Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Flu epidemics are caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avian-influenza-has-evolved-into-a-persistent-global-threat/">influenza</a> A or B viruses, resulting in acute respiratory infections and killing about half a million people worldwide each year, while also affecting a variety of other animals, as in the case of the avian flu. Moreover, these viruses’ high capacity for mutation makes them particularly elusive and hard to combat.&nbsp;



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/">University of Geneva</a> (UNIGE) has discovered that the influenza A virus manages to penetrate and infect cells by attaching itself to a receptor on the cell surface and hijacking the organism’s iron transport mechanism to start its infection cycle. Since, by blocking this particular receptor, the experts managed to significantly reduce the virus’ ability to invade cells, this finding could potentially be exploited to combat flu infections and mitigate epidemics.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



“We already knew that the influenza A virus binds to sugar structures on the cell surface, then rolls along the cell surface until it finds a suitable entry point into the host cell. However, we did not know which proteins on the host cell surface marked this entry point, and how they favored the entry of the virus,” explained study senior author Mirco Schmolke, an associate professor of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine at UNIGE.



At first, the researchers identified cell surface proteins from the vicinity of the viral haemagglutinin, the protein the influenza A virus uses to enter the cells. One of these proteins – called “transferrin receptor 1” – which helps transporting iron molecules that are essential for many physiological functions into the cell was found to play a major role in how the virus succeeds in penetrating the cells.



“The influenza virus takes advantage of the continuous recycling of the transferrin receptor 1 to enter the cell and infect it,” said lead author Béryl Mazel-Sanchez, a senior scientist at the biopharmaceutical company <a href="https://www.cslbehring.com/">CSL Behring</a> and a former post-doctoral researcher in Schmolke’s lab.&nbsp;



“To confirm our discovery, we genetically engineered human lung cells to remove the transferrin receptor 1, or on the contrary to overexpress it. By deleting it in cells normally susceptible to infection, we prevented influenza A from entering. Conversely, by overexpressing it in cells normally resistant to infection, we made them easier to infect.”



<h2 id="h-promising-results">Promising results</h2>



In a follow-up experiment, the scientists managed to use a chemical molecule to reproduce this mechanism by inhibiting the transferrin receptor 1. “We tested it successfully on human lung cells, on human lung tissue samples and on mice with several viral strains. In the presence of this inhibitor, the virus replicated much less. However, in view of its potentially oncogenic characteristics, this product cannot be used to treat humans,” Mazel-Sanchez explained.&nbsp;



Nonetheless, anti-cancer therapies based on the inhibition of the transferrin receptor could potentially benefit from these discoveries.



In addition to this particular receptor, the researchers have also identified about 30 other proteins that may play a role in how the influenza A virus enter the cells. Although it is likely that the virus uses a combination involving other receptors to infect cells, further research is needed to clarify these mechanisms.



“Although we are still far from a clinical application, blocking the transferrin receptor 1 could become a promising strategy for treating influenza virus infections in humans and potentially in animals,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2214936120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-influenza-virus">More about the influenza virus&nbsp;</h2>



Influenza is a highly contagious viral infection that primarily spreads through the upper and/or lower respiratory tract. It is more commonly known as the flu. The influenza viruses are members of the Orthomyxoviridae family and are categorized into four types: A, B, C, and D.



<h3 id="h-flu-types">Flu types</h3>



Influenza A viruses are the most virulent human pathogens among the four influenza types and cause the most severe disease. The influenza A virus can be broken down into different subtypes based on the chemical structure of hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) proteins on their surface. For instance, H1N1 and H3N2 are subtypes of influenza viruses that have caused human pandemics.



Influenza B viruses are not divided into subtypes, but can be broken down into lineages and strains. Currently circulating influenza B viruses belong to one of two lineages: B/Yamagata and B/Victoria. Influenza B is less common but can still cause outbreaks of seasonal flu.



Influenza C viruses cause only mild respiratory illness, or no symptoms at all, so they do not cause epidemics or pandemics. Influenza D viruses primarily affect cattle and are not known to infect or cause illness in people.



Flu viruses can change through a process called antigenic drift and shift. Antigenic drift happens gradually over time as the virus makes small changes to its genetic composition, while antigenic shift is an abrupt, major change to the influenza A viruses, resulting in new hemagglutinin and/or new neuraminidase proteins.



<h3 id="h-symptoms-of-infection">Symptoms of infection&nbsp;</h3>



Influenza is characterized by sudden onset of high fever, aching muscles, headache, severe malaise, non-productive cough, sore throat, and rhinitis. Most people recover from fever and other symptoms within a week without requiring medical attention. But influenza can cause severe illness or death in high-risk populations such as the very young, elderly, and individuals with certain chronic health conditions.



<h3 id="h-flu-vaccination">Flu vaccination</h3>



Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent infection and severe outcomes caused by influenza viruses. Antiviral drugs are also available and can make your illness milder and make you feel better faster. They can also prevent serious flu complications.



Despite the availability of vaccines, the flu virus remains a major public health concern, largely due to its ability to change and mutate over time. Scientists are actively researching ways to develop a universal flu vaccine that would protect against all strains of the virus.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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How does the influenza virus hack our cells?

Flu epidemics are caused by influenza A or B viruses,...

The fascinating world of infant communication is peppered with squeals, vowel-like sounds, growls, and short, word-like sounds such as "ba" or "aga". These are known as protophones, the precursors to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-can-tell-when-speech-is-directed-at-them/">speech</a>.&nbsp;



Over time, these protophones evolve into early words, then gradually transform into phrases and sentences as the child grows older.



While it's a known fact that some babies are naturally more "talkative" than others, new research published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.106884">iScience</a> uncovers fascinating insights into gender differences in these early vocalizations.&nbsp;



The researchers have discovered that during the first year of life, male babies appear to "talk" more than their female counterparts. This finding confirms earlier, smaller studies by the same team but remains a surprising revelation.



<h2 id="h-why-this-finding-was-a-surprise-to-scientists">Why this finding was a surprise to scientists</h2>



Why the surprise? It challenges a long-standing belief that females typically have a language advantage over males. This discrepancy between the study results and traditional expectations offers compelling implications for understanding the evolutionary foundations of language, say the researchers.



"Females are believed widely to have a small but discernible advantage over males in language," said D. Kimbrough Oller of <a href="https://www.memphis.edu/">The University of Memphis</a>. "However, our findings show that in the first year, males tend to produce more speech-like vocalizations than females."



However, the early language advantage shown by male infants is transient. "While boys showed higher rates of vocalization in the first year, girls caught up and surpassed boys by the end of the second year," Oller noted.



<h2 id="h-accidental-discovery">Accidental discovery</h2>



Interestingly, Oller and his colleagues did not initially set out to examine gender differences. They were primarily interested in the origins of language in infancy. Had they been asked to predict the results, they would have guessed that female infants might produce more sounds than males. Yet, the outcome was consistent with their previous study published in Current Biology in 2020.



The team undertook a more extensive study to validate this unexpected pattern. The analysis involved over 450,000 hours of all-day recordings of 5,899 infants using a device about the size of an iPod. The recordings were automatically analyzed to count infant and adult utterances across the first two years of life.



"This is the biggest sample for any study ever conducted on language development, as far as we know," said Oller.



The data collected showed that male infants made about 10% more utterances in the first year compared to females.&nbsp;



However, in the second year, the trend reversed, with female infants making about 7% more sounds than males. Notably, this gender difference was present despite the fact that the adults caring for these infants spoke more words to female infants in both years compared to males.



<h2 id="h-things-begin-to-change-in-the-second-year-of-life">Things begin to change in the second year of life</h2>



The researchers speculate that the higher early vocal activity of male infants might simply be a reflection of their generally higher activity levels. However, this explanation doesn't hold up well, as male infants' increased vocalizations diminish by 16 months, while their higher physical activity levels persist.



Oller suggests these findings could align with an evolutionary theory. It's possible that infants are programmed to make many sounds early on to communicate their health and vitality, thus improving their chances of survival.



If that's the case, why would male infants be more vocal than females in the first year but not later?



"We think it may be because boys are more vulnerable to dying in the first year than girls," said Oller. "Given the higher mortality rates of males in the first year, they may be under especially high evolutionary pressure to produce vocal fitness signals."&nbsp;



By the second year of life, as mortality rates decrease dramatically for both genders, the pressure on special fitness signaling is lower for both boys and girls, explained Oller.



The researchers said that further research is needed to understand how caregivers react to these baby sounds.



"We anticipate that caregivers will show discernible reactions of interest and of being charmed by the speech-like sounds," said Oller. He noted that these vocalizations from babies elicit genuine feelings of affection in caregivers, along with a willingness to invest in the infants' well-being.



<h2 id="h-next-follow-up-experiment-is-on-the-drawing-board">Next follow-up experiment is on the drawing board</h2>



The team is curious to see how caregivers will react differently to the speech-like sounds of boys and girls. However, there's a catch - the caregivers might need to be informed about the baby's gender beforehand. That's because it's still unknown whether the gender can be discerned merely from these vocalizations.



