Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Blooming,Saguaros,In,Sonoran,Desert,,Arizona.

The saguaro cacti of Arizona, iconic symbols of the American West, are succumbing to a relentless barrage of extreme heat, as summer temperatures in the state continue to shatter records. Observations from scientists reveal alarming signs: the towering cacti are leaning, shedding their arms, and in certain instances, entirely collapsing.



Tania Hernandez, a research scientist at Phoenix's expansive 140-acre <a href="https://dbg.org/">Desert Botanical Garden</a>, home to over two-thirds of all cactus species, expressed concern on Tuesday. Hernandez pointed out that the indispensable summer monsoon rains, a vital lifeline for the desert's vegetation, have disappointingly failed to make their annual appearance.&nbsp;



This has resulted in an unprecedented survival test for the cacti, not just in the wild expanses of the Arizona desert, but also in the bustling cities like Phoenix.



"These plants are adapted to this heat, but at some point the heat needs to cool down and the water needs to come," explained Hernandez.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-extreme-heat-continues">Extreme heat continues</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/death-valley-may-reach-the-hottest-temperature-ever-recorded-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a> has persisted at a blistering 110 degrees Fahrenheit (43 degrees Celsius) for a 25-day stretch in Phoenix, raising serious concerns about the future of the saguaro cacti. These magnificent giants can reach heights of over 40 feet (12 meters) and are a testament to nature's resilience in one of the harshest climates on earth.



At the Desert Botanical Garden, a team of plant physiologists has been diligently studying the heat tolerance of these cacti. It was previously believed that these desert sentinels were ideally equipped to endure high temperatures and severe drought conditions. However, the current heatwave in Arizona is challenging this long-standing assumption.



<h2 id="h-full-impact-on-saguaro-cacti-is-unclear">Full impact on saguaro cacti is unclear</h2>



Cacti are uniquely adapted to desert conditions, but even they have their limits. These plants rely on cooler night temperatures and the occasional rain and mist for a break from the scorching heat. Without this essential reprieve, the cacti suffer internal damage.&nbsp;



"Plants now suffering from prolonged, excessive heat may take months or years to die," warned Hernandez. This means that the full impact of this relentless heatwave may not be evident immediately, posing an insidious threat to the local ecology.



<h2 id="h-living-laboratory">Living laboratory&nbsp;</h2>



In the heart of the city, Phoenix's urban cacti are under close observation. This metropolis acts as a heat island, with its concrete and asphalt surfaces absorbing and radiating heat, creating conditions hotter than the surrounding rural areas.&nbsp;



According to Hernandez, this makes Phoenix an ideal place for studying the potential effects of future climate change on desert flora. The saguaros and other cacti species here serve as a living laboratory, mirroring the higher temperatures that plants in the wild are anticipated to face with the continued progression of climate change.



The plight of the saguaro cacti underscores the far-reaching impact of climate change, and the urgent need for comprehensive actions to mitigate its effects. This issue goes beyond the loss of a species; it signifies a disturbing disruption in the harmony of an ecosystem that evolved over thousands of years.&nbsp;



The future survival of the saguaro cacti, like many other species around the world, is precariously balanced on the frontline of the global climate crisis.



<h2 id="h-more-about-saguaro-cacti">More about saguaro cacti&nbsp;</h2>



Saguaro cacti (Carnegiea gigantea) stand as the emblematic plant of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-desert-plants-are-not-immune-to-climate-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sonoran Desert</a>, a symbol of the American Southwest. Known for their large size and distinctive silhouette, they thrive in the arid desert conditions of Arizona, the Mexican state of Sonora, and the Whipple Mountains and Imperial County areas of California.



<h3>Characteristics of saguaro cacti</h3>



The saguaro is an impressive specimen, capable of growing upwards of 40 feet (12.19 meters), and in exceptional cases, reaching 60 feet (18.29 meters). The average lifespan of a saguaro cactus is between 150 and 200 years, although some individuals have been documented living over 250 years.



Saguaros possess a thick, waxy skin designed to retain moisture, a crucial adaptation to their desert environment. They boast an extensive root system, primarily composed of shallow roots spread out to absorb rainfall quickly, along with a deep taproot for anchoring the heavy plant and accessing deeper water reserves.



The cactus exhibits a pleated structure, which enables it to expand when it absorbs water and contract during periods of drought. A fully hydrated saguaro can weigh between 3200-4800 pounds (1450-2170 kilograms).



<h3>Growth and reproduction</h3>



Saguaros are slow-growing plants. In the initial ten years, a saguaro might only grow 1 to 1.5 inches in height. After approximately 75 years, saguaros start to develop their characteristic branches or "arms". The number and pattern of these arms vary widely among individuals, adding to their uniqueness.



Reproduction occurs through the blossoming of white flowers, which serve as the official state flower of Arizona. The flowers bloom at night during late spring to early summer and close by mid-afternoon. Bats, birds, and insects, particularly the lesser long-nosed bat, play significant roles in the pollination of these flowers.



Fruit develops following successful pollination, maturing as a bright red and pulpy mass. This fruit contains thousands of tiny black seeds, a characteristic feature of the Cactaceae family. The Tohono O'odham Nation of Arizona traditionally harvests this fruit.



<h3>Ecological role</h3>



Saguaro cacti provide an essential contribution to their ecosystem. They act as host plants and supply food to a variety of desert wildlife. Birds such as gila woodpeckers and purple martins often create nests in the cacti, while the fruit and flowers serve as food for numerous animal species.



<h3>Conservation and threats</h3>



Despite their resilience, saguaro cacti face several threats, including habitat destruction, illegal harvesting, and climate change. Prolonged drought, higher temperatures, and wildfires linked to climate change have significantly impacted the saguaro population.



Saguaros receive protection under the Arizona Native Plant Law. The Saguaro National Park, located in Pima County, Arizona, is a significant reserve dedicated to the preservation of these majestic cacti.



<h3>Cultural significance</h3>



Saguaros hold a significant place in the culture and lore of the indigenous peoples of the region, including the Tohono O'odham and the Pima. Their towering presence on the landscape also makes them popular in photographs and artwork, embodying the spirit of the American Southwest.



In summary, saguaro cacti, with their towering height, distinctive form, and ability to endure the harsh desert environment, are a testament to the tenacity of life. They not only play a vital role in their ecosystem but also represent a significant cultural symbol, making their conservation all the more critical.



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Wilting giants: Arizona's saguaro cacti are collapsing amid record heat

The saguaro cacti of Arizona, iconic symbols of the American...

In a breakthrough discovery that could revolutionize the world of materials, scientists have found a way to engineer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sequestering-carbon-in-soil-is-dependent-upon-microbes/">microbes</a> to produce ingredients needed for recyclable plastics. This technology has the potential to replace environmentally damaging petrochemicals with sustainable alternatives.&nbsp;



This research, published today in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-023-01160-2">Nature Sustainability</a>, may drastically change the way we handle plastic waste.



This novel research was conducted through a collaboration among experts from three facilities at the Department of Energy's <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a> (Berkeley Lab): the Molecular Foundry, the Joint BioEnergy Institute (JBEI), and the Advanced Light Source.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-recyclable-plastics">Recyclable plastics</h2>



The experts aimed to develop biological alternatives to the basic ingredients in an infinitely recyclable plastic known as poly(diketoenamine), or PDK.



Brett Helms, a staff scientist at the Molecular Foundry and the project leader, noted: “This is the first time that bioproducts have been integrated to make a PDK that is predominantly bio-based."



“And it’s the first time that you see a bio-advantage over using petrochemicals, both with respect to the material’s properties and the cost of producing it at scale.”



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



Unlike traditional plastics, PDK can be deconstructed and remolded into new products repeatedly without losing any of its quality. While PDKs were initially developed using building blocks derived from petrochemicals, the team has discovered a way to produce these ingredients using microbes.&nbsp;



Four years of research and experimentation allowed them to successfully manipulate E. coli bacteria to convert plant sugars into one of the necessary starting materials, a molecule known as triacetic acid lactone (bioTAL). As a result, they were able to produce a PDK with a bio-content of around 80 percent.



