Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Scientists exploring the evolution of bipedal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-humans-walking-upright/">walking</a> have long assumed that the raised arch of the foot helps humans walk by acting as a lever that propels the body forward. However, a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2023.1155439">Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology</a> has found that the recoil of the flexible arch repositions the ankle upright for more effective walking.&nbsp;



In running, these effects are even greater, suggesting that the ability to run efficiently may have been a selective pressure for a flexible arch which made walking more efficient too. Besides shedding new light on human evolution, these findings could have medical applications, by helping doctors improve treatments for patients’ locomotory problems.



“We thought originally that the spring-like arch helped to lift the body into the next step,” said study lead author Lauren Welte, an associate research fellow in Foot Biomechanics at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a> who conducted the research during a postdoctoral fellowship at <a href="https://www.queensu.ca/">Queen’s University</a>. “It turns out that instead, the spring-like arch recoils to help the ankle lift the body.”



The evolution of the raised medial arch sets us apart from great apes, and is crucial for our capacity for bipedal walking. Although the precise mechanisms by which it operates are still unclear, this arch is thought to give hominins more leverage when walking, and to make them more efficient runners by propelling the center mass of the body forward, or by making up for mechanical work that muscles would otherwise have to do.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



To test these hypotheses, the scientists enrolled seven participants with varying arch mobility, and asked them to walk or run while their feet were filmed by high-speed x-ray motion capture cameras.&nbsp;



To examine the effect of arch mobility on adjacent joints, the researchers created rigid models and compared them to the measured motion of the foot bones. In addition, they measured which joints contributed the most to arch recoil, along with the contribution of arch recoil to center of mass and ankle propulsion.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



Contrary to their expectations that arch recoil would assist in lifting the body by acting as a rigid lever, the experts found that a rigid arch lacking recoil led to early detachment of the foot from the ground. This early detachment likely decreased the efficiency of the calf muscles.&nbsp;



Alternatively, the absence of arch recoil caused the ankle bones to lean excessively forward, resembling the posture seen in walking chimpanzees rather than the upright stance characteristic of human gait. By contrast, a flexible arch played a crucial role in realigning the ankle to an upright position, enabling more effective leg push-off from the ground.&nbsp;



This effect was even more pronounced during running, indicating that efficient running may have exerted evolutionary pressure in favor of the flexible arch. Finally, the scientists discovered that the joint between two bones in the medial arch – the navicular and the medial cuneiform – was crucial to the arch’s flexibility.



“The mobility of our feet seems to allow us to walk and run upright instead of either crouching forward or pushing off into the next step too soon,” explained senior author Michael Rainbow, an associate professor of Mechanical and Materials Engineering at Queen’s University.



<h2 id="h-future-implications-of-the-study">Future implications of the study</h2>



These findings could open therapeutic pathways for people whose arches are rigid due to injury or illness. In such cases, supporting the flexibility of the arch could help improve overall mobility.&nbsp;



“Our work suggests that allowing the arch to move during propulsion makes movement more efficient. If we restrict arch motion, it’s likely that there are corresponding changes in how the other joints function,” Welte explained.



“At this stage, our hypothesis requires further testing because we need to verify that differences in foot mobility across the population lead to the kinds of changes we see in our limited sample. That said, our work sets the stage for an exciting new avenue of investigation,” Rainbow concluded.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Flexible foot arch makes humans better runners

Scientists exploring the evolution of bipedal walking have long assumed...

How do flying insects like important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/south-african-daisy-creates-fake-flies-to-attract-pollinators/">pollinators</a> locate odor sources in the great outdoors, despite encountering highly variable wind conditions? They use odor plumes - which travel like smoke and form when the wind blows odor molecules from their source - to track down sources such as flowers or pheromones.



But wind tunnels are typically unable to replicate realistic outdoor wind conditions. A study published in the AIP journal&nbsp;<a href="https://pubs.aip.org/pof">Physics of Fluids</a> explores microscale wind conditions in various outdoor environments to investigate what flying insects might experience while tracking odor plumes.