In conclusion, this groundbreaking research offers valuable insights into the early language development of infants and the surprising ways in which gender differences can manifest. While the male infants' early advantage in vocalization is short-lived, it points towards fascinating evolutionary strategies possibly linked to survival.



As the researchers continue to uncover more about the fascinating journey of language development, we'll gain a better understanding of the incredible complexity and resilience of human communication. As they say, every "ba" or "aga" is a step towards the intricate symphony of human language.



<h2 id="h-more-about-infant-cognitive-development">More about infant cognitive development</h2>



Infant cognitive development is a fascinating process that unfolds across several stages, with milestones in areas such as language acquisition, motor skills, and reasoning ability. Here's an overview of key developmental stages, although it's important to note that individual children may progress at different rates:



<h3 id="h-language-development">Language Development</h3>



<ul>
<li>0-5 Months: Infants start to make sense of the world around them through sounds. They will start to recognize their parent's voices and begin cooing and making simple vowel sounds.</li>



<li>6-11 Months: During this stage, babies will start babbling, making sounds like "ba-ba" or "ma-ma." They are exploring the sounds that they can make with their mouths and learning to associate them with reactions from adults.</li>



<li>12-17 Months: This is the typical age for first words. Initially, vocabulary grows slowly, and words may not always be used correctly. However, babies at this stage are increasingly capable of understanding simple instructions.</li>



<li>18-24 Months: Vocabulary begins to increase more rapidly, and infants may start to form simple two-word phrases. They are also better at understanding more complex instructions.</li>
</ul>



<h3 id="h-motor-development">Motor Development</h3>



<ul>
<li>0-6 Months: Infants develop their gross motor skills, learning to roll over, sit up with support, and eventually sit independently.</li>



<li>7-12 Months: During this stage, babies usually learn to crawl, pull up to a standing position, and may even take their first steps.</li>



<li>13-18 Months: Toddlers will become more confident in walking and will begin to explore running, climbing, and possibly even jumping. Fine motor skills also improve, allowing them to manipulate objects with more precision.</li>
</ul>



<h3 id="h-reasoning-and-decision-making">Reasoning and Decision-Making</h3>



The development of reasoning skills and decision-making is a bit more complex. While it's clear that infants and toddlers are constantly learning and experimenting with their environment, the cognitive processes behind these activities are not as well-understood.



<ul>
<li>0-12 Months: Infants develop object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can't be seen. This is a foundational concept in understanding cause-and-effect relationships.</li>



<li>12-24 Months: Toddlers begin to show early signs of problem-solving skills, such as pushing a stool to reach a toy on a high shelf. They also start to understand more complex cause-and-effect relationships.</li>



<li>2-3 Years: Around this age, children begin to develop early symbolic play and imagination, which contribute to decision-making and reasoning. They may also begin to understand simple rules and routines.</li>



<li>3-5 Years: Preschool-aged children begin to demonstrate more sophisticated reasoning abilities. They can understand basic logic and can solve more complex problems. They also begin to understand the concept of time and can plan for future events.</li>
</ul>



Again, these are general guidelines and there can be significant variation in the timing and progression of these milestones. It's also important to remember that cognitive development in infants and children is influenced by many factors, including genetics, environment, and parental interaction.&nbsp;



—-



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Male babies talk more than females during the first year

The fascinating world of infant communication is peppered with squeals,...

Codfish have been telling a story of rapid fish evolution, reshaped by human activity more swiftly than previously assumed, reveals a cutting-edge study led by <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>.



This evolutionary tale, illuminated during the latter half of the twentieth century, signifies the impact of human-driven overfishing. The findings suggest that evolutionary changes, once thought to span millions of years, can be catalyzed within mere decades.&nbsp;



The report, sharing the first genomic evidence of such accelerated evolution in Atlantic cod, has recently been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2022.0190">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



<h2 id="h-breaking-new-ground-with-modern-technology">Breaking new ground with modern technology</h2>



"We broke new ground," explained study senior author Malin Pinsky. Leveraging modern technology, the researchers unearthed the genetic code of codfish caught over a century ago, unveiling subtle genetic shifts.&nbsp;



Pinsky, an associate professor in the Department of Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources at Rutgers School of Environmental and Biological Sciences (SEBS), emphasizes that these new techniques played a pivotal role in the discovery.



By the turn of the 20th century, many overfished cod seemed to have cultivated a survival edge. They matured at a younger age, and their smaller size made them less noticeable to fishing efforts, thus increasing their chances of reproducing before capture. The researchers, in their quest to understand this apparent new fish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-evolution-was-influenced-by-environmental-factors/">evolution</a>, searched for key gene mutations, but this proved fruitless.



<h2 id="h-small-setback-spawned-a-new-approach">Small setback spawned a new approach</h2>



Undaunted by initial setbacks, the team adopted a different approach. They theorized that if changes were spread across a multitude of genes, rather than confined to a select few, their analysis might yield different results. Driven by this hypothesis, and empowered by novel technology, the team discovered the intricate genetic dance of the codfish.



"We have now been able to demonstrate that many genes throughout the genome did shift in the same way in cod from both sides of the Atlantic Ocean over the past 100 years," said study first author Brendan Reid.



This indicates that, rather than an isolated genetic aberration, small changes in many of the cod genes triggered the fish evolution. Reid, a postdoctoral associate at SEBS, considers this finding a first of its kind for any overfished species.



Renowned for their mild flavor and flaky flesh, Atlantic cod inhabit the deep-sea regions of the North Atlantic. They have been a staple ingredient in traditional dishes like fish and chips, and their livers are used to produce vitamin-rich cod liver oil. However, during the 1990s, decades of unrelenting overfishing pushed their population down to just 1% of historical levels.



<h2 id="h-a-new-hope-in-the-fight-against-overfishing">A new hope in the fight against overfishing</h2>



Commercial fishing practices underwent a radical transformation in the 1970s, with powerful trawlers equipped with sophisticated radar and sonar systems. These technologies expanded fishing reach, both in terms of depth and duration.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, this resulted in accelerated depletion of cod stocks, culminating in the fishery's collapse and, as the Rutgers research suggests, the cod's swift evolution.



This research brings not just fascinating insights into fish evolution, but also glimmers of hope for the beleaguered codfish. Their population, which has been slowly recovering since fishing pressure lessened, could potentially regain its former glory.



"Since evolution in response to fishing happened through lots of small changes in many genes rather than large changes in one or two genes, and cod have maintained most of their genetic diversity, it will be easier for cod to evolve back towards their previous pattern of slower growth at large sizes,” said Reid.



The scientist also notes encouraging signs in the cod population, suggesting the possibility of a return to previous growth patterns and, with proper management, the restoration of a sustainable fishery.



This research, a testament to international collaboration, also included contributions from Bastiaan Star of the University of Oslo in Norway.



<h2 id="h-more-about-overfishing">More about overfishing</h2>



Overfishing, or the practice of depleting a fish population to below its natural ability to reproduce and replenish, has far-reaching implications for both the environment and humanity. Its impacts are numerous and interconnected, affecting ecosystems, economies, and global food security.



<h3 id="h-ecosystem-disruption">Ecosystem Disruption</h3>



Overfishing is one of the primary threats to ocean biodiversity. The removal of a significant number of a particular fish species can unbalance the marine ecosystem and fish evolution.



Predatory fish like sharks, tuna, and cod, which are often targeted by commercial fishing, play crucial roles in maintaining the balance of marine life. Their decline can trigger a cascading effect through the food chain, allowing other species to become overly abundant and destabilizing the marine ecosystem.&nbsp;



For instance, the decline in large predator fish can lead to an overabundance of smaller fish or invertebrates, which can then over-consume vegetation and other smaller organisms, disrupting the balance of the ecosystem.



<h3 id="h-loss-of-livelihood">Loss of Livelihood</h3>



Overfishing not only affects the health of our oceans but also the livelihood of millions of people. According to the United Nations, over 3 billion people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity for their livelihoods.&nbsp;



When fish stocks collapse, the fishing industry - including all those involved in the supply chain, such as boat operators, processors, sellers, and other associated jobs - can be severely impacted. In many developing countries, where alternatives for income are limited, the effects can be particularly devastating.



<h3 id="h-threat-to-food-security">Threat to Food Security</h3>



Fish is a crucial source of protein and nutrition for billions of people around the world. Overfishing threatens this vital food source, particularly in poorer countries where people are more dependent on fish for dietary needs.&nbsp;



As per the Food and Agriculture Organization, fish provide more than 20 percent of animal protein for about 3.2 billion people. Depleting fish stocks can thus pose a serious risk to global food security.



<h3 id="h-harm-to-coral-reefs">Harm to Coral Reefs</h3>



Overfishing can also harm coral reefs, which are critical habitats for many fish species. Certain types of fishing, such as blast or cyanide fishing, directly destroy coral habitats. Also, the removal of herbivorous fish can lead to the unchecked growth of algae, which can smother coral reefs and disrupt the ecosystem's balance.