Jeremy Demarteau, a project scientist on the team who contributed to biopolymer development, stated with confidence that they are moving toward a completely sustainable solution. “We’ve demonstrated that the pathway to 100% bio-content in recyclable plastics is feasible. You’ll see that from us in the future.”



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



PDKs can be utilized in a wide range of products, from adhesives and flexible items like computer cables or watch bands, to construction materials and rigid plastics known as "tough thermosets."&nbsp;



Interestingly, the research team found that the integration of bioTAL into the material enhanced its working temperature range by up to 60 degrees Celsius when compared with the petrochemical version.&nbsp;



This expanded temperature range could make PDKs suitable for use in applications that require specific operating temperatures, including sports gear and automobile parts such as bumpers and dashboards.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



The implications of this research are significant when considering the global plastic waste problem.&nbsp;



The United Nations Environment Program estimates that approximately 400 million tons of plastic waste are produced globally each year, a figure predicted to exceed 1 billion tons by 2050.&nbsp;



The vast majority of the 7 billion tons of plastic waste already in existence remains unrecycled and is discarded into landfills or incinerated.



Jay Keasling, a professor at UC Berkeley, senior faculty scientist in Berkeley Lab's Biosciences Area, and the CEO of JBEI, highlighted the urgency of finding sustainable solutions.&nbsp;



“We can’t keep using our dwindling supply of fossil fuels to feed this insatiable desire for plastics,” said Professor Keasling. “We want to help solve the plastic waste problem by creating materials that are both biorenewable and circular – and providing an incentive for companies to use them. Then people could have the products they need for the time they need them, before those items are transformed into something new.”



<h2 id="h-encouraging-results">Encouraging results</h2>



The findings from this study also draw on a 2021 environmental and technological analysis, which proposed that PDK plastic could be commercially competitive with traditional plastics if produced on a large scale.



Corinne Scown, a staff scientist in Berkeley Lab's Energy Technologies Area and a vice president at JBEI, is optimistic about the future of PDK plastics.&nbsp;



“Our new results are extremely encouraging,” said Scown. “We found that with even modest improvements to the production process, we could soon be making bio-based PDK plastics that are both cheaper and emit less CO2 than those made with fossil fuels.”



In order to make these leaps in production, advancements would include improving the speed at which microbes convert sugars to bioTAL, utilizing bacteria capable of transforming a broader variety of plant-derived sugars and other compounds, and powering production facilities with renewable energy sources.&nbsp;



With these enhancements, the future of infinitely recyclable plastics could be within our grasp, promising a cleaner and more sustainable world.



—-



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Infinitely recyclable plastics may soon become a reality

In a breakthrough discovery that could revolutionize the world of...

Yellowstone’s famous Steamboat Geyser is the world’s tallest active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geysers-do-not-forecast-explosive-volcanic-activity-in-yellowstone/">geyser</a> which can spray water up to 115 meters (377 feet) in the air for periods as long as 90 minutes. A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">United States Geological Survey</a> (USGS) has found that Steamboat Geyser has experienced decades-long dry spells caused by recurrent droughts during its history.&nbsp;



Since droughts are now becoming more frequent due to climate change, this geyser’s eruptions could slow down, and even halt completely in the future.



“Even small changes in precipitation could affect the interval between eruptions,” said study lead author Shaul Hurwitz, a hydrologist at USGS. “So more water means more frequent eruptions, while less water means less frequent eruptions.”



To form and erupt, geysers need very specific conditions, including a water source, sufficient heat supply, and the right geological “plumbing.” Environmental extremes such as droughts can change that balance, and cause geysers to become dormant.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-steamboat-is-highly-unpredictable">Steamboat is highly unpredictable&nbsp;</h2>



Unlike Yellowstone’s Old Faithful Geyser, which erupts on a predictable schedule, Steamboat’s activity is highly unpredictable, with eruption intervals varying from just three days to half a century.&nbsp;



When this geyser erupts, its heated water spray covers nearby trees in silica, a mineral which protects against bacteria and fungi and can prevent tree decomposition. As a result, these trees can be preserved for much longer than usual – sometimes even a few centuries – making them a useful tool for investigating the geyser’s history.&nbsp;



“In Yellowstone, you rarely find any wood, even dead wood, that’s more than 300 years old because the fungi and other bacteria decompose it. The silica essentially protects the tree from the fungi. For us, this is an advantage because if they weren’t silicified we wouldn’t have any trees to date,” Hurwitz explained.



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



Yellowstone’s forests consist almost entirely of lodgepole pines, which have an average lifespan of only 150 to 200 years. However, the researchers took advantage of the preservation process caused by eruptions and collected silicate wood samples from within 14 meters (46 feet) of the geyser vent.&nbsp;



By using radiocarbon dating, they discovered that the tree samples belonged to three time periods – the late 15th century, mid-17th century, and late 18th century.



“Water that is erupting from the geyser is silica-rich, and when silica precipitates it clogs pathways that allow the trees to respire, photosynthesize and grow. For us, this indicates that when trees grow right near the mound there are no eruptions,” Hurwitz said.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



By matching the three main periods of tree growth around the geyser to regional climate records, the experts found that droughts occurred during the same time that the trees grew, reducing the local water supply and preventing the geyser from erupting. However, the analysis revealed that Steamboat did not remain dormant for extended periods of time.&nbsp;



“In the case of Steamboat, we did not find any tree remnant of silicified wood that had more than 10 or 20 annual rings, which suggests to us that trees never grew big around that area. So, there wasn’t an extended period of many decades or centuries with continuous growth,” Hurwitz explained.



Yet, with global temperatures currently on the rise due to climate change, extended periods of droughts in the American West could decrease Steamboat’s activity even further. Even geysers such as the Old Faithful could soon become less “faithful” to their eruption schedule as their water supplies diminish.



“As we’re headed toward what’s predicted to be a warmer and drier climate in the 21st century, we might expect to see the geysers go to totally different behavior in terms of the interval between their eruptions — erupting less frequently, and some of them might even go extinct,” Hurwitz concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GC010988">Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Yellowstone’s Steamboat Geyser battled with droughts for centuries

Yellowstone’s famous Steamboat Geyser is the world’s tallest active geyser...

Wuerhosaurus:,Spikes,Sticking,Out,From,Shoulders,,Powerful,Front,Legs

Researchers have unveiled a novel species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-reptile-or-the-egg-come-first-scientists-have-changed-their-minds/">reptile</a> that existed close to the time when dinosaurs first began to appear. The unique creature, an archosaur boasting bony plates along its backbone, indicates that armor was an evolutionary trait that came and went several times in the lineage of dinosaurs and pterosaurs.&nbsp;



This and many other findings have been revealed in the research, which is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlad038">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>.



The study was led by Sterling Nesbitt, an associate professor of geosciences at Virginia Tech and a research associate in the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>’s Division of Paleontology.&nbsp;



“We are just starting to understand that there were many dinosaur-like creatures across the planet well before dinosaurs evolved,” said Nesbitt. “Dinosaurs were latecomers to the Triassic reptile party. They showed up well after many dinosaur-looking reptiles were established across our planet.”



<h2 id="h-what-are-archosaurs">What are archosaurs?</h2>



Archosaurs are an intriguing set of reptiles split into two prime branches: the bird-line, which encompasses <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-pterosaur-bones-found-in-australia-date-back-107-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pterosaurs</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-coexisted-with-dinosaurs-yes-according-to-shocking-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>, including those still existing today (birds); and the crocodilian line, consisting of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-evolution-was-influenced-by-environmental-factors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodiles</a>, alligators, caimans, and gharials.&nbsp;



The newly introduced archosaur species, designated Mambachiton fiandohana, claims the title of being the earliest diverging member of the bird-line archosaur evolution.&nbsp;



The fossil, approximately 235 million years old, was discovered in Madagascar in 1997 by a team led by John Flynn, the Museum’s Frick Curator of Fossil Mammals. The team included scientists and students from the University of Antananarivo in Madagascar.