Study co-authors Jaleesa Houle and Floris Van Breugel from the <a href="https://www.unr.edu/">University of Nevada at Reno</a> assessed the mechanical turbulence produced by ambient wind flowing over surface roughness elements such as buildings, trees, and fences and its role in odor plume tracking.



“Since we’re studying wind dynamics within the surface roughness sublayer, most known atmospheric similarity theories that describe properties of the wind profile are not applicable,” said Houle. “So, we use statistical analysis to find both spatial and temporally significant correlations between wind measurements for various sites where we collected data.”



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers collected near-surface wind data from several sage steppe (shrub-filled grassland), forest, and urban areas in Northern Nevada and discovered near-surface wind direction is often highly variable over timescales of less than 10 minutes. They also found wind direction variability to be consistently higher in environments with greater surface complexity (urban areas) and lower at higher wind speeds.



“This is important because insects are typically tracking odor plumes in lower wind speeds, which indicates they are somehow making sense of the high directional variability they encounter,” said Houle. “Turbulence intensity is strongly correlated with standard deviations in wind direction, which might be useful for future wind tunnel experimental designs aimed at recreating more ‘natural’ winds.”



<h2 id="h-what-the-experts-learned">What the experts learned&nbsp;</h2>



Based on their findings, Houle and van Breugel hypothesize an optimal range of wind speed and environmental surface complexity may exist to help insects locate an odor source.



“Further experiments will be needed to test our hypothesis and may help us better understand the implications of land fragmentation on the success of ecologically significant plume tracking insects, such as pollinators,” said Houle.&nbsp;



“Beyond this, our results give a compelling reason for researchers to focus on increasing directional variability in wind tunnel studies if they want to uncover plume tracking behaviors that more closely resemble what we might see in nature.”



Next, the researchers will apply their findings to plume tracking wind tunnel experiments and a series of outdoor studies.



“During the summer, we plan to test our hypothesis regarding the types of wind conditions insects might prefer while tracking odor plumes,” said Houle. “In the lab, we’re actively looking for ways to create greater directional variability to better mimic natural wind.”



<h2 id="h-more-about-how-insects-fly">More about how insects fly</h2>



 Insect flight is a remarkable natural phenomenon that has intrigued scientists for centuries. Despite their seemingly erratic patterns, insects are actually incredibly skilled fliers, capable of executing complex maneuvers that even our most advanced aircraft can't duplicate.



At the heart of an insect's flying ability are its wings, which are made of a thin, flexible cuticle - the same material that makes up the insect's exoskeleton. The wings are incredibly light, yet strong enough to withstand the rapid, vigorous beating required for flight.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-two-pairs-of-wings">Two pairs of wings&nbsp;</h3>



Insects typically have two pairs of wings, although in some species, like flies (Diptera), the second pair of wings has evolved into structures known as halteres that help in balance and navigation.



Insect flight involves two primary wing-beating patterns: the figure-eight and the clap-and-fling.



<h4 id="h-figure-eight-pattern">Figure-eight pattern&nbsp;</h4>



This is the most common pattern and is employed by bees, flies, and many other insects. The insect moves its wings in a figure-eight pattern, creating a swirl of air (vortex) above the wing that produces lift. It's an efficient way of flying that allows insects to hover in place, fly backward, and quickly change direction.



<h4 id="h-clap-and-fling-pattern">Clap-and-fling pattern</h4>



In this method, used by smaller insects like thrips and some kinds of beetles, the insect claps its wings together above its body and then flings them apart. When the wings fling apart, the air rushes in to fill the void, creating a vortex that generates lift.



One of the major differences between insect flight and bird or plane flight is how lift is created. Birds and airplanes create lift by moving forward, with air flowing faster over the top of the wing than the bottom due to its shape (an effect described by Bernoulli's principle). Insects, on the other hand, generate lift by flapping their wings back and forth at high frequencies.