<h3 id="h-economic-implications">Economic Implications</h3>



Overfishing can have significant economic repercussions. The World Bank estimates that the mismanagement of fisheries results in an annual loss of $83 billion globally. Ensuring sustainable fishing practices can thus lead to economic benefits as well as ecological ones.



In summary, overfishing is a pressing global issue that extends beyond just the depletion of fish stocks. It has wide-reaching impacts on the marine ecosystem, global economies, and human livelihoods and food security.&nbsp;



Addressing overfishing requires coordinated global efforts to implement sustainable fishing practices, enforce regulatory measures, and raise awareness about the importance of preserving marine biodiversity. Hopefully, this new discovery about rapid fish evolution will lead to further scientific breakthroughs.



—-



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Fish evolution takes place in decades - not millions of years

Codfish have been telling a story of rapid fish evolution,...

A groundbreaking study from the <a href="https://asm.org/">American Society for Microbiology</a> reveals that domestic cats can play an instrumental role in the transmission of SARS-CoV-2, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-plant-virus-could-help-cure-cancer/">virus</a> responsible for COVID-19. In fact, our feline companions can not only contract the virus but also spread it to other cats and even contaminate their environment.



This study, published in the journal <a href="https://journals.asm.org/journal/spectrum">Microbiology Spectrum</a>, offers vital insights into the potential risks associated with cats infected with the virus.



"In practice, after introduction of SARS-CoV-2 in our household, we should see our cat as part of the family regarding virus transmission," said study co-author Professor Wim van der Poel.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



To understand the risks related to COVID-19 infection from cats, Professor Van der Poel and his team conducted an extensive study. They tested 16 cats, which were exposed to the virus in several ways.&nbsp;



Some cats were directly exposed to the SARS-CoV-2 virus obtained from a human patient naturally infected with COVID-19. Other cats were exposed indirectly, either through contact with a directly exposed cat or through exposure in a pen where an infected cat was housed.



Throughout the study, the researchers closely monitored the cats and carried out regular testing. They collected nasal and oropharyngeal samples, along with blood samples.&nbsp;



The team also gathered environmental samples from the pens. All samples were subsequently tested for SARS-CoV-2. Additionally, the blood samples were scrutinized for SARS-CoV-2 antibody development.



The sampling process was meticulous and spanned three weeks, starting from the day the cats were directly exposed to the virus. The team took nasal and oropharyngeal samples three times during this period.&nbsp;



Similarly, they collected oral and rectal samples 15 times. The goal was to evaluate both direct and indirect transmissions of SARS-CoV-2 between the cats.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The team found that cats are indeed susceptible to SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, infected cats can efficiently transmit the virus to their peers and contaminate their environment. While the environment can potentially be infectious, this infectiousness rapidly decays over time.



"SARS-CoV-2 transmission between cats is efficient and can be sustained," said Professor Van der Poel. "Infections of cats via exposure to a SARS-CoV-2-contaminated environment cannot be discounted if cats are exposed shortly after contamination."



The team discovered that the average duration of infectiousness was slightly more than one-third of a day. This duration was estimated based on the periods when the virus was detected in the cats' excreta, including oral/nasal fluid or feces.



To ensure the safety of all involved, Van der Poel noted that the team did not expose humans to the infectious cats. "Our animal handlers were always fully protected."&nbsp;



Yet, he cautioned that we should consider the risk of transmission from our pets: "We must assume that cat owners can be infected by SARS-CoV-2 infected cats since these cats excrete infectious virus."



Moving forward, the research team plans to further investigate SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility in different animal species and delve deeper into the risks associated with virus transmission.



<h2 id="h-more-about-animals-and-covid-19">More about animals and COVID-19</h2>



Research has shown that SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, has the ability to infect various animal species, not just humans.



Many of the earliest reported cases of COVID-19 were linked to a seafood market in Wuhan, China, which also sold live wild animals, suggesting a possible zoonotic origin. In fact, SARS-CoV-2 is part of a larger family of coronaviruses known to cause diseases in a range of mammals and birds.&nbsp;



The exact pathway of transmission to humans remains under investigation, but the virus is believed to have originated in bats and may have passed to humans through another species.



<h3 id="h-other-animals-that-can-be-infected">Other animals that can be infected</h3>



Several animals, including household pets such as cats and dogs, have been reported to be infected with SARS-CoV-2, mostly after close contact with people with COVID-19.&nbsp;



In addition to domestic animals, the virus has also been found in farmed mink, and these animals appear to be particularly susceptible to the virus. There have been instances of mink transmitting the virus back to humans, highlighting the potential for a feedback loop of transmission between humans and animals.



Experiments have shown that a variety of animals can be infected with the virus in a laboratory setting, including ferrets, hamsters, and monkeys. This research has helped scientists understand how the virus spreads and impacts different species, aiding in the development of vaccines and treatments.



Zoos have also reported infections in animals. For example, lions and tigers at the Bronx Zoo in New York were confirmed to have COVID-19 in April 2020, likely infected by a caretaker. And gorillas at the San Diego Zoo tested positive for the virus in January 2021.



<h3 id="h-transmission-animal-human-of-covid-19-can-go-both-ways">Transmission animal/human of COVID-19 can go both ways</h3>



The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) maintains that the risk of animals spreading SARS-CoV-2 to people is considered to be low, and the primary mode of transmission is human-to-human through respiratory droplets. However, it is recommended that people with COVID-19 limit contact with pets and other animals until more is known about the virus.



On the other side of the equation, there is concern about humans transmitting the virus to wildlife, particularly to species that are already endangered. This could introduce a new disease threat and potentially decimate populations that are already vulnerable.&nbsp;



For example, great apes share 98 percent of their DNA with humans and are known to be susceptible to human respiratory illnesses, hence there's concern about the potential impact of COVID-19 on these species.



Research into how SARS-CoV-2 affects animals and the potential for transmission between humans and animals is ongoing. It's a critical part of the puzzle in understanding this virus and managing the pandemic.



—-



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Shock discovery: Cats play a role in spreading COVID-19

A groundbreaking study from the American Society for Microbiology reveals...

Aerial,Drone,Top,View,Photo,Of,Small,Exotic,Atoll,Island

Today, <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a> published a groundbreaking study demonstrating that large-scale, offshore, fully-protected marine areas, often referred to as MPAs, are critical for preserving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predators-help-prevent-biodiversity-loss/">biodiversity</a> without posing detrimental effects on the fishing industry or food security.&nbsp;



The study unveils the evidence drawn from the first-ever “before and after” assessment of the impact on the fishing industry from establishing Mexico’s Revillagigedo National Park.



The research team, composed of US and Mexican scientists, discovered that the industrial fishing sector in Mexico experienced no economic losses five years after the creation of the park, even with a comprehensive fishing ban within the MPA.&nbsp;



This counters the common fears among fishermen and provides a reassuring response to the doubts raised by the Mexican industrial fishing lobby when the park was proposed. They argued that such a ban would negatively affect their catches and raise costs.



<h2 id="h-where-the-study-was-done">Where the study was done</h2>



Revillagigedo National Park, established in 2017, is also known as the "Galápagos of Mexico." Ranking as the world's 13th largest MPA, it stands as one of the few marine areas where all damaging human activities, including fishing, are strictly prohibited.&nbsp;



This stringent protection aims to aid the recovery of marine populations in the region, which hosts a diverse array of marine life. It shelters not only a significant aggregation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-threaten-australian-tiger-sharks/">sharks</a>, manta rays, tuna, humpback whales, and five species of sea turtles, but also more than 300 species of fish, 36 of which are uniquely found within these waters.



Study co-author Enric Sala is an Explorer in Residence at the National Geographic Society and founder of Pristine Seas. He commented: "This study, utilizing satellite tracking of fishing vessels and artificial intelligence (AI), shows that the fishing industry’s concerns are unfounded."&nbsp;



Sala stressed that even the largest MPAs, which protect entire ecosystems and thousands of marine species, don't impinge upon the fishing industry's targeted species. "The larger the MPA, the larger the benefits."



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-team-conducted-the-study">How the research team conducted the study</h2>



The study was undertaken by researchers from several institutions: the Mexican Center for Marine Biodiversity, <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/">UC San Diego's Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>, the Institute of Americas' Gulf of California Marine Program, and the National Geographic Society.&nbsp;



The experts scrutinized the behavior and productivity of the Mexican industrial fishing sector both before and five years after the introduction of North America's largest fully protected MPA, the Revillagigedo National Park.



The researchers harnessed various data sources to conduct their study: satellite tracking data, fish catch records from the Mexican Fisheries Commission, and cutting-edge AI tools from the Allen Institute for AI's Skylight platform. The ultimate objective was to determine if the creation of the MPA led to a reduction in fishing within the protected area, altered fishing catches, and caused the expansion of fishing into a larger area, which could consequently negatively affect marine biodiversity.