Flynn, who worked at the Field Museum at the time, highlighted the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/fossilized-verbrae-of-the-archosaur-Mambachiton-fiandohana_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">importance of the fossil</a>: “This discovery documents the importance of the southern hemisphere fossil record in understanding this important period of the Triassic, when dinosaurs were first appearing.”&nbsp;



Flynn emphasized the invaluable contributions of the Madagascar-U.S. research and education partnership to the advancement of scientific knowledge over a span of 25 years.



<h2 id="h-archosaur-named-mambachiton-fiandohana">Archosaur named Mambachiton fiandohana</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/archosaur_Mambachiton-fiandohana_1big-scaled.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mambachiton fiandohana</a>, a four-legged, long-tailed archosaur, and a precursor to dinosaurs and pterosaurs, stood 4–6 feet (1.5–2 meters) tall, weighing a significant 25–45 pounds (10–20 kilograms). Surprisingly, this species had a comprehensive set of bony plates, known as osteoderms, covering its backbone.&nbsp;



This bony plate feature, though common in crocodilians and their kin, is seldom found in bird-line archosaurs, with the notable exception of dinosaurs like stegosaurs, ankylosaurs, titanosaur sauropods, and at least one theropod.



Mambachiton conclusively shows that the bird-line archosaur group ancestrally donned armor. As the lineage evolved towards dinosaurs and pterosaurs, this armor was lost. However, it resurfaced several times (independently) in the dinosaur lineage.



<h2 id="h-loss-and-re-evolution-of-armor">Loss and re-evolution of armor</h2>



Study co-author Christian Kammerer is a former Gerstner Scholar at the Museum and a research curator in paleontology at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences.



“The loss and re-evolution of armor is an important aspect of the story of dinosaur evolution - freeing them from some of the biomechanical body constraints of the ancestral archosaurs and potentially contributing to some of the locomotor shifts as dinosaurs diversified into a dizzying array of different ecology and body forms," said Kammerer.



Project co-leader Lovasoa Ranivoharimanana of the <a href="https://univ-antananarivo.mg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Antananarivo</a> said: “Mambachiton demonstrates that retention of ancestral features or acquisition of new traits depend on interactions within the ecosystem.” He explains that if a character is necessary, it will persist, but if it loses its utility, it will fade away.



The research team also included Emily Patellos from the <a href="https://www.usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern California</a> and <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>, and André Wyss from the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>, whose collective efforts brought this historical snapshot of Triassic life into focus.



<h2 id="h-more-about-dinosaur-armor">More about dinosaur armor</h2>



Dinosaur armor generally refers to the bony plates, spikes, or other structural adaptations that certain dinosaurs possessed for defense against predators or for other purposes. Here are a few examples:



<h3 id="h-ankylosaurus">Ankylosaurus</h3>



One of the most well-known "armored" dinosaurs, the Ankylosaurus was a large quadrupedal dinosaur covered in hard, bony plates. It also had a heavy club at the end of its tail that it could swing as a weapon.



<h3 id="h-stegosaurus">Stegosaurus</h3>



Although the Stegosaurus' iconic plates were probably more for display and thermoregulation than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-discovered-in-china-had-spiked-armor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">armor</a>, they could have provided some protection. Its tail ended in four long, sharp spikes that could be used for defense.



<h3 id="h-triceratops">Triceratops</h3>



While not armored in the same sense as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-ankylosaur-discovered-on-the-isle-of-wight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ankylosaurus</a> or Stegosaurus, the Triceratops had a large bony frill protecting its neck and three long horns on its face, which could have been used both for defense and for intra-species combat.



<h3 id="h-euoplocephalus">Euoplocephalus</h3>



This dinosaur was similar to the Ankylosaurus, with a body covered in armored plates and spikes. It also had a club-like tail.



<h3 id="h-gastonia">Gastonia</h3>



A herbivorous dinosaur that was heavily armored, the Gastonia had rows of spikes along its body and large spines projecting from its hips.



These are just a few examples, but there were many other dinosaurs with varying degrees and types of "armor." The shape, size, and arrangement of this armor could vary widely, and it would have been used for a variety of purposes depending on the species.&nbsp;



While we tend to think of dinosaur armor as being used for defense against predators, it could also have been used for other purposes like heat regulation or attracting a mate.



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New creature called an archosaur sheds light on how dinosaurs developed armor

Researchers have unveiled a novel species of reptile that existed...

A common protein found in cow's milk may soon revolutionize the field of wound healing, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>.&nbsp;



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2023.0166">Interface</a>, uncovers the impressive healing capabilities of casein-infused bandages, an innovation that could replace expensive components currently used in wound dressings, such as silver.



<h2 id="h-exciting-possibilities">Exciting possibilities&nbsp;</h2>



Casein contributes approximately 80% of the protein in cow's milk. Over the last decade, scientists have become increasingly intrigued by casein's potential benefits.&nbsp;



The antimicrobial, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/olive-varieties-contain-different-levels-of-antioxidants/">antioxidant</a>, and anti-inflammatory properties of casein, combined with its value as a dietary supplement, make this protein an exciting field of study.



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



The UCL team, led by Dr. Jubair Ahmed, explored the potential of casein in a novel context: wound healing.&nbsp;



The researchers blended pure casein with polycaprolactone (PCL), a biodegradable polyester traditionally used in bandage materials. Utilizing a manufacturing technique known as pressurised gyration, first developed at UCL in 2013, they spun the mixture into fibrous material to create casein-infused bandages.&nbsp;



This technique, more cost-effective than other manufacturing methods such as electrospinning, allows for economical large-scale production.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



In a rigorously controlled animal model, rats with identical small skin perforations were divided into three groups. The first group's wounds were dressed with casein-infused bandages, the second group received regular PCL bandages, and the third group's wounds were left untreated.&nbsp;



Over a period of 14 days, the team closely monitored the healing progress by photographing and measuring the wounds and conducting microscopic examinations.



<h2 id="h-promising-results">Promising results</h2>



At the end of the 14-day period, wounds treated with casein-infused bandages healed to just 5.2% of their original size. In contrast, the wounds in the PCL bandage group and untreated group reduced to 31.1% and 45.6% of their original size, respectively.



"Natural materials contain some wonderful properties, many of which are unknown. We knew that casein was reputed to have healing benefits and our results suggest there is a lot of potential to use it in medical applications like wound dressings. More work is needed to ensure that casein dressings are safe and effective in humans, but these initial findings are promising," said Dr. Ahmed.



<h2 id="h-great-healing-potential">Great healing potential&nbsp;</h2>



Additional analysis revealed that the casein bandages were non-toxic and levels of immune-related molecules surrounding the casein-treated wounds were markedly lower. This outcome further reinforces the healing benefits of this milk protein.



Casein's low-cost, readily available, and potential scalability make it an appealing alternative for future medical applications. However, one challenge in moving toward clinical use is ensuring consistency in the chemical composition and potency of the natural substances, as these can vary.



"All the research so far suggests that casein has wound healing potential, but at the moment we don’t really know why in any great detail. Casein has antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties, which may certainly play a part," said study senior author Professor Mohan Edirisinghe.



"The next step will be to understand the biological interactions taking place before we can consider clinical trials in humans.”



<h2 id="h-more-about-milk-protein">More about milk protein</h2>



Milk is a rich source of essential nutrients, and proteins make up a significant part of these nutrients. The two primary types of protein found in milk are casein and whey.