Insects are also able to control the angle at which their wings beat, known as the "angle of attack," allowing them to change direction quickly or hover in place. They have an incredible amount of control over their flight, capable of near-instant changes in speed and direction.



The ability of insects to fly has played a critical role in their success as a group, aiding in food acquisition, escape from predators, and dispersion to new habitats. Despite their small size, insects have evolved one of the most effective forms of flight in the animal kingdom.



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How do flying insects fight the wind to reach food?

How do flying insects like important pollinators locate odor sources...

When we think about pollutants spewed from our daily commute, exhaust fumes tend to be the first thing that springs to mind. But a startling new study from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> challenges this assumption, spotlighting an underappreciated source of vehicular emissions: windshield washer fluid.



This study suggests that windshield washer fluid's alcoholic content contributes significantly more to real-world vehicle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-emissions-from-fertilizers-could-be-cut-by-80-percent/">emissions</a> than previously thought. The researchers argue that even as more and more drivers switch from gasoline to electric vehicles, the emission levels of these non-fuel-derived gases will likely remain consistent.



Over the past two decades, average carbon dioxide emissions from cars have seen a marked decrease. A report from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency indicates a 25 percent drop since the early 2000s. However, carbon dioxide is merely one component of the emissions problem.



The villainous roster of pollutants also includes volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOCs, a category of carbon-based molecules that easily vaporize, contribute significantly to ozone formation. Although exhaust gases emit some VOCs, car-care products, including windshield washer fluid, are another significant source.



Existing estimates from a comprehensive inventory of manufacturer statistics in the U.K. indicate that these car-care products may be a more substantial source of VOCs than exhaust. Yet, until now, no experimental verification existed.&nbsp;



Samuel Cliff and his team decided to fill this gap by measuring the vaporized windshield washer fluid ingredients emitted by cars on real-world roads, comparing these figures to the existing inventory estimates.



The team, equipped with several instruments including a mass spectrometer, stationed a van near a busy roadway to record the VOCs released by passing vehicles. They compared these readings to measurements taken at a university site with minimal traffic to calculate the average amount of vapor emitted per car for each kilometer traveled for key VOCs.



Their observations painted a fascinating picture. The measurements for aromatic compounds, which are commonly monitored and regulated, matched the inventory estimates.&nbsp;



However, the alcohol readings, critical components in windshield washer fluid, surpassed the inventory figures. The released amounts of two alcohols, ethanol and methanol, were almost double that of all VOCs emitted through exhaust.



This stark discrepancy in alcohol emissions suggested that including solvents from car-care products in inventory estimations could lead to a more accurate assessment of vehicle-derived pollutants. This would, therefore, indicate that these products are a significant, if overlooked, source of vehicular pollutants.



This revelation has profound implications for future regulatory policy. Electric vehicles might emit fewer fuel-derived pollutants, but windshield washing is an unavoidable part of vehicle maintenance. Therefore, car care products' emissions will persist, demanding attention and suitable regulatory measures.



The study, which is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c00845">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>,&nbsp; received funding from the U.K. Natural Environment Research Council and the Panorama Natural Environment Research Council Doctoral Training Partnership.



<h2 id="h-more-about-windshield-wiper-fluid">More about windshield wiper fluid</h2>



Windshield wiper fluid, also known as windshield washer fluid or wiper fluid, is a liquid used in conjunction with the wiper blades of a vehicle to clean the windshield. This fluid helps to remove dirt, insects, bird droppings, and other debris that may accumulate on a windshield during travel.



The fluid's primary components include water, alcohol such as methanol, ethylene glycol, or ethanol, and detergents. Some variations may also include antifreeze components for use in cold climates, where it's important that the fluid doesn't freeze upon contact with the windshield or within the reservoir of the vehicle.



The alcohol content in windshield washer fluid serves as both a cleaning agent and an antifreeze agent. Methanol and ethanol help to break down grime and dirt while preventing the fluid from freezing in cold conditions.