Dr. Fabio Favoretto, a postdoctoral scholar at Scripps Institution of Oceanography and lead author of the study, underlined the importance of satellite tracking devices and AI monitoring platforms in demonstrating compliance from the fishing industry.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-results-of-the-study">Results of the study</h2>



The data revealed that the Revillagigedo National Park's creation didn't have any adverse effects on the Mexican industrial fleet's catches or compel them to expand their fishing territories.



Additionally, the team employed machine learning to detect patterns associated with vessels. The satellite data analyzed were collected from GPS devices installed on approximately 2,000 fishing vessels.&nbsp;



The Skylight platform revealed only sporadic incidents of illegal fishing within the MPA after its establishment in 2017, emphasizing the potency of technology in protecting the 147,000 square kilometers of waters within the park’s boundary.



Contradicting the Mexican fishing industry's initial concern of losing 20 percent of their tuna and other pelagic catches the study provided convincing evidence that large, fully-protected MPAs can encourage a more sustainable and equitable use of the ocean without causing severe economic repercussions to the fishing industry.



Professor Octavio Aburto, co-author of the study and a marine biology expert at Scripps Institution of Oceanography, affirmed these findings. "Any argument to the contrary were just assumptions - this study provides the data to show that negative impacts to fishing do not exist," said Aburto.



He hopes this research will spark productive conversations with the fishing industry, ultimately leading to improved fish stocks and better protection of biodiversity.



<h2 id="h-safeguarding-biodiversity">Safeguarding biodiversity</h2>



This research comes at a crucial juncture when nations are considering how to achieve the global goal set forth at the UN Global Biodiversity Conference (COP15) in December 2022, to protect and conserve at least 30% of the ocean by 2030. Furthermore, just last month, United Nations members agreed on a legally-binding instrument to safeguard biodiversity in international waters beyond national jurisdictions.



"If the world is serious about protecting the natural world - our life support system - we need to drastically increase ocean protection," said Sala. "The clock is ticking until 2030."



The world's oceanic biodiversity, threatened by human activities such as overfishing, is rapidly diminishing, creating potential risks to food security, health, and the environment. By swiftly establishing marine protected areas in strategic ocean areas, the world can collectively secure more than 80 percent of the habitats of endangered species, a considerable leap from a current coverage of less than two percent.



Amid these global conversations, this study offers empirical evidence that large-scale MPAs within countries’ Exclusive Economic Zones can aid in reaching global conservation goals without compromising fisheries’ interests or a nation’s food security assurance.



<h2 id="h-hope-for-the-future">Hope for the future</h2>



The results challenge the long-held belief, propagated by the industrial fishing lobby, that ocean protection damages fisheries. Instead, the study suggests new avenues to rejuvenate the industry that is currently struggling due to overfishing and the impacts of global warming.&nbsp;



"Some argue that closing areas to fishing hurts fishing interests. But the worst enemy of fishing is overfishing and bad management - not protected areas," said Sala.&nbsp;



The findings of this study promise to enrich discussions in Mexico and elsewhere. Catalina López-Sagástegui, a co-author of the study and a researcher at the Institute of Americas, believes that "access to data and technology is improving our collective understanding of marine ecosystems health, which allows us to design and implement MPAs that help restore the health and resilience of marine ecosystems, benefiting fisheries in the long term."



Even those not directly involved in the study, like Dr. Reniel Cabral of James Cook University in Australia, concur with the study's findings. "It’s simple: When overfishing and other damaging activities cease, marine life bounces back. Target species and large predators come back, and entire ecosystems are restored within MPAs. With time, the ocean can heal itself and again provide services to humankind," said Dr. Cabral.



“MPAs are the most effective tool we have for protecting the health and diversity of our oceans," said Sala. "Our study helps to dispel the myth put forward by the industrial fishing lobby that MPAs harm them.”



Funding for the study was provided by Oceans 5 and the Patrick J. McGovern Foundation, underscoring their commitment to understanding and protecting our oceans. As the study's findings make clear, protecting our oceans is not just about safeguarding marine life, it's also about ensuring a sustainable future for our fishing industry, and ultimately, for us all.



<h2 id="h-more-about-marine-protected-areas-mpas">More about Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)</h2>



Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are designated regions in the oceans or seas where human activities are more tightly regulated than in the surrounding waters to protect the natural or cultural resources contained within.&nbsp;



These resources can include various types of marine life, such as fish, crustaceans, and coral reefs, or even archaeological sites like shipwrecks.



<h3 id="h-benefits-of-mpas">Benefits of MPAs&nbsp;</h3>



<h4 id="h-protecting-biodiversity">Protecting Biodiversity&nbsp;</h4>



MPAs can help preserve diverse ecosystems and marine species, many of which are threatened or endangered.



<h4 id="h-maintaining-ecological-processes">Maintaining Ecological Processes</h4>



They protect the ecological processes necessary for the survival of marine life, like breeding and feeding.



<h4 id="h-supporting-fisheries">Supporting Fisheries</h4>



MPAs can improve the health of fish populations, leading to increased fish numbers and sizes, which can spill over into surrounding fishing areas.



<h4 id="h-safeguarding-cultural-heritage">Safeguarding Cultural Heritage</h4>



MPAs may protect culturally important sites and traditional fishing grounds.



<h4 id="h-enabling-scientific-research">Enabling Scientific Research</h4>



They offer opportunities for scientific research and monitoring of marine ecosystems and biodiversity.



<h4 id="h-enhancing-tourism">Enhancing Tourism</h4>



Well-managed MPAs can attract tourists for wildlife watching, snorkeling, and scuba diving, thus benefiting local economies.



There are various types of MPAs with different levels of protection. Some allow sustainable fishing and other non-extractive activities, while others, known as "no-take" zones or marine reserves, ban all forms of extraction, including fishing and mining.



The percentage of the world's oceans covered by MPAs is still far from the international target set in the Convention on Biological Diversity's Aichi Biodiversity Targets, and the newer 30x30 campaign, which aim to protect 30% of the Earth's land and sea areas by 2030. It is crucial to continue expanding and managing MPAs effectively to safeguard our oceans' health and biodiversity.



—-



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Large ocean sanctuaries do not impact regional fishing industries

Today, Science Advances published a groundbreaking study demonstrating that large-scale,...

Dogs aren't just man's best friend. They can also become hospital therapy dogs -- an integral part of a healthcare team, providing emotional and psychological support to patients during times of terminal illness, according to a recent study. 



This study, undertaken in Japan, provides fascinating insights into the vital role that full-time hospital facility dogs (HFDs) play in the medical setting, particularly within the context of pediatric care.



The fascinating research, led by Natsuko Murata-Kobayashi from Shine On! Kids, Japan, and her team of colleagues, is slated for publication in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285768">PLOS ONE</a> journal on May 31, 2023. It delves into the impact of these specially trained dogs, whose purpose extends beyond that of regular volunteer therapy dogs. HFDs are groomed and trained by medical professionals to work in the hospital environment daily, becoming integral members of the healthcare team.



<h2 id="h-hospital-facility-dogs-hfds">Hospital facility dogs (HFDs)</h2>



The concept of hospital therapy dogs isn't new in Japan. The first HFD team was introduced in 2010 at Shizuoka Children’s Hospital, a partnership initiative with the non-profit organization Shine On! Kids. The program has since garnered attention, prompting researchers to understand better the role these dogs play in patient care.



To facilitate this understanding, a comprehensive 20-question survey was distributed among the 626 full-time medical staff at Shizuoka Children’s Hospital in 2019. The survey aimed to gather their experiences and observations of the HFDs in action.&nbsp;



An impressive total of 431 healthcare professionals responded to the survey, with 270 of them having directly observed the HFD activities.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-about-hospital-therapy-dogs">What the researchers learned about hospital therapy dogs</h2>



The findings from the survey were enlightening. Most notably, HFDs have been seen to make a significant impact in terminal care and patient cooperation.&nbsp;



In fact, 73% of respondents reported that these dogs were "very often" or "always" beneficial in providing comfort and support during the final phase of life.&nbsp;



The same percentage of healthcare professionals also observed that HFDs played a crucial role in winning over patient cooperation, proving to be a valuable asset in the healthcare sector.



Beyond these primary areas of impact, the majority of the medical staff also noted that the presence of HFDs positively affected their workload. Furthermore, these dogs were instrumental in assisting children who had difficulty adapting to schedule changes.&nbsp;



Following an HFD intervention, it was observed that children became noticeably more expressive and communicative.



<h2 id="h-clear-recommendations-garnered-from-the-results">Clear recommendations garnered from the results</h2>



In light of these observations, the authors of the study conclude that the full-time model of having HFDs and nurse handlers is significantly beneficial in supporting patients in children's hospitals.&nbsp;



Yet, they acknowledge that further research is necessary to explore and optimize specific interventions of HFDs, promising an exciting avenue of inquiry into this compelling interplay of healthcare and animal-assisted therapy.