<h3 id="h-casein">Casein</h3>



This accounts for about 80% of the protein content in cow's milk. It's a slow-digesting protein that provides a sustained release of amino acids, making it beneficial for muscle growth and recovery.&nbsp;



Casein is also known for its various health benefits such as enhancing the body's immune function, promoting healthy digestion, and potentially even reducing high blood pressure.&nbsp;



In the recent study conducted by researchers at UCL mentioned earlier, casein was found to have potential wound healing properties, which opens a new avenue for research in medical science.



<h3 id="h-whey">Whey</h3>



This protein constitutes around 20% of the protein content in milk. Whey is a byproduct of cheese production and is a complete protein, meaning it contains all essential amino acids that the body cannot produce on its own.&nbsp;



Whey protein is quickly absorbed and is commonly used in protein powders and supplements to aid muscle recovery and growth after exercise. It's also associated with numerous health benefits, such as weight loss, lowering cholesterol levels, and managing type 2 diabetes.



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Common protein in milk could revolutionize wound healing

A common protein found in cow's milk may soon revolutionize...

A new study led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> has recently found that shifting from a high-pressure mindset to a more curious, explorative mode could help improve learning and long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-brain-connect-meaningful-memories/">memory</a>.&nbsp;



According to the experts, people who imagined being a thief scouting a virtual art museum in preparation for a future heist were better at remembering what paintings they saw in comparison to those who played the same computer game but imagined that they were executing the heist in-the-moment.&nbsp;



Such subtle differences in motivation – urgent, immediate goal-seeking versus curious exploration in preparation for a future goal – may have a significant potential for framing real-world challenges, such as prompting climate action and vaccine intake, or even treating a variety of psychiatric disorders.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers asked 420 participants to pretend to be art thieves for a day and randomly assigned them to one of the two groups. “For the urgent group, we told them, ‘You’re a master thief, you’re doing the heist right now. Steal as much as you can!’,” said lead author Alyssa Sinclair, a postdoctoral fellow in Brain Sciences at Duke. “Whereas for the curious group, we told them they were a thief who’s scouting the museum to plan a future heist.”&nbsp;



After receiving the two different backstories, the participants played the exact same computer game in which they had to explore a virtual art museum with four colored doors, representing four different rooms.&nbsp;



When clicking on a door, a painting from a room and its value were revealed. Regardless of the scenario they were pretending to be in, each participant earned real bonus money by finding more valuable paintings.&nbsp;



The following day, the participants had to fill in a pop quiz in which they were asked to recognize 175 different paintings (100 from the day before and 75 new ones). If they recognized a painting, they also had to recall its value.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



“The curious group participants who imagined planning a heist had better memory the next day. They correctly recognized more paintings. They remembered how much each painting was worth. And reward boosted memory, so valuable paintings were more likely to be remembered. But we didn’t see that in the urgent group participants who imagined executing the heist,” Sinclair reported.



However, participants from the other group were better at figuring out which doors hid more expensive artworks, and succeeded to snag more high value paintings, with their stash being appraised at about $230 more than the other group’s collection.



<h2 id="h-urgent-mode-vs-curious-mode">Urgent mode vs. curious mode</h2>



As the researchers stressed though, differences in strategies (urgent vs. curious) and outcomes (better memory vs. higher-value paintings) does not necessarily mean that one is better than the other. “It’s valuable to learn which mode is adaptive in a given moment and use it strategically,” said senior author Alison Adcock, a professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Duke.



For instance, to solve a short-term, pressing problem – such as escaping a bear during a hike or deciding whether to get a vaccine during a pandemic – being in an urgent, high-pressure mode might be a better option. However, for boosting long-term memory and actions, stressing people out may turn out to be significantly less effective.



“Sometimes you want to motivate people to seek information and remember it in the future, which might have longer term consequences for lifestyle changes. Maybe for that, you need to put them in a curious mode so that they can actually retain that information,” Sinclair explained.



<h2 id="h-different-brain-regions-involved">Different brain regions involved</h2>



The scientists are now examining how urgency and curiosity activate different parts of the brain. Early evidence suggests that being in an urgent mode involves the amygdala, an almond-shaped brain area known to play a major role in fear memory, while engaging in curious exploration shuttles the learning-enhancing neurotransmitter dopamine to the hippocampus, a brain region critical for forming detailed, long-term memories.



According to Adcock, who is also a clinical psychiatrist, these findings could potentially benefit psychiatric patients. “Most of adult psychotherapy is about how we encourage flexibility, like with curious mode. But it’s much harder for people to do since we spend a lot of our adult lives in an urgency mode,” she explained.



The thought exercises developed in this study may provide patients the ability to manipulate their own mental and brain states and develop “psychological maneuvers” that could act similarly to pharmaceuticals currently used in treating mental illness. “For me, the ultimate goal would be to teach people to do this for themselves. That’s empowering,” Adcock concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2304881120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Simple brain hack: Switching to curious mode can improve learning

A new study led by Duke University has recently found...

In a new study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.15645">PeerJ</a>, scientists have revealed a long-held secret from Australia's deserts: the sweet nectar produced by the honeypot ant harbors antimicrobial properties that could prove invaluable in medicinal applications.&nbsp;



This revelation is less of a surprise for the First Nations communities, who have been utilizing this honey for its therapeutic properties for thousands of years. Once again,&nbsp; <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indigenous-forests-prevent-15-million-yearly-cases-of-disease/">Indigenous</a> knowledge is proving invaluable in our continued scientific advancements.



The research team was led by Andrew Dong and Dr. Kenya Fernandes, who operate under the guidance of Professor Dee Carter at the University of Sydney’s Carter Lab, which is a part of the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/infectious-diseases-institute/home.html">Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases</a>.



<h2 id="h-honeypot-ants">Honeypot ants</h2>



The Australian honeypot ant, the subject of the research, thrives in desert areas primarily in Western Australia and the Northern Territory. The colonies of these ants comprise a unique class of workers.&nbsp;



Honeypot ants are overfed with nectar and sugary substances by their colleagues, causing their abdomens to expand and brim with honey, lending them a striking, translucent amber appearance. These engorged ants act as living food storage, providing sustenance to their colony by regurgitating the stored honey when alternative food sources are in short supply.



<h2 id="h-more-than-just-a-source-of-food">More than just a source of food&nbsp;</h2>



Danny Ulrich, from the Tjupan language group who conducts honeypot ant tours in Kalgoorlie, assisted the researchers in collecting specimens for the study. He described the honey ants as being more than a mere food source for his community.



“For our people, honey ants are more than just a food source. Digging for them is a very enjoyable way of life, and a way of bringing the family together," said Ulrich. "Our people have been enjoying sweet honey ants for thousands of years. As for its medicinal use, we use it for sore throats and sometimes as a topical ointment to help keep infections at bay."



<h2 id="h-unique-medicinal-properties">Unique medicinal properties&nbsp;</h2>



This study marks a pioneering effort in scrutinizing the medicinal properties of ant honey. Andrew Dong expressed his fascination with the honeypot ant and its extraordinary method of producing and storing honey: "Given the medicinal use of the honey by Indigenous people, I wondered if it might have unique antimicrobial characteristics."&nbsp;



In a comparative analysis, the team discovered that the ant honey had a distinct mechanism of action relative to Manuka honey. This is widely recognized for its topical use in treating wounds and skin infections. 



"Our research shows that honeypot ant honey possesses a distinctive effect that sets it apart from other types of honey," said Dr. Fernandes. "This discovery means that honeypot ant honey could contain compounds with substantial antimicrobial power; identifying these could provide us with starting points for developing new and different types of antibiotics."



The traditional medicinal use of honeypot ants by First Nations people has stood the test of time, with their wisdom now being corroborated by contemporary Western scientific methods.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-implications-for-human-health">Implications for human health</h2>



Professor Carter praised the unique antimicrobial characteristics of honeypot ant honey, stating, “Taking something that has been honed by evolution to work in nature and then applying this to human health is a great way to come up with therapeutic strategies.”