<h3 id="h-use-caution-with-wiper-fluid">Use caution with wiper fluid</h3>



Despite its usefulness, it's important to handle windshield wiper fluid carefully. For instance, methanol, a common ingredient, is considered toxic and can be harmful or fatal if ingested. It can also irritate the skin and eyes, which is why it's recommended to use caution when filling up your car's wiper fluid reservoir.



As highlighted by the study in your previous question, windshield wiper fluid can also contribute to environmental pollution. When used, the alcohol and other volatile organic compounds in the fluid can evaporate into the atmosphere, contributing to air pollution.



Lastly, given its potential environmental impact, some manufacturers are now producing "eco-friendly" windshield washer fluids. These use plant-derived ingredients and avoid harmful substances like methanol. While they may not always be as effective in extreme weather conditions, they provide a more sustainable option for drivers concerned about their environmental footprint.



<h2 id="h-about-the-acs">About the ACS</h2>



The American Chemical Society (ACS) is a nonprofit organization chartered by the U.S. Congress. ACS’ mission is to advance the broader chemistry enterprise and its practitioners for the benefit of Earth and all its people. The Society is a global leader in promoting excellence in science education and providing access to chemistry-related information and research through its multiple research solutions, peer-reviewed journals, scientific conferences, eBooks and weekly news periodical&nbsp;Chemical &amp; Engineering News.&nbsp;



ACS journals are among the most cited, most trusted and most read within the scientific literature; however, ACS itself does not conduct chemical research. As a leader in scientific information solutions, its CAS division partners with global innovators to accelerate breakthroughs by curating, connecting and analyzing the world’s scientific knowledge. ACS’ main offices are in Washington, D.C., and Columbus, Ohio.



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Windshield wiper fluid accounts for large percentage of toxic vehicle emissions

When we think about pollutants spewed from our daily commute,...

A recent study has uncovered a unique correlation that could aid in early detection of cognitive decline. <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> researchers have discovered that reduced sexual satisfaction in middle-aged men could serve as a significant warning sign for future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-popular-songs-and-movies-shape-memory/">memory</a> loss.



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnac151">Gerontologist</a>, this study is an innovative contribution to scientific understanding. It delves into the dynamic relationship between erectile function, sexual satisfaction, and cognition, providing novel insights.&nbsp;



"We found that as sexual satisfaction and erectile function decreased, memory loss appeared to increase," the study reports. This correlation suggests a novel risk factor for cognitive decline.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



Study co-author Professor Martin Sliwinski explained the study's unique methodology: "We measured memory function and sexual function at each point in the longitudinal study, allowing us to track how these factors changed together over time."



The study emphasizes middle age as a crucial period, where physical changes like microvascular alterations affecting erectile function and psychological shifts, such as decreased sexual satisfaction, begin to impact cognition. Professor Sliwinski and his team found a strong correlation between these factors but couldn't definitively determine the cause.



"Low satisfaction generally puts you at higher risk for health problems like dementia, Alzheimer's disease, cardiovascular disease, and other stress-related issues leading to cognitive decline," said Sliwinski.&nbsp;



Notably, the team found that improvements in sexual satisfaction might trigger better memory function, emphasizing the importance of sexual satisfaction for overall health and quality of life.



<h2 id="h-several-other-factors-evaluated">Several other factors evaluated</h2>



The researchers utilized survey data from 818 men involved in the Vietnam Era Twin Study of Aging to conduct the study. By administering neuropsychological tests over a 12-year period (from age 56 to 68), they tracked participants' cognitive changes, adjusting for cognitive ability in young adulthood.&nbsp;



They also evaluated erectile function and sexual satisfaction in conjunction with cognition using the International Index of Erectile Function, a self-reported tool for male sexual health.



Study lead author Riki Slayday, a doctoral candidate at Penn State, commented on the unique focus of the study: "We were interested in the perception of sexual activity, how someone feels about their sex life, and how that influences cognitive function."