The study authors noted the significance of the finding that "terminal palliative care" provided by facility dogs working in Japanese children’s hospitals is highly valued by the medical staff. "Through accumulating evidence from research, we aim to contribute to the broader adoption of facility dogs in children’s hospitals both domestically and internationally.”



<h2 id="h-more-about-therapy-dogs">More about therapy dogs</h2>



Therapy dogs play an integral role in many medical and therapeutic settings, offering comfort, companionship, and emotional support to those in need. These dogs have been recognized for their ability to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression, while simultaneously promoting overall well-being and improvement in social, emotional, and cognitive functioning.



Therapy dogs undergo a training process to ensure that they're well-behaved, sociable, and comfortable in a variety of environments. They need to exhibit a calm and patient demeanor, showing tolerance with a variety of interactions, including petting, hugging, and sometimes crying or shouting from the people they're helping.



Once trained, therapy dogs can work in numerous environments. They are commonly found in hospitals, nursing homes, schools, and even airports. In hospitals, they often visit patients to provide comfort and stress relief.&nbsp;



At schools, therapy dogs can help to create a supportive environment for children to learn and grow. Some therapy dogs even specialize in certain areas, like supporting those with autism, providing palliative care, or aiding individuals suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).



However, it's important to note the distinction between therapy dogs and service dogs. While therapy dogs provide emotional support and comfort to many individuals, service dogs are specially trained to perform specific tasks for a person who has a disability, such as guiding a blind person or alerting a person with diabetes when their blood sugar levels drop.



Numerous studies have demonstrated the positive impact that therapy dogs have on physical health, mental well-being, and overall quality of life. They truly represent a remarkable blend of companionship and therapeutic intervention, making a significant difference in many people's lives.



—-



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Full-time hospital therapy dogs benefit both patients and staff

Dogs aren't just man's best friend. They can also become...

Deep down, we all have that burning sense of curiosity, that insatiable urge to explore the unknown. But how does this curiosity manifest in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adults-are-more-compassionate-when-children-are-nearby/">children</a> compared to our closest animal relatives, the great apes? The answer may surprise you.



Researchers Alejandro Sánchez-Amaro of the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a> and Federico Rossano of the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California San Diego</a> have recently published their findings in the open-access journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285946">PLOS ONE</a>.&nbsp;



This study marks the first direct comparison between human children and great apes regarding their propensity for exploration and risk-taking.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



The investigation centered around a series of ingenious experiments involving rewards hidden under upturned cups. Children, chimpanzees, gorillas, bonobos, and orangutans were all presented with the same choice.



In each case, two cups were presented to the subjects. One cup, transparent, held a small reward visible to the participant - grapes for the apes, stickers for the children. The second cup was opaque, effectively concealing a larger reward. The test was designed to see whether the subjects would opt for the sure thing or take a gamble on the hidden, potentially greater, reward.



Children showed an outstanding inclination to explore the unknown, with 85 and 77 percent of them choosing the opaque cup at least once in the fourth and fifth trials, respectively. The apes, in contrast, were more cautious, with only 24 percent choosing the mysterious cup in the third trial.



However, when researchers briefly revealed the hidden reward and allowed participants a second chance at their choice, the playing field leveled somewhat. An overwhelming majority of both children and apes, over 88%, chose the opaque cup with the more substantial reward.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The researchers observed that, although children seemed naturally more drawn to uncertainty and exploration, apes could learn the potential benefits of such behavior and adapt. In essence, the apes' decision-making became more adventurous after gaining awareness of the possible rewards of risk-taking.



"This study is the first to compare curiosity in human children and great apes using the same experimental set-up," said Sánchez-Amaro and Rossano. They believe the results imply that children may be inherently more inclined to explore the unknown, or perhaps they are simply less risk-averse than great apes.&nbsp;



However, they note, "after learning about the rewards of exploring uncertainty, apes quickly applied this knowledge to future scenarios."



This study offers an exciting glimpse into the cognitive parallels and differences between humans and our evolutionary cousins, and the potential role of curiosity in survival and learning. It reinforces the idea that exploration and risk-taking, tempered by learning and experience, are shared traits that span across our evolutionary family tree.



“In this comparative set of studies, we explored whether children and non-human great apes would be curious to forego a visible benefit under a transparent cup to explore an uncertain option under an opaque cup," said the researchers. "We found that children were more likely to explore the uncertain option than the great apes when no other information was available."&nbsp;



"Only after we unveiled the content of alternative opaque cups, which yielded better outcomes than the visible options during an intervention phase, did apes quickly overcome their initial risk aversion towards uncertain options. Children continued engaging in some level of exploration to diversify their options.”



<h2 id="h-the-evolutionary-benefits-of-curiosity">The evolutionary benefits of curiosity</h2>



Curiosity, the drive to seek out and explore new environments, is an integral part of many creatures' behavioral repertoire. But why has evolution favored this trait? How has curiosity provided a survival advantage to organisms across various species? Let's delve a little deeper.



<h3 id="h-knowledge-and-learning">Knowledge and Learning</h3>



Curiosity fuels learning and the acquisition of knowledge. It drives organisms to explore their surroundings, understand cause-and-effect relationships, and learn about the potential dangers and opportunities that exist. This continual process of learning helps creatures to adapt better to their environments, survive, and reproduce. In humans, our advanced cognitive abilities allow us to build on this knowledge over generations, leading to the development of complex societies and technologies.



<h3 id="h-resource-discovery">Resource Discovery</h3>



Curiosity can lead organisms to discover new resources. This might include finding new sources of food or better habitats. For example, an animal's curiosity might lead it to explore a new territory, where it discovers abundant food or a safer nesting place. This aspect of curiosity can be particularly beneficial in changing environments or when resources are scarce.



<h3 id="h-problem-solving">Problem-Solving</h3>



Curiosity is a key driver in problem-solving, a critical skill for survival in many species. It encourages individuals to experiment with different solutions when faced with challenges. Curious animals, including humans, tend to be better problem-solvers as they explore different strategies and learn from their experiences.



<h3 id="h-social-bonding">Social Bonding</h3>



Curiosity about others can lead to social bonding and improved group dynamics. In many social species, including humans, individuals show curiosity about each other. This can lead to stronger social bonds, improved cooperation, and better group cohesion, all of which can enhance survival.



<h3 id="h-innovation-and-evolution">Innovation and Evolution</h3>



On a larger scale, curiosity can lead to innovation and evolution. By driving organisms to explore and experiment, it can lead to the development of new behaviors, technologies, and ways of life. These can then spread through populations and drive evolutionary change.



It's important to note, however, that like many traits, curiosity comes with trade-offs. While it can lead to learning and the discovery of new resources, it can also expose an individual to risks. Too much curiosity can lead to wasted time, energy, or even danger if a curious individual exposes themselves to unnecessary risks. Therefore, a balance of curiosity and caution is often the most advantageous approach.



Overall, curiosity has been a major driver of survival, learning, and evolution in numerous species. As a result, it remains a fascinating area of study for scientists seeking to understand animal and human behavior.



—-



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Are children more curious than apes? Yes, and no, finds new study

Deep down, we all have that burning sense of curiosity,...

In a striking revelation, a survey has unearthed a new facet of how the COVID-19 lockdowns have tampered with our collective consciousness. Participants asked to remember the timing of significant events from 2021 showcased a high rate of errors.&nbsp;



These surprising insights spring from a study conducted by Daria Pawlak and Arash Sahraie of the University of Aberdeen, UK. Their findings have been published in the open-access journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278250">PLOS ONE</a>.



Remembering past events often poses a challenge, especially as time marches on. Yet, our perception of time is not an isolated phenomenon. It's intertwined with our actions and emotions.&nbsp;



The unique circumstances created by the COVID-19 lockdowns have had a profound effect on both. Social isolation dictated by the lockdowns changed our daily routines, often throwing our emotions into a whirlpool. Earlier research has already hinted at the pandemic's influence in causing distortions in people's perception of time.



<h2 id="h-mysterious-link-between-time-perception-and-the-pandemic">Mysterious link between time perception and the pandemic</h2>



The intriguing link between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pets-and-owners-had-complex-relationships-during-the-pandemic/">pandemic</a> and time perception, backed by clinical reports of patients struggling to create accurate timelines of their medical history, inspired Pawlak and Sahraie. They embarked on a journey to delve deeper into the pandemic's effect on our sense of time.



In May 2022, Pawlak and Sahraie conducted an online survey. They presented 277 participants with questions about the year of several memorable recent events, such as the finalization of Brexit or Meghan Markle's entry into the British royal family. The study also examined factors related to mental health, including levels of boredom, depression, and resilience.



Not surprisingly, participants found it harder to accurately recall events from the distant past. However, what emerged as an unexpected trend was their struggle to remember events from 2021 - a mere year before the survey.&nbsp;



In fact, their recollection of 2021 was as flawed as their memories of events from three to four years prior. The year of the lockdown seemed to have blurred in their memories, leaving them grappling to pinpoint events accurately.