Crucially, the research found the ant's honey to be effective against Staphylococcus aureus, colloquially known as golden staph. This bacterium tends to colonize human skin and noses but can cause potentially fatal infections such as boils and sores when they infiltrate the body through cuts.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the ant honey demonstrated potency against two species of fungi, Aspergillus and Cryptococcus, typically found in the soil. This antimicrobial attribute likely evolved to prevent fungal invasion of the ant colonies and has implications for human health, particularly in combating infections in immunocompromised individuals.



<h2 id="h-more-about-indigenous-medicine">More about Indigenous medicine&nbsp;</h2>



Indigenous medicine, also known as traditional or folk medicine, refers to the knowledge, skills, and practices of indigenous peoples around the world in maintaining their health and treating, diagnosing, or preventing illnesses. This form of healthcare has been passed down through generations and is often deeply tied to spiritual beliefs, rituals, and a connection with the natural environment.



Indigenous medicine encompasses a wide variety of practices, which vary greatly among different cultures and regions. These may include the use of herbs, minerals, animal parts, incantations, rituals, physical therapies (like massage or acupuncture), and other methods thought to have healing properties.&nbsp;



The underlying philosophy of many indigenous medical systems is holistic, often considering the individual's mind, body, and spirit, as well as the wider community and environment.



Here are a few examples:



<h3 id="h-ayurveda">Ayurveda</h3>



A 5,000-year-old system of natural healing that has its origins in the Vedic culture of India. It is based on the principle of maintaining balance in the body's three doshas: Vata, Pitta, and Kapha.



<h3 id="h-traditional-chinese-medicine-tcm">Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)</h3>



This holistic system of health and healing uses approaches such as acupuncture, tai chi, herbal products, and nutrition to stimulate the body's healing processes.



<h3 id="h-native-american-medicine">Native American Medicine</h3>



This traditional healing practice involves the use of plants and herbs, but also considers the individual's spirit and emotions. Healing rituals often involve the community and can include song, dance, and prayer.



<h3 id="h-aboriginal-bush-medicine-australia">Aboriginal Bush Medicine (Australia)</h3>



This form of traditional medicine makes use of a wide array of native plants for healing and medicinal purposes.



It is important to note that while Indigenous medicine has been effective for many generations, its effectiveness can be variable and is often not regulated in the same way as modern medicine.&nbsp;



—-



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Ant honey may hold the secret for powerful new antibiotics

In a new study published in PeerJ, scientists have revealed...

Horseshoe,Bend

The&nbsp;Colorado River Basin – the area drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries – covers approximately 647,500 square kilometers (250,000 square miles) in seven states across western United States, supplying water to about 40 million people while supporting agriculture and natural ecosystems.&nbsp;



According to a new study conducted by the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA), from 2000 to 2021, climate change caused the loss of over 40 trillion liters (10 trillion gallons) of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-changes-ahead-for-the-colorado-river-basin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water in this basin</a>. 



This is equal to the full storage capacity of Lake Mead, the largest reservoir on the Colorado River. The massive loss of water prompted supply cuts under the first federally declared water shortage in 2021.&nbsp;



The southwestern North American megadrought is an ongoing drought that began in 2000. This is the driest multi-decade period the region has seen in at least 1,200 years. It has significantly reduced river flow and shrunk reservoirs, leading to widespread concerns about water scarcity as the climate continues to warm.



<h2 id="h-sensitivity-of-the-colorado-river-basin">Sensitivity of the Colorado River Basin&nbsp;</h2>



“While we knew warming was having an impact on the Colorado Basin’s water availability, we were surprised to find how sensitive the basin is to warming compared to other major basins across the western U.S., and how high this sensitivity is in the relatively small area of the basin’s crucial snowpack regions,” said lead author Benjamin Bass, a hydrological modeler at UCLA.



“The fact that warming removed as much water from the basin as the size of Lake Mead itself during the recent megadrought is a wakeup call to the climate change impacts we are living today.”



<h2 id="h-studying-the-colorado-river">Studying the Colorado River</h2>



While previous investigations of water resources in this region have largely focused on the effects of climate change, the current study also took into account the impact of plants’ complex responses to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide.&nbsp;



Moreover, by comparing historical warming in the Colorado River Basin’s snowpack regions with that in the non-snowpack regions, the experts calculated the quantity of runoff changes per degree of warming. This helped them assess how anthropogenic climate change has dried out traditional snowpack regions and quickly reduced the runoff feeding the Colorado River.



The researchers used a land surface model capable of analyzing water, changes in vegetation, and vegetation’s response to rises in atmospheric CO2 to examine how the basin’s hydrology changed between 1880 and 2021. 



They employed standard data sets to represent atmospheric conditions, streamflow gauges, and other records capturing the regional hydrology. They also used ground and satellite data to assess actual changes in vegetation.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-research-team-learned">What the research team learned&nbsp;</h2>



The analysis revealed that from 1880 to 2021, the temperature in the Colorado River Basin increased by nearly 1.5 degrees Celsius due to climate change. This resulted in a 10.3 percent reduction in runoff. 



However, without including the effects of plants, current water loss would be closer to 13 percent. This discovery highlights the importance of including vegetation processes in water modeling.



In addition, the researchers discovered that the typically snow-covered parts of the basin are losing water twice as fast as the regions without snow. This finding suggests that the Rocky Mountain West is transitioning to a more arid climate rather than just undergoing periodic droughts. 



Since snowpack makes an outsized contribution to the basin’s water supply – accounting for two-thirds of the basin’s total runoff – these changes should be of immediate concern to water managers.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



According to Bass, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/pao/pdfiles/crcompct.pdf">1922 Colorado River Compact</a> governs the use of river water by the seven western U.S. states the Colorado River flows through. It was written with the assumption that the regional climate was stable. 



When the representatives of these states signed the contract, “they expected 15 million acre-feet of water (about 18.5 trillion liters) would be provided from the basin, on average, each year.”



“If they were outlining the compact now, they would need to adjust that value due to the impact of warming. Going into the future, we may get some natural variability, wet or dry swings, but this study highlights that there’s been a decreasing trend in runoff. In the long run, that’s likely to continue if greenhouse gas emissions are not reduced,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2022WR033454">Water Resources Research</a>.



<h2>More about the Colorado River Basin</h2>



The Colorado River Basin is a vast, geographically diverse region in the western United States and northern Mexico. The basin encompasses the drainage areas of the Colorado River and its tributaries. 



Covering approximately 246,000 square miles, it spreads across seven U.S. states (Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, and California) and two Mexican states (Baja California and Sonora).



<h2>Geography and geology</h2>



Originating from the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, the river flows over 1,450 miles, descending through a series of plateaus and gorges before emptying into the Gulf of California. 



Notable geological features in the basin include the Grand Canyon, Glen Canyon, and Hoover Dam. The basin's topography varies, featuring snow-capped peaks, arid desert land, and lush river valleys.



The Colorado River Basin displays a complex geological history, with rock layers revealing hundreds of millions of years of Earth's evolution. Sedimentary rocks dominate the landscape, bearing testament to past periods of marine, lacustrine, and terrestrial deposition.



<h3>Climate in the Colorado River Basin</h3>



The climate in the Colorado River Basin ranges from cold alpine conditions in the headwaters to arid desert in the lower reaches. 



The upper basin, particularly in the Rocky Mountains, heavily concentrates precipitation, largely in the form of snow. This causes significant seasonal flow variation, with peak river flows occurring during spring and early summer due to snowmelt.



<h3>Flora and fauna</h3>



The Colorado River Basin supports diverse ecosystems and a variety of wildlife. High mountain areas feature coniferous forests, while desert regions host species adapted to arid conditions, such as cacti and yucca. 



The river itself and its riparian zones provide habitat for aquatic and semi-aquatic species. These include numerous types of fish, amphibians, birds, and mammals.



