapy, and lifestyle changes, such as regular physical activity, a healthy diet, and cognitive stimulation, can also play a significant role in managing the disease. Social engagement and support from family and community resources are also vital to help patients and caregivers cope with the disease.</p>



<h3>Research and future directions</h3>



<p>Research on Alzheimer's disease is ongoing, with efforts to uncover its causes, improve early detection, and find potential treatments. Promising areas of research include studying the role of inflammation and immune response, the impact of lifestyle factors, and the development of new treatments aimed at the disease's root causes.</p>



<p>In summary, Alzheimer's disease represents a significant challenge for individuals, families, and healthcare systems worldwide. Understanding, diagnosing, and managing this disease are critical tasks for the global community as populations continue to age.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Loss of smell may be the earliest warning of Alzheimer's disease

An unexpected symptom has been identified as a potential early...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
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<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>



<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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<p>Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how  Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.</p>



<p>According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. </p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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