<h2 id="h-another-disturbing-correlation-discovered">Another disturbing correlation discovered</h2>



Alongside these intriguing findings, Pawlak and Sahraie discovered a correlation between errors in timing and mental health. Participants who misremembered event timings were also more likely to have experienced heightened levels of depression, anxiety, and physical mental demands during the lockdowns.&nbsp;



Interestingly, these individuals showcased lesser resilience. However, no significant correlation emerged between timeline accuracy and boredom. The results mirror previous observations made with prison inmates. This led the authors to propose a theory.&nbsp;



Accurate recollection of event timing, they argue, requires "anchoring" life events. These could be occasions like birthday celebrations or vacations, events noticeably absent during the lockdown. This lack of distinctive markers, they suggest, might have contributed to the collective disorientation in remembering the timing of significant 2021 events.



“Our paper reports on altered timescapes during the pandemic. In a landscape, if features are not clearly discernible, it is harder to place objects/yourself in relation to other features," said the researchers.



"Restrictions imposed during the pandemic have impoverished our timescape, affecting the perception of event timelines. We can recall that events happened, we just don’t remember when."



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-covid-19-pandemic">More about the COVID-19 pandemic</h2>



The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has been a global health crisis of unprecedented scale since its emergence in late 2019.



Originating in Wuhan, China, the virus swiftly spread worldwide. It was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) in March 2020. The virus primarily spreads through respiratory droplets, transmitted when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks. It can also survive on surfaces for varying amounts of time, leading to indirect transmission.



COVID-19 symptoms range from mild to severe and can result in death, particularly in older individuals and those with underlying health conditions. Symptoms typically include fever, cough, loss of taste or smell, and difficulty breathing. However, a significant number of infected individuals remain asymptomatic, unknowingly contributing to the virus's spread.



Globally, governments implemented varying degrees of public health measures to curb the virus's spread. These included quarantines, travel restrictions, mask mandates, social distancing measures, and in many cases, complete lockdowns. These measures significantly impacted every aspect of life, leading to an international economic slowdown, disruptions in education, and an increase in mental health issues.



Scientific and medical communities worldwide worked at unprecedented speed to understand the virus and develop treatments and vaccines. By early 2021, multiple vaccines had received emergency use authorizations, and vaccination campaigns began worldwide. These vaccines have proven highly effective in preventing severe illness and death, though challenges remain, such as vaccine distribution equity and the emergence of new virus variants.



The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of global health security, exposed weaknesses in health systems worldwide, and underscored the need for international cooperation in tackling health crises. The virus continues to evolve, and dealing with its ongoing effects remains a global challenge.



—-



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The COVID-19 pandemic blurred our memories

In a striking revelation, a survey has unearthed a new...

A remarkable study led by <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> has unveiled that even in the absence of nerves, plants can perceptively sense touch and its cessation.



This discovery centers around the experiments in which individual plant cells displayed a noticeable reaction to the delicate touch of a fine glass rod. These cells responded by transmitting slow calcium signals to their neighboring cells.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-fascinating-discovery-stuns-scientists">Fascinating discovery stuns scientists</h2>



What's even more astonishing, upon the release of the pressure, these cells initiated much faster wave patterns.&nbsp;



While the scientific community has long recognized that plants can react to touch, the novel insight here is that plant cells generate distinct signals when they encounter touch and when it stops.



“It is quite surprising how finely sensitive plants cells are - that they can discriminate when something is touching them. They sense the pressure, and when it is released, they sense the drop in pressure," said study senior author Professor Michael Knoblauch.



He found it fascinating that plants manage to do this differently than animals, despite the absence of nerve cells and at such an exquisite level.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



In pursuit of this breakthrough, Knoblauch and his team conducted 84 detailed experiments on 12 plants, specifically on thale cress and tobacco plants. These plants were uniquely bred to incorporate calcium sensors, thanks to modern technology.



The researchers studied pieces of these plants under a microscope, applying a subtle touch to the individual plant cells with a micro-cantilever. This tiny glass rod, almost the size of a human hair, enabled them to witness complex responses, varying with the intensity and duration of the touch. However, the distinction between the touch and its removal was vividly apparent.



<h2 id="h-waves-instead-of-nerves">Waves instead of nerves</h2>



The study revealed that a touch to a cell instigated slow waves of calcium ions, also known as cytosolic calcium. These waves propagated from the touched cell to adjacent cells within 30 seconds, lasting about three to five minutes. Conversely, the removal of the touch spurred an almost immediate set of rapid waves that subsided within a minute.



The researchers attribute these waves to alterations in the cell's internal pressure. Unlike their animal counterparts, plant cells possess strong cell walls, resistant to permeation. Consequently, even a light touch temporarily increases the pressure within a plant cell.



<h2 id="h-confirming-the-pressure-theory">Confirming the pressure theory</h2>



To validate this pressure theory, the team inserted a minuscule glass capillary pressure probe into a plant cell. They found that altering the pressure inside the cell triggered similar calcium waves to those stimulated by the onset and cessation of a touch.



Knoblauch compared this to humans and animals: “Humans and animals sense touch through sensory cells. The mechanism in plants appears to be via this increase or decrease of the internal cell pressure. And it doesn't matter which cell it is. We humans may need nerve cells, but in plants, any cell on the surface can do this."



Past research has demonstrated that plants can respond to pests such as caterpillars by activating defensive responses, like releasing chemicals that render leaves less appealing or toxic to the pest. Previous studies also established that brushing a plant incites calcium waves that activate various genes.



The latest study,&nbsp; published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41477-023-01418-9">Nature Plants</a>, takes a step forward by distinguishing between the calcium waves activated by touch and its cessation.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-many-mysteries-remain">Many mysteries remain</h2>



However, how the plant's genes react to these signals remains a mystery. With advanced technologies like the calcium sensors utilized in this study, scientists can start unraveling this enigma, according to Knoblauch.



Knoblauch shares his vision for future research: “In future studies, we have to trigger the signal in a different way than has been done before to know what signal, if touch or letting go, triggers downstream events.”



The National Science Foundation financially backed this study. The international collaboration featured researchers from the Technical University of Denmark, Ludwig Maximilian Universitaet Muenchen and Westfaelische Wilhelms-Universitaet Muenster in Germany, the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and of course, Washington State University.



<h2 id="h-plants-continue-to-amaze">Plants continue to amaze</h2>



These findings promise to provide the groundwork for further studies on plant senses and responses. The key lies in exploring diverse methods to stimulate signals and analyze how touch or letting go triggers subsequent events.



While there is much more to discover, this study has significantly broadened our understanding of how plants, despite lacking nerve cells, can sense their environment with a surprising degree of sensitivity. The plant kingdom continues to amaze us with its complex and efficient communication system, which operates in unique and innovative ways compared to animal life.



In a world grappling with ecological challenges, insights into the subtleties of plant behavior could serve as pivotal knowledge for environmental management, agriculture, and conservation. As our understanding of these green beings deepens, it's clear that there's more to plants than meets the eye.



The shared endeavor of these international researchers continues to shed light on the remarkable world of plants, ushering in a new era of plant biology and opening up a myriad of potential applications. Indeed, the future of plant science looks promising.



<h2 id="h-more-about-plants">More about plants</h2>



Plants are the backbone of all life on Earth and are essential to the survival and well-being of humans in countless ways. They play crucial roles in various ecological functions, including climate regulation, soil conservation, and water cycle maintenance, and they provide a wide array of goods and services directly benefiting humans.



<h3 id="h-photosynthesis-and-oxygen-production">Photosynthesis and Oxygen Production</h3>



Through the process of photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide - a major greenhouse gas - and release oxygen, which is essential for most forms of life, including humans. This process helps regulate atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and contributes significantly to mitigating climate change.



<h3 id="h-food-production">Food Production</h3>



Plants serve as the primary food source for humans and other animals. From fruits, vegetables, and grains to the various spices and herbs we use for flavor, almost all of our diet comes directly or indirectly from plants. Moreover, many plants, like legumes, play a critical role in soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere, benefiting other crops.



<h3 id="h-medicinal-use">Medicinal Use</h3>



A significant portion of modern medicines are derived from plant extracts. For centuries, various cultures worldwide have utilized a vast array of medicinal plants for treating diseases and promoting overall health.



<h3 id="h-ecosystem-services">Ecosystem Services</h3>



Plants provide habitat and food for many species, thus supporting biodiversity. They also protect soil from erosion, improve soil quality through organic matter decomposition, and regulate water flow in many landscapes.



<h3 id="h-economic-importance">Economic Importance</h3>



Plants contribute greatly to economies worldwide. Timber, fibers, and many other plant materials are used for housing, furniture, and clothing. Many jobs are tied to the plant-based industries, including agriculture, forestry, and horticulture.



<h3 id="h-cultural-significance">Cultural Significance</h3>



Many plants have significant cultural, spiritual, and symbolic value in different societies. They play a crucial role in rituals, ceremonies, and celebrations, and some are considered sacred in various cultures.