The analysis found both erectile function and sexual satisfaction were linked with memory decline, underscoring a connection between psychological and physical health.



"We found concurrent increases or decreases in erectile function and sexual satisfaction were associated with similar trends in cognitive function," said Professor Sliwinski. The researchers concluded that a clear link exists between sex lives and cognition, regardless of demographic and health factors.



<h2 id="h-more-questions-remain">More questions remain</h2>



Previous studies have highlighted a connection between microvascular changes and erectile function. "The active ingredient in Viagra (Sildenafil) was originally developed to treat cardiovascular problems," explained Sliwinski. However, the question of how erectile function relates to other health aspects remains an open question for future research.



Sliwinski suggests that regularly monitoring erectile function could help identify individuals at risk of cognitive decline before they reach their 70s. This recommendation comes at a crucial time when the older adult population in the U.S. is set to double over the next 30 years.&nbsp;



The implication is clear: as more people reach their 60s, we're likely to see more individuals experiencing declines in erectile function and sexual satisfaction.



"We already have a pill for treating erectile dysfunction. What we don't have is an effective treatment for memory loss," noted Sliwinski. He advocates for a shift in focus from merely treating symptoms, like erectile dysfunction, to improving sexual satisfaction and overall well-being.



The study's co-authors include researchers from the University of California San Diego and Boston University, and the research received funding from the <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/">National Institute on Aging</a> at the National Institutes of Health.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-links-between-sex-and-overall-health">More about the links between sex and overall health</h2>



Sexual activity and sexual health play significant roles in overall human health, spanning physical, psychological, and cognitive dimensions. Here's a more detailed look into each of these areas:



<h3 id="h-physical-health">Physical Health</h3>



Sexual activity is not just about pleasure and procreation; it's also a form of exercise that benefits the body in several ways. Regular sexual activity can improve cardiovascular health, as it increases heart rate and blood flow. Some studies suggest that it can lower the risk of heart disease and stroke. It also strengthens the immune system by boosting the levels of certain antibodies. Additionally, hormones released during sexual activity can help reduce pain and improve sleep quality.



<h3 id="h-psychological-health">Psychological Health</h3>



A healthy sex life can lead to improved mental health. It can enhance mood, reduce stress, and increase the overall quality of life. During sexual activity, the body releases hormones such as oxytocin and endorphins, which create feelings of happiness, bonding, and relaxation. This can foster intimacy between partners, improve relationship satisfaction, and promote a sense of well-being. Conversely, sexual issues like erectile dysfunction or a decrease in libido can often signal mental health issues such as depression or anxiety.



<h3 id="h-cognitive-health">Cognitive Health</h3>



Emerging research suggests a correlation between sexual activity and cognitive function. A study led by researchers at Penn State found a connection between sexual satisfaction in middle-aged men and memory function. While the relationship between sexual health and cognition is not fully understood, this study suggests that a satisfying sex life might have a positive effect on cognitive health.



<h3 id="h-overall-health-indicator">Overall Health Indicator</h3>



Sexual health can often serve as a barometer for overall health. For example, erectile dysfunction can be an early sign of cardiovascular problems, as both conditions involve blood flow. Similarly, changes in libido can sometimes indicate hormonal imbalances or other health issues.



<h3 id="h-sexual-satisfaction-and-longevity">Sexual Satisfaction and Longevity</h3>



There's some evidence suggesting that sexual satisfaction might contribute to a longer lifespan. A study published in the British Medical Journal found that men with high orgasmic frequency had a 50% lower mortality risk than those with lower frequencies.



Despite the benefits of sexual activity, it's important to remember that responsible sexual behavior, including safe sex practices and regular check-ups, is vital to avoid sexually transmitted infections and other complications that could negatively impact health.



Therefore, maintaining sexual health should be an integral part of overall healthcare, and any concerns about sexual health should be discussed openly with healthcare providers. It's not just about physical and psychological well-being - the potential cognitive benefits make this an area of increasing interest in the realm of public health.