<h3>Human use and impact</h3>



Human activities profoundly affect the Colorado River Basin. It supplies water to approximately 40 million people and irrigates 5.5 million acres of land. Major cities, including Denver, Las Vegas, Phoenix, and Los Angeles, rely on the Colorado River for their water supply.



Numerous dams and reservoirs heavily manage the basin's water, providing hydroelectric power, water storage, and flood control. The construction of the Hoover Dam in the 1930s formed Lake Mead, the largest of these reservoirs.



Water demands in the basin often exceed supply, leading to overallocation and environmental stress. The river frequently runs dry before reaching its delta, resulting in the loss of wetlands and riparian habitats. Climate change is exacerbating these issues, with reduced snowpack and increased evaporation diminishing water availability.



In summary, the Colorado River Basin is an integral component of the western United States and northern Mexico. It provides crucial water resources for humans and a diverse array of habitats for wildlife. Its geography and geology are incredibly varied, offering a snapshot into the planet's geological past. 



Despite its importance, the basin faces significant challenges due to climate change and human overuse. It has become crucial that scientists initiate sustainable management strategies to safeguard its future.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Colorado River Basin has lost enough water to fill Lake Mead

The&nbsp;Colorado River Basin – the area drained by the Colorado...

In the sweltering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeling-the-heat-rising-temperatures-push-the-limits-of-the-human-body/">summer heat</a>, an unprecedented and critical situation has emerged in Florida. The ocean temperatures have soared to a record-breaking 100 degrees Fahrenheit, instigating a mass coral bleaching event in the Florida Keys. 



As the underwater heatwave continues, a desperate rescue operation is underway to prevent Florida's coral species from slipping into extinction.



In just two weeks, bleaching has completely affected multiple coral reefs in the vicinity of the Florida Keys. Even worse, many have perished entirely, according to marine biologists. The rapid escalation of this calamity has shocked even the most seasoned experts. 



<h2 id="h-grim-forecast">Grim forecast</h2>



The grim forecast for the near future predicts total extinction of the bleached reefs in a week if this oceanic inferno continues. The concerns extend even further to deeper reefs that could face a similar catastrophe if the ocean temperature continues to rise.



Excessive heat, compounded by an absence of rain and wind, has pushed the water temperatures around Florida to some of the most extreme levels ever recorded.&nbsp;



A buoy located in the Florida Bay recently registered a staggering 101.1 degrees Fahrenheit at a depth of 5 feet. Although the area is known for its scant coral presence, researchers at other stations in the region have documented temperatures exceeding 96 degrees. One station even clocked a scorching 99 degrees, according to the <a href="https://www.ndbc.noaa.gov/">National Data Buoy Center</a>.



<h2 id="h-corals-are-highly-sensitive">Corals are highly sensitive&nbsp;</h2>



The severity of this heatwave is particularly destructive to coral reefs. Corals, by nature, are highly sensitive to temperature changes.&nbsp;



An environment that remains excessively hot for an extended period can trigger a reaction in coral known as "bleaching." Under such conditions, corals expel their algal food source, turn white, and gradually starve to death.&nbsp;



This bleaching process is currently unfolding in the Florida Keys where the water temperatures have exceeded 90 degrees, far beyond the usual mid-80s that these marine ecosystems are accustomed to.



<h2 id="h-florida-coral-bleaching-and-mortality">Florida coral bleaching and mortality</h2>



A striking illustration of this catastrophe is evident in a reef managed by <a href="https://www.flaquarium.org/">The Florida Aquarium</a>. On July 6, researchers recorded the water temperature at 91 degrees, and the coral was in perfect health. 



A mere 13 days later, when the team returned, they found the coral entirely bleached, with an estimated 80% already dead.



The <a href="https://www.coralrestoration.org/">Coral Restoration Foundation</a> reported a similar grim finding - "100% coral mortality" at Sombrero Reef off the coast of Marathon in the Florida Keys.



Keri O'Neal, the director and senior scientist at the Florida Aquarium told CNN: "This is akin to all of the trees in the rainforest dying. Corals serve that same fundamental role. Where do all of the other animals that rely on the rainforest go to live? This is the underwater version of the trees in the rainforest disappearing."



<h2 id="h-shocking-images">Shocking images</h2>



 Andrew Ibarra, a NOAA monitoring specialist at the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, corroborated the extent of the destruction. Upon examining his "favorite reef," Cheeca Rocks, he found the entire reef bleached. 



"Every single coral colony was exhibiting some form of paling, partial bleaching or full-out bleaching. Including recent mortality for some corals that have already died,” said Ibarra. CNN reports that Ibarra’s photos and videos "show a ghastly graveyard of corals."



Katie Lesneski is the monitoring coordinator for NOAA's Mission: Iconic Reefs. She told CNN: "The pictures are frankly horrifying. It's hard for me to put into words how I’m feeling right now.”&nbsp;



Despite the grim picture, Lesneski said there is still a "little hope spot" in a deeper reef where only 5 percent of the coral has begun to bleach due to slightly cooler water temperatures. However, even these corals are at risk if there’s no break from the relentless heat.



<h2 id="h-florida-coral-bleaching-is-an-escalating-crisis">Florida coral bleaching is an escalating crisis </h2>



The escalating crisis has sparked a desperate rescue mission. Reef restoration experts are now engaged in a delicate operation, extracting genetically significant species from their nurseries and moving them to land where they can escape the extreme ocean heat.&nbsp;



These include corals like the Staghorn and Elkhorn, listed as "threatened" under the Endangered Species Act. Florida has already lost 90% of its Elkhorn coral, a species vital for reducing destructive waves from hurricanes.



The evacuated corals are now housed in water-filled, climate-controlled tables at facilities such as the Florida Institute of Oceanography’s Keys Marine Laboratory (KML). Thus far, KML has taken in at least 1,500 corals. They anticipate that the number will grow to 5,000 or more as the rescue mission unfolds.



<h2 id="h-keeping-species-alive">Keeping species alive</h2>



“At this point we’re in emergency triage mode. Some of these corals that came in last week were looking very bad, and we may lose them," Cynthia Lewis, director of KML, told CNN.



Despite these losses, every piece of coral saved can provide valuable insights into the survival of corals in warmer oceans. This will serve as a foundation for rebuilding Florida’s reefs post-bleaching event.



"If anything our work is more important than ever because we’re really depending on aquarium facilities to keep these species from going extinct in Florida,” said O'Neal. 



<h2>More about coral bleaching</h2>



Coral bleaching refers to the loss of color in corals. This occurs when stressors such as changes in light, nutrients, or temperature lead to the expulsion of symbiotic microorganisms from the coral's tissues.



The phenomenon has serious implications for the health and survival of coral reefs. It often results in decreased growth and reproduction rates, increased susceptibility to disease, and, in severe cases, large-scale coral mortality.



<h3>Causes</h3>



<h4>Temperature</h4>



Coral bleaching is primarily driven by changes in sea surface temperatures. Corals are sensitive to temperature changes, and even small increases can cause bleaching. 



Warming ocean temperatures, attributed to climate change, are regarded as the most significant cause of recent and widespread coral bleaching events.



<h4>Light</h4>



High-intensity light or changes in light spectrum can also induce coral bleaching, especially when combined with elevated sea temperatures. 



Photosynthetic symbiotic organisms within the coral, called zooxanthellae, produce reactive oxygen species under intense light conditions. This can damage both the zooxanthellae and the coral tissues.



<h4>Other stressors</h4>



In addition to temperature and light, other environmental stressors can contribute to coral bleaching. 



These include changes in salinity, nutrient availability, and water quality, as well as the presence of pollutants and diseases. Each of these factors can lead to physiological stress in corals, triggering bleaching.



<h3>Impact</h3>



<h4>Ecological</h4>



Coral bleaching has significant ecological impacts. Coral reefs, often dubbed the "rainforests of the sea," are biodiversity hotspots. They provide habitat and food for a myriad of marine species. 