<h3 id="h-climate-change-mitigation">Climate Change Mitigation</h3>



Forests, in particular, act as carbon sinks, absorbing large amounts of carbon dioxide and storing carbon in their biomass. This function is crucial in the fight against global warming and climate change.



<h3 id="h-aesthetics-and-mental-health">Aesthetics and Mental Health</h3>



Gardening and exposure to nature have been shown to have therapeutic effects, reducing stress and promoting mental well-being. Furthermore, plants contribute to the aesthetic appeal of an area, be it a city park, a backyard, or a nature reserve.



<h3 id="h-scientific-importance">Scientific Importance</h3>



Plants are important in scientific research and are often used as model organisms in various studies, ranging from genetics to ecology.



To conclude, plants are an essential component of the Earth's ecosystems and our survival. Our responsibility is to protect and preserve plant life to maintain the health of the planet and ensure the well-being of future generations.



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Plants can sense when something touches them, despite not having nerves

A remarkable study led by Washington State University has unveiled...

Several studies have already shown that what we eat is associated with changes in our deep sleep patterns. However, research examining how diet itself directly affects sleep has been scarce. 



According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.uu.se/">Uppsala University</a> in Sweden, one way to overcome this limitation is to have the same participant consume different types of diets in a randomized order.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



By enrolling a cohort of 15 healthy participants and asking them to alternate between a healthy and unhealthy diet, the experts found that consumption of junk food led to a deterioration in the quality of participants’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sleep-helps-us-process-our-emotions/">deep sleep</a> patterns.



“Both poor diet and poor sleep increase the risk of several public health conditions. As what we eat is so important for our health, we thought it would be interesting to investigate whether some of the health effects of different diets could involve changes to our sleep. In this context, so-called intervention studies - designed to allow the mechanistic effect of different diets on sleep to be isolated - have so far been lacking,” said senior author Jonathan Cedernaes, a professor of Medical Cell Biology at Uppsala.



While previous epidemiological studies have shown that diets with higher sugar content, for instance, are associated to poorer sleep, they failed to take into account the full complexity of sleep as an interplay of different physiological states, each marked by different types of electrical activity in the brain.&nbsp;



“Our sleep consists of different stages with different functions, such as deep sleep which regulates hormonal release, for example. Furthermore, each sleep stage is hallmarked by different types of electrical activity in the brain. This regulates aspects such as how restorative sleep is, and differs across different brain regions. But the depth or integrity of the sleep stages can also be negatively affected by factors such as insomnia and ageing. Previously, it has not been investigated whether similar changes in our sleep stages can occur after exposure to different diets,” Cedernaes explained.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The study sessions involved several days of monitoring in a sleep laboratory of 15 healthy individuals with normal sleep habits (an average of seven to nine hours of sleep per night). In random order, the participants were given both a healthy and unhealthy diet containing the same number of calories.&nbsp;



The unhealthy diet consisted of a higher sugar and saturated fat content and more processed food items. Each diet was consumed for a week, while participants’ sleep, activity, and meal schedules were monitored at an individual level. After each diet, participants’ deep sleep patterns were monitored in a sleep laboratory.



The investigations revealed that participants slept the same amount of time when they consumed the two diets and spent the same amount of time in different sleep stages. However, their deep sleep patterns – particularly their slow-wave activity, a measure reflecting how restorative deep sleep is - appeared to be significantly affected by the unhealthy diet.



“Intriguingly, we saw that deep sleep exhibited less slow-wave activity when the participants had eaten junk food, compared with consumption of healthier food. This effect also lasted into a second night, once we had switched the participants to an identical diet. Essentially, the unhealthy diet resulted in shallower deep sleep. Of note, similar changes in sleep occur with ageing and in conditions such as insomnia. It can be hypothesized, from a sleep perspective, that greater importance should potentially be attached to diet in such conditions,” Cedernaes reported.



<h2 id="h-more-research-is-needed-on-deep-sleep-patterns">More research is needed on deep sleep patterns</h2>



Further research is needed to clarify how long-lasting the deep sleep pattern effects of unhealthier diets may be, and how various functions that are regulated by deep sleep are altered by diet-induced shallower sleep. 



Moreover, since previous studies have shown that memory is also regulated to a large extent by sleep, functional tests examining how memory processes are affected by reduced sleep quality due to unhealthy diets are necessary. Finally, it is not yet clear which substances in the unhealthy diet – and in what quantities - worsen the quality of deep sleep.



“As in our case, unhealthy diets often contain both higher proportions of saturated fat and sugar and a lower proportion of dietary fiber. It would be interesting to investigate whether there is a particular molecular factor that plays a greater role. Our dietary intervention was also quite short, and both the sugar and fat content could have been higher. It is possible that an even unhealthier diet would have had more pronounced effects on sleep,” Cedarneas concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/oby.23787">Obesity</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Junk food consumption impairs deep sleep patterns

Several studies have already shown that what we eat is...

In the harsh saltpans of North Africa, a unique breed of ants displays remarkable navigational prowess. These desert ants, known as Cataglyphis fortis, traverse vast expanses of desert to gather food for their colonies, journeying far from their nests into this barren and hostile terrain.&nbsp;



The real challenge, however, begins once the ants find food - typically a deceased insect - and must promptly navigate back to their nest through the extremely hot and desolate environment.



Marilia Freire, the lead author of a recent study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.05.019">Current Biology</a>, spoke about the impressive orientation abilities of these insects. "The desert ant Cataglyphis fortis stands out due to its exceptional ability to navigate and forage in the harshest environments," she said.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-ants-have-a-fascinating-internal-navigation-system">Ants have a fascinating internal navigation system</h2>



According to Freire, these ants employ an innate navigation mechanism known as path integration, using a sun compass and step counter to track their covered distances. The ants also use both visible and olfactory cues, an ability likely refined through evolution in their arduous habitat, resulting in a navigation system unparalleled in precision.



The research team, observing these ants in Tunisia, noted an intriguing aspect of their nest structures. The nests situated in the center of the saltpans, where landmarks are sparse, had high mounds at their entrances.&nbsp;



Conversely, nests closer to the shrub-laden edges of the saltpans boasted less pronounced or barely discernible hills. This led the researchers to question if these distinct differences were aiding the ants in homing back to their nests.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



Markus Knaden of the <a href="https://www.ice.mpg.de/">Max Plank Institute for Chemical Ecology</a> described the goal of the study: "It's always challenging to determine if an animal's behavior is purposeful or coincidental. The high nest mounds in the saltpan's center could be an outcome of varying soil structures or wind conditions. For our study, we devised a plan to remove these mounds. We then provided some nests with artificial landmarks and left others without, closely observing the resultant behavior."



The researchers tracked the ants' movements using a GPS device. This method allowed for detailed monitoring of the ants' paths to the saltpans and their journeys back home.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



Freire revealed a surprising discovery: "We noted that desert ants can travel much farther distances than we previously thought, with the longest single distance being over two kilometers. However, we also found a high mortality rate, with around 20% of foraging ants failing to return home after long journeys, succumbing to the harsh conditions. This phenomenon underscores the extreme selective pressure for superior orientation."



Further experiments indicated the vital role of nest hills as visual cues. The researchers painted a grid on the floor, which helped track the ants' movements accurately during their final approach to the nest.&nbsp;



When the nest hills were removed, fewer ants were able to find their way back. Simultaneously, their colony members began rebuilding nest mounds as quickly as possible.&nbsp;



Interestingly, when artificial landmarks - small black cylinders - were placed near the nest entrances from which the researchers had removed mounds, the ants did not invest in constructing new ones, suggesting the cylinders were adequate for orientation.



<h2 id="h-many-questions-left-unanswered">Many questions left unanswered</h2>



In ant colonies, work is divided among the members. Older and more experienced ants typically undertake foraging, while younger ants are tasked with building.&nbsp;



Thus, there must be some communication flow between these groups, though the researchers are still unclear about how this is accomplished. Freire speculated that ants inside the nest might notice fewer foragers returning home, prompting an increase in hill-building activities at the nest entrance.



Markus Knaden, who has been studying desert ants for a quarter of a century, continues to be captivated by their extraordinary capabilities. "These ants, despite their small brains, can learn visual and olfactory cues."



<h2 id="h-more-about-ants">More about ants&nbsp;</h2>



Ants are an integral part of the insect family Formicidae and belong to the order Hymenoptera, which also includes bees and wasps. They are known for their complex social structures and exceptional survival skills. Ant colonies can be found almost everywhere, except Antarctica and a few islands.



Ants come in a wide range of sizes and colors, from as small as 0.03 inches to as large as 2 inches in length. Their colonies are organized with various roles including the queen, workers, soldiers, and in some species, drones. Each caste has a specific duty within the colony.



<h3 id="h-ants-have-a-caste-system">Ants have a caste system</h3>



The queen is the primary reproducing female, usually the largest in the colony, responsible for laying all of the eggs. Some colonies have multiple queens.&nbsp;



The workers, which are typically sterile females, perform tasks like food gathering, nest maintenance, and brood care.&nbsp;



The soldiers are larger workers who defend the colony. Drones are the male ants, whose primary purpose is to mate with the queen.