—-



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Lack of sexual satisfaction linked to rapid memory decline

A recent study has uncovered a unique correlation that could...

In a groundbreaking discovery, scientists from the <a href="https://www.swri.org/">Southwest Research Institute</a> (SwRI) have identified a mammoth plume of water vapor, spanning over 6,000 miles, gushing from Saturn's moon Enceladus.&nbsp;



This observation was made using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), and the plume's enormity is tantamount to the distance between the U.S. and Japan.



Led by Dr. Christopher Glein, the team has unveiled this remarkable discovery as part of NASA JWST Cycle 1. The experts will probe the plume and the moon's chemical compounds more in-depth in an effort to gauge Enceladus's potential habitability.



<h2 id="h-ocean-of-liquid-water-under-the-surface">Ocean of liquid water under the surface</h2>



Enceladus, a satellite known to have a subsurface ocean of liquid water, was under the observation of the Cassini spacecraft for 13 long years. This journey led to the revelation of the moon's icy surface, which occasionally shoots out plumes of ice grains and water vapor into the cosmos.



"Enceladus is one of the most dynamic objects in the solar system and is a prime target in humanity’s search for life beyond Earth," said Dr. Glein, who is renowned for his expertise in extraterrestrial oceanography. "In the years since NASA’s Cassini spacecraft first looked at Enceladus, we never cease to be amazed by what we find is happening on this extraordinary moon."



In this awe-inspiring expedition, the Near InfraRed Spectrograph of the Webb made noteworthy observations.



<h2 id="h-shock-and-awe-from-the-research-team">Shock and awe from the research team</h2>



Geronimo Villanueva from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a> said: “When I was looking at the data, at first, I was thinking I had to be wrong, it was just so shocking to map a plume more than 20 times the diameter of the moon. The plume extends far beyond what we could have imagined."



Webb’s sensitivity managed to unfold a new narrative about Enceladus. The moon, while orbiting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-now-leads-the-solar-system-moon-race-with-145/">Saturn</a> in a brisk 33 hours, scatters water, forming a donut-like halo in its trail. The findings revealed that this mammoth plume permeates Saturn’s dense E-ring. The JWST data indicates that while about 30 percent of the water lingers in the moon's wake, the other 70 percent drifts away to enrich the rest of the Saturnian system.



Dr. Silvia Protopapa, an icy bodies composition expert from SwRI, explained: “The Webb observations, for the first time, are visually illustrating how the moon's water vapor plumes are playing a role in the formation of the torus. This serves as a stunning testament to Webb's extraordinary abilities. I'm thrilled to be part of the Cycle 2 team as we initiate our search for new indications of habitability and plume activity on Enceladus.”



In light of these astounding revelations, Dr. Glein and his team are gearing up to conduct further studies on Enceladus using the JWST in the upcoming year.



“We will search for specific indicators of habitability, such as organic signatures and hydrogen peroxide," explained Dr. Glein. "Hydrogen peroxide is particularly interesting because it can provide much more potent sources of metabolic energy than what we previously identified. Cassini didn't give us a clear answer on the availability of such strong oxidants on Enceladus.”



<h2 id="h-looking-for-signs-of-life-on-enceladus">Looking for signs of life on Enceladus</h2>



This new endeavor will enhance the potential to spot signs of habitability on the surface and will amplify the signal-to-noise ratio up to ten times compared to Cycle 1. Recognizing the temporal variability of plume outgassing is crucial for future planetary missions targeting the plume.



"Webb can serve as a bridge between Cassini and the proposed search-for-life mission, Orbilander," said Dr. Glein. He expressed that after Cycle 2, we might have a clearer understanding of whether ocean samples are widely distributed across Enceladus’s surface, or concentrated near the south pole.



“These next observations could help us determine if Orbilander can access ocean samples near the equator, which may help us get back to Enceladus sooner,” said Dr. Glein, expressing the team's enthusiasm and hope for the subsequent explorations.