When coral bleaching occurs, as with the current Florida coral bleaching event, the loss of live coral cover can lead to the decline of these species and disrupt the intricate food web within the reef ecosystem.



<h4>Economic</h4>



The bleaching of coral reefs also has profound economic consequences. Many coastal communities rely on coral reefs for their livelihood, particularly through fisheries and tourism.



A loss of live coral cover can lead to a decline in fish stocks and a reduction in the appeal of diving and snorkeling sites. This significantly impacts local economies.



<h3>Mitigation and Conservation Efforts</h3>



<h4>Monitoring and research</h4>



Monitoring and research play a crucial role in mitigating coral bleaching. Scientists use various techniques, including remote sensing, to track changes in sea surface temperature and predict potential bleaching events.



Research is also underway to understand the genetic and physiological attributes that make some corals more resilient to bleaching than others.



<h4>Reducing local stressors</h4>



Management strategies aim to reduce local stressors on coral reefs. These include managing pollution, overfishing, and physical damage to reefs, all of which can make corals more susceptible to bleaching.



<h4>Coral restoration and assisted evolution</h4>



Coral restoration efforts involve the cultivation of corals in nurseries and their subsequent transplantation to degraded reefs. 



More innovative techniques include "assisted evolution," where corals are selectively bred or genetically modified to enhance their resilience to bleaching.



<h4>Mitigating climate change</h4>



As the primary cause of coral bleaching is warming ocean temperatures, reducing global greenhouse gas emissions is vital to mitigate coral bleaching. International agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, aim to limit global warming. This, in turn, would protect coral reefs from severe bleaching events.



In summary, coral bleaching is a significant global environmental issue that threatens the biodiversity, ecological function, and economic value of coral reefs.



While mitigation and conservation efforts are underway, the success of these strategies will depend largely on the extent to which global greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced to limit warming ocean temperatures.



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Ocean temperatures of 100 degrees has Florida battling a massive coral bleaching crisis

In the sweltering summer heat, an unprecedented and critical situation...

In the tropical depths of the Andean region, a secretive community of plants which has been lost to science for over a century has been rediscovered.&nbsp;



This remarkable discovery is credited to an international collaboration between botanists from Germany, Ecuador, Peru, Costa Rica, and a dedicated network of citizen scientists. The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.229.100082">PhytoKeys</a>.



<h2 id="h-blazing-stars">Blazing stars</h2>



The once elusive tropical plants belong to the genus Nasa, part of the Blazing Star family (Loasaceae). These flora have long posed challenges to the scientific community due to their delicate yet stinging leaves, which make them challenging to collect.&nbsp;



Furthermore, their fleeting seasonal appearances, coupled with their highly endemic nature, have largely kept them out of herbarium collections.



However, modern scientists are no longer solely dependent on traditional collections for plant specimens and knowledge.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-inaturalist">iNaturalist</h2>



The evolution of global networking and the widespread usage of free data repositories has led to a proliferation of easily accessible biodiversity data. This wealth of information includes geo-referenced occurrence records and photographic evidence.&nbsp;



A key resource in this new age of botanical discovery is the citizen science platform <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/">iNaturalist</a>. This platform allows users to post photographic occurrence records, significantly aiding biodiversity scientists in the rediscovery of these tropical plants.



<h2 id="h-nasa-colanii">Nasa colanii&nbsp;</h2>



One such plant, Nasa colanii, was only recorded once prior to this study, in 1978. A breakthrough came in 2019 when the research team found a photograph of the plant.&nbsp;



Nasa colanii grows in the cloud <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-are-forest-gardeners-that-help-reduce-global-warming/">forest</a> in the buffer zone of Peru’s Cordillera de Colán National Sanctuary, a region located at an elevation of 2,605 meters, which likely explains its historical scarcity in botanical records.



<h2 id="h-nasa-ferox">Nasa ferox</h2>



An even more astonishing find was the rediscovery of a species, Nasa ferox, which had not been reported for an estimated 130 years until 2022. This reemergence came to light when iNaturalist users posted photographs confirming its existence.&nbsp;



Despite having been known for centuries, N. ferox only received its official scientific description in 2000. Experts were particularly surprised by its long absence given the park's location near the city of Cuenca in Ecuador, and its proximity to the well-traveled road 582.



“Given the location of the park close to the (Ecuadorian) city of Cuenca, and the fact that the important road 582 goes through the park makes it particularly surprising that the species has not been reported in such a long time, even more so if we consider the numerous botanical expeditions that have been carried out in the general region," wrote the researchers.&nbsp;



Moreover, only a small population of about ten fertile plants of N. ferox has been found, which were nestled in sheltered locations like rock crevices or at the base of shrubs. This observation underscores the elusive nature of these tropical plants and the intricacies involved in their discovery and study.



<h2 id="h-remarkable-species">Remarkable species&nbsp;</h2>



A major victory in the botanical world came with the rediscovery of Nasa humboldtiana subspecies humboldtiana, a variant that had been missing for a staggering 162 years. The research team finally located a specimen in a preserved fragment of montane Andean forest in the province of Chimborazo, Ecuador.



But the biggest excitement stems from the discovery of species once believed to be extinct in the wild. Two Nasa species, N. hastata and N. solaria, both hailing from the Peruvian Department of Lima, were thought to be extinct.&nbsp;



Past attempts to recollect these tropical plants near their original localities, where they were found about a century ago, were unsuccessful. It was only through the assistance of iNaturalist that these species were rediscovered and confirmed to be present in their respective regions.



<h2 id="h-more-exciting-discoveries">More exciting discoveries&nbsp;</h2>



One such example is Nasa hastata, which was rediscovered when photos of living plants were posted on iNaturalist by the sister of one of the authors.&nbsp;



Further investigations revealed a handful of plants found at two sites, about seven kilometers apart. Similarly, a few dozen plants of N. solaria were found in four small populations in remnants of forest that once spanned larger areas in this region.



Moreover, information submitted to iNaturalist unearthed crucial details about another species, Nasa ramirezii, providing the first photographs of living plants from Ecuador and pinpointing their exact location.



“All these discoveries serve as a reminder that even well-studied regions harbor diversity that can so easily remain overlooked and unexplored, and point to the role of botanists in documenting biodiversity which is an essential prerequisite for any conservation effort," said Tilo Henning, the lead author from the Leibniz Center for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF).



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



The researchers further emphasized the potential of these collaborative efforts in their study, stating: “Hopefully, as more scientists and members of the public contribute to the database, and more professionals get involved in the curation, more undescribed or ‘long lost’ taxa will be found. Our examples of the rediscovery of Nasa ferox after 130 years and Nasa hastata after 100 years, both ‘found’ on iNaturalist underscore this point.”



In conclusion, the collaborative efforts of international botanists and citizen scientists, aided by the power of digital platforms like iNaturalist, have breathed new life into the study of long-lost plants, revealing an unexplored realm of botanical diversity. This revolutionary approach underlines the significant potential of global networks and community science in biodiversity conservation.



Image: Flower of Nasa humboldtiana subspecies humboldtiana



Image Credit: X. Cornejo



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Lost tropical plants rediscovered after more than 100 years

In the tropical depths of the Andean region, a secretive...

A prediction from scientists at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> presents a somewhat paradoxical outcome of our continued reliance on greenhouse gas-emitting energy sources. The experts warn that critical ocean currents - which carry heat, cold, and precipitation between the tropics and the far reaches of the Atlantic region - may come to a grinding halt around 2060 if greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epa-plans-to-eliminate-greenhouse-gas-emissions-from-power-plants-by-2040/">emissions</a> continue at the current rate. 



This latest calculation contradicts earlier reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).