<h3 id="h-communication-and-diet">Communication and diet</h3>



Ants have a unique form of communication involving pheromones. These chemical signals allow them to leave trails that other ants can follow, alert colony members to danger, and even guide them to food sources.



Their diet varies widely and can include seeds, nectar, fungus, or even other insects and small animals. Some species, like leafcutter ants, farm their own food. They cut pieces of leaves and carry them back to their colony to cultivate a special type of fungus that they eat.



<h3 id="h-extraordinary-strength">Extraordinary strength</h3>



One fascinating aspect of ants is their strength. They can carry objects 50 times their own body weight. This is due to their small size, which allows them to produce more force relative to their body weight.



<h3 id="h-impressive-construction-ability">Impressive construction ability</h3>



Ants are also known for their complex mound-building behaviors, creating intricate underground tunnel systems. Some species, like the red harvester ant, build their nests in a way that helps regulate temperature, humidity, and gas exchange.



<h3 id="h-important-role-in-earth-s-ecosystems">Important role in Earth’s ecosystems</h3>



The study of ants, known as myrmecology, has provided important insights into topics like social organization, navigation, and symbiosis. Ants often form symbiotic relationships with other insects, plants, and even fungi. Their success as a species is often attributed to their social structure, adaptability, and ability to modify habitats.



Despite being small, ants play a crucial role in the environment. They turn and aerate the soil, allowing water and oxygen to reach plant roots. They also help control pests by preying on eggs, larvae, and adults of various pest species.



There are more than 12,000 described species of ants. However, scientists believe there are many more still undiscovered, particularly in tropical areas. Ants have survived on Earth for over 100 million years, which speaks volumes about their adaptability and resilience.



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Ants build higher nests when there are no visible landmarks

In the harsh saltpans of North Africa, a unique breed...

As the world heats up, climatic changes are becoming more noticeable. A new study out of <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/">Dartmouth</a> suggests that the Northeast United States, a region known for its varied seasons and unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-becoming-more-difficult-to-predict/">weather</a> patterns, is set to experience more extreme weather conditions such as heavy rainfall due to rising temperatures.&nbsp;



The study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10584-023-03545-w">Climatic Change</a>, predicts an increase in heavy rainfall events by as much as 52 percent by the end of this century. These extreme precipitation events are characterized as days with 1.5 or more inches of heavy rainfall or melted snow.



According to study first author Christopher J. Picard, the logic behind the forecast is pretty simple: as climate change ramps up the heat, more water vapor saturates the atmosphere. This elevated moisture sets the stage for an uptick in extreme precipitation.



<h2 id="h-broader-focus-of-the-study">Broader focus of the study</h2>



The focus of the study is not just on the increased volume of precipitation. "Our findings show that this increase in extreme precipitation will be primarily driven by more frequent heavy rainfall events, not by the intensity of such events," explained Picard. The expectation is not that each storm will be more powerful, but rather, that there will simply be more days of heavy rainfall.



Looking deeper into the seasons, the study notes that winter and spring are expected to bear the brunt of this change, contributing significantly to the predicted 52 percent surge in extreme precipitation by 2070 to 2099. These seasons may see increases in extreme precipitation of 109&nbsp; and 89 percent, respectively.



Jonathan Winter, the senior author of the study and an associate professor of Geography at Dartmouth, has a history of examining heavy rainfall trends in the Northeast. His earlier work, which looked at data from 1901 to 2014, found a 50 percent increase in extreme precipitation events from 1996 to 2014.&nbsp;



According to Professor Winter, this sharp uptick in extreme weather events has clear ties to climate change. "Building on our earlier work, we were particularly interested in determining how much extreme precipitation is expected to change across the Northeast in the future."



<h2 id="h-where-the-study-was-focused">Where the study was focused</h2>



The study specifically focused on thirteen Northeast states and Washington, D.C. When breaking down the regional impact, the researchers predict that extreme precipitation increases will be most noticeable in West Virginia, certain parts of Pennsylvania, central New York, and northeastern Maine. The areas expected to see comparatively less of an increase are those along the Atlantic coast and south of Lake Ontario.



To conduct the study, the team employed a regional climate model from the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu/">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a>. This model helped simulate precipitation for two periods: a historical one from 1976 to 2005 and a projected one from 2070 to 2099. 



The experts cross-referenced their results with simulations from other regional climate models and found a high degree of agreement. These models predict increases in heavy rainfall ranging from 58 to 169 percent.



<h2 id="h-grave-implications-of-the-study-s-results">Grave implications of the study’s results</h2>



The implications of this anticipated upsurge in extreme weather events are grave. "Extreme precipitation events can pose threats to life, property, infrastructure, and the environment," warns Winter.&nbsp;



Prior studies have revealed the destructive effects of such occurrences. They can lead to flooding, landslides, and erosion, which in turn can wipe out roads, instigate agricultural runoff of pollutants, and damage recreational areas.&nbsp;



"So, understanding where the flood plain is actually located, having the right sized culverts or green infrastructure in place, and properly designing roads and bridges, are important to managing the extra water that we're likely to encounter in the future," said Winter.&nbsp;



The research shines a spotlight on the unfolding realities of climate change and their likely impact on our daily lives. As we move toward the end of the century, more frequent days of heavy rainfall will likely become a commonplace event in the Northeast, a direct consequence of the rising global temperatures.



<h2 id="h-prepare-for-a-future-filled-with-extreme-weather">Prepare for a future filled with extreme weather</h2>



As Picard, Winter and colleagues demonstrate, a future with more extreme weather events isn't just a possibility - it's a likelihood. While this research gives us a glimpse of what lies ahead, it also underscores the need for greater resilience and adaptation in the face of climate change.&nbsp;



This means understanding where flood plains are actually located, investing in appropriately-sized infrastructure, and designing roads and bridges with these changing conditions in mind.



As we continue to observe the effects of climate change, studies like this one from Dartmouth are invaluable in shaping our understanding and response to these global changes. With this research, we gain more insight into the climate of the future - allowing us to better prepare and adapt to a world where the weather promises to be far more unpredictable than we've ever known.



<h2 id="h-how-climate-change-impacts-extreme-weather-events">How climate change impacts extreme weather events</h2>



Climate change is transforming our planet in profound and wide-ranging ways, influencing the frequency, intensity, and duration of extreme weather events. These changes are due to the warming effect of increased greenhouse gas emissions, primarily carbon dioxide and methane, trapping more heat in the Earth's atmosphere.



Here's a breakdown of some ways climate change influences extreme weather:



<h3 id="h-heatwaves">Heatwaves&nbsp;</h3>



As global temperatures rise, heatwaves have become more frequent and intense. These prolonged periods of excessively hot weather can lead to droughts, wildfires, and significant impacts on human health and agriculture.



<h3 id="h-heavy-rainfall-and-flooding">Heavy Rainfall and Flooding</h3>



Climate change intensifies the water cycle. Warmer air can hold more moisture, which can result in more intense rainfall, leading to an increased risk of flooding. This was precisely the conclusion of the Dartmouth study we previously discussed.



<h3 id="h-droughts">Droughts&nbsp;</h3>



While some areas experience increased rainfall, others undergo prolonged periods of dryness. Changes in weather patterns and decreased rainfall can lead to severe droughts. These droughts can harm agriculture, deplete water sources, and create conditions ideal for wildfires.



<h3 id="h-hurricanes-and-tropical-storms">Hurricanes and Tropical Storms</h3>



As the ocean's surface temperature rises, hurricanes and tropical storms can become more intense. Warm water fuels these storms, so higher temperatures can lead to storms with stronger winds and heavier rainfall.



<h3 id="h-wildfires">Wildfires&nbsp;</h3>



Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns can make forests drier and more susceptible to wildfires. When combined with extended periods of drought, the risk of wildfires significantly increases.



<h3 id="h-snowstorms-and-cold-waves">Snowstorms and Cold Waves</h3>



Although climate change generally leads to warmer temperatures, it can also cause extreme cold events. This happens because warming in the Arctic can disrupt the polar vortex, a large area of cold air and low pressure at the North Pole, causing frigid air to spill into lower latitudes.



<h3 id="h-sea-level-rise">Sea-Level Rise</h3>



While not a weather event, the melting of polar ice caps due to rising global temperatures results in a rise in sea levels. This increases the risk of coastal flooding, particularly during storms.



It's important to understand that climate change doesn't create extreme weather events out of thin air, but instead, it modifies existing weather patterns, making them more severe, more frequent, or both.&nbsp;



These shifts in weather patterns can have profound effects on ecosystems, agriculture, infrastructure, and human life, making it critical for us to understand and mitigate the impact of climate change.



—-



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Heavy rainfall events in the Northeast are set to increase by over 50 percent

As the world heats up, climatic changes are becoming more...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
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On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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