<h2 id="h-atlantic-ocean-current-system">Atlantic ocean current system</h2>



As Europe braces for the impacts of climate change, one might envision its future to be scorching. However, this recent study from researchers at the Niels Bohr Institute and the Department of Mathematical Sciences at the University of Copenhagen paints a different picture.&nbsp;



The experts forecast that the Thermohaline Circulation, or the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), the ocean current system that regulates the distribution of heat and cold between the North Atlantic region and the tropics, will cease to function entirely if the rate of greenhouse gas emissions remains unchanged.



<h2 id="h-shutting-down-the-amoc">Shutting down the AMOC</h2>



By leveraging sophisticated statistical tools and analyzing ocean temperature data spanning the last century and a half, the researchers determined that, with a 95 percent certainty, the AMOC will collapse sometime between 2025 and 2095.&nbsp;



The most likely time frame for this dramatic event is 34 years from now, in 2057, an event that will pose substantial challenges, from amplified warming in the tropics to a surge in storminess in the North Atlantic region.



"Shutting down the AMOC can have very serious consequences for Earth's climate, for example, by changing how heat and precipitation are distributed globally," said Professor Peter Ditlevsen from the Niels Bohr Institute.



"While a cooling of Europe may seem less severe as the globe as a whole becomes warmer and heat waves occur more frequently, this shutdown will contribute to an increased warming of the tropics, where rising temperatures have already given rise to challenging living conditions."



"Our result underscores the importance of reducing global greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible."



<h2 id="h-ipcc-report-findings">IPCC report findings</h2>



These calculations, recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-39810-w">Nature Communications</a>, throw into question the conclusions of the latest IPCC report, which deemed a sudden change in the thermohaline circulation unlikely within this century based on climate model simulations.



The researchers derived their predictions from early warning signals exhibited by ocean currents as they begin to destabilize. The appearance of these Early Warning Signals for the Thermohaline Circulation has been reported before. However, it is the recent advancements in statistical methods that have finally made it possible to predict the precise timing of a potential collapse.



Focusing on sea surface temperatures in a particular region of the North Atlantic from 1870 to the present day, the researchers determined these temperatures to be "fingerprints" of the AMOC's strength, which has been directly measured only in the past 15 years.



<h2 id="h-collapse-of-the-thermohaline-circulation">Collapse of the Thermohaline Circulation</h2>



"Using new and improved statistical tools, we’ve made calculations that provide a more robust estimate of when a collapse of the Thermohaline Circulation is most likely to occur, something we had not been able to do before," explained Professor Susanne Ditlevsen of the Department of Mathematical Sciences at the University of Copenhagen.



The thermohaline circulation has remained in its current mode since the last ice age, during which it had collapsed. This collapse, known as Dansgaard-Oeschger events, observed in ice cores from the Greenlandic ice sheet, has occurred 25 times in association with ice age climates.&nbsp;



These events were accompanied by extreme climate changes, with temperatures shifting 10-15 degrees within a decade. In contrast, climate change today is characterized by a 1.5 degree warming over a century. With the threat of another such collapse, the urgency to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions becomes all the more critical.



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Climate paradox: Ocean current collapse could plunge Europe into cold

A prediction from scientists at the University of Copenhagen presents...

Combined SPHERE and ALMA image of material orbiting V960 Mon

Scientists have shared a breathtaking image that offers new insights into the mysterious processes of planet birth. The image, obtained from the European Southern Observatory (ESO), hints at the formation of giant planets similar in scale to Jupiter.&nbsp;



The teams employed the use of two monumental instruments, ESO's Very Large Telescope (VLT) and the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), to observe large, dusty clumps on the verge of collapse near a young star - a precursor to the birth of a planet.



<h2 id="h-captivating-discovery">Captivating discovery&nbsp;</h2>



"This discovery is truly captivating as it marks the very first detection of clumps around a young star that have the potential to give rise to giant planets,” said Alice Zurlo, a researcher at Chile's Universidad Diego Portales. The discovery signifies a major advance in our understanding of the origin of heavenly bodies.



Researchers have been analyzing an enthralling image captured by the Spectro-Polarimetric High-contrast Exoplanet REsearch (SPHERE) instrument installed on ESO's VLT. The image reveals intricate details of material in the vicinity of a young star, V960 Mon, which is situated over 5,000 light-years away in the constellation Monoceros.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-dramatic-outburst">Dramatic outburst&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-stars-scientists-discover-a-new-type-of-star-powered-by-dark-matter/">star</a> garnered significant scientific interest when its brightness suddenly surged more than twenty-fold in 2014. Subsequent SPHERE observations, taken after this dramatic "outburst,"&nbsp; unveiled the material orbiting V960 Mon as it began to assemble into an elaborate series of spiral arms that span distances greater than our entire Solar System.



This remarkable discovery prompted astronomers to revisit archived observations of the same system, captured by ALMA. The VLT observations delved into the surface of the dusty material around the star, while ALMA could probe deeper into its structure.&nbsp;



“With ALMA, it became apparent that the spiral arms are undergoing fragmentation, resulting in the formation of clumps with masses akin to those of planets,” Zurlo explained.



<h2 id="h-planet-birth">Planet birth</h2>



Planet formation has long been thought to occur through one of two processes: "core accretion," which involves the agglomeration of dust grains, or "gravitational instability," which involves the contraction and collapse of large fragments of star-bound material. Although prior research has provided evidence for core accretion, observational support for gravitational instability has been much rarer.



Yet, this seems to be changing. “No one had ever seen a real observation of gravitational instability happening at planetary scales - until now,” said study leader Philipp Weber, a researcher at the University of Santiago, Chile.&nbsp;



"Our group has been searching for signs of how planets form for over ten years, and we couldn't be more thrilled about this incredible discovery," said study co-author Sebastián Pérez.



This investigation, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ace186">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>, is just the beginning. ESO's Extremely Large Telescope (ELT), currently under construction in Chile's Atacama Desert, will facilitate the exploration of this newly discovered planetary system in unprecedented detail.&nbsp;



“The ELT will enable the exploration of the chemical complexity surrounding these clumps, helping us find out more about the composition of the material from which potential planets are forming,” said Weber.



<h2 id="h-more-about-planet-formation">More about planet formation</h2>



The process of planet formation, also known as planetary accretion, is a complex one that happens over millions to billions of years. Here is a simplified explanation of the process:



<h3 id="h-nebula">Nebula</h3>



Everything starts with a nebula, which is a massive cloud of dust and gas. The nebula could be the remnants of a dead star or it could just be a dense area in space where the dust and gas are naturally accumulating.



<h3 id="h-protostar">Protostar</h3>



The nebula collapses under its own gravity, causing the material to start spinning and form a disc. In the center of this disc, a protostar is formed, which will eventually become a star.



<h3 id="h-protoplanetary-disk">Protoplanetary disk</h3>



Around the protostar, the rest of the material forms a flat, spinning disk known as a protoplanetary disk. The materials in this disk include tiny, solid particles of dust and rock that collide and stick together.



<h3 id="h-planetesimals">Planetesimals</h3>



As these particles continue to collide and stick together, they form larger and larger bodies. When they reach about a kilometer in size, their gravitational pull becomes strong enough to draw in more material. These kilometer-sized objects are known as planetesimals.



<h3 id="h-protoplanets">Protoplanets</h3>



As planetesimals continue to collide and merge, they eventually form protoplanets. Protoplanets are basically baby planets – they're large enough to have a strong gravitational pull, but they're still growing.



<h3 id="h-planets">Planets</h3>



Over millions to billions of years, protoplanets continue to collide and merge until they form full-fledged planets. Some planets, like Earth, also undergo additional processes like core formation and atmospheric development.



Please note that this is a simplified explanation and there's still a lot that scientists don't know about planet formation. For example, the exact process through which small particles of dust and rock stick together to form larger bodies is still a topic of active research.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESO/ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO)/Weber et al.



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Stunning revelation: New image sheds light on the birth of giant planets

Scientists have shared a breathtaking image that offers new insights...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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