This momentous discovery underscores not only our advancing technological capabilities but also our relentless pursuit of unraveling the mysteries of our universe. The towering plume of water vapor on Enceladus offers a captivating glimpse into what lies beyond our earthly domain, raising the fascinating possibility of life existing in the far reaches of our solar system. As scientists delve further into these investigations, we eagerly await the revelations that lie ahead.



<h2 id="h-more-about-enceladus">More about Enceladus</h2>



Saturn's moon Enceladus is one of the most intriguing objects in our solar system due to its geologic activity and potential habitability.&nbsp;



Discovered in 1789 by William Herschel, it's the sixth-largest moon of Saturn, with a diameter of about 500 kilometers (roughly 310 miles), making it small enough to fit within the length of the United Kingdom.



<h3 id="h-key-information-about-enceladus">Key information about Enceladus:</h3>



<h4 id="h-icy-surface">Icy surface</h4>



Enceladus is one of the brightest objects in our solar system due to its surface being composed of mostly clean, fresh ice, which reflects nearly 100% of the sunlight that strikes it. This icy surface is believed to sit atop a global ocean of liquid water.



<h4 id="h-geologic-activity">Geologic activity</h4>



Enceladus is geologically active, with the most evident sign being the plumes of water vapor that spray into space from its surface. These plumes originate from the so-called "tiger stripes" near the moon's south pole - these are warm fissures in the icy crust, where the internal heat of Enceladus escapes.



<h4 id="h-subsurface-ocean">Subsurface ocean</h4>



The Cassini mission, run by NASA, ESA (European Space Agency), and ASI (Italian Space Agency), made the groundbreaking discovery that a salty ocean exists beneath Enceladus's icy surface. This liquid water ocean likely covers the entire moon, sitting between the core and the ice.



<h4 id="h-signs-of-hydrothermal-activity">Signs of hydrothermal activity</h4>



Enceladus has also shown signs of hydrothermal activity. Analysis of the moon's plumes by the Cassini spacecraft detected molecular hydrogen, a potential sign of hydrothermal reactions between the moon's rocky core and its ocean. This type of reaction is known to support microbial life at the bottom of Earth's oceans.



<h4 id="h-potential-for-life">Potential for life</h4>



Given the presence of a global ocean, heat, and organic molecules, Enceladus is considered one of the best places to look for extraterrestrial life within our solar system.



<h4 id="h-e-ring-of-saturn">E-ring of Saturn</h4>



The plumes from Enceladus are responsible for creating Saturn's E-ring, as the moon spews out icy particles that then orbit Saturn.



<h4 id="h-gravity-and-orbital-resonance">Gravity and orbital resonance</h4>



Enceladus orbits Saturn at a distance of 238,000 kilometers (roughly 148,000 miles), closer than our Moon orbits Earth. Its orbit is kept stable due to a 2:1 mean-motion orbital resonance with another of Saturn's moons, Dione. This means that for every orbit Dione completes, Enceladus completes two.



Remember that much of what we know about Enceladus comes from the Cassini mission, which explored the Saturn system from 2004 until its deliberate plunge into Saturn in 2017. As of my knowledge cut-off in September 2021, additional exploration missions like the James Webb Space Telescope will provide even more exciting insights into this intriguing moon.



<h2 id="h-more-about-james-webb-telescope">More about James Webb Telescope</h2>



The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), often dubbed as the successor to the Hubble Space Telescope, is one of the most ambitious space observatories ever constructed.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-key-details-about-the-jwst">Key details about the JWST:</h3>



<h4 id="h-partnership-project">Partnership project</h4>



JWST is an international collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). It's named after James E. Webb, who served as Undersecretary of State and Administrator of NASA from 1961 to 1968 and was a major advocate for space exploration.



<h4 id="h-launch-and-operation">Launch and operation</h4>



As of my last knowledge cutoff in September 2021, the launch was scheduled for December 2021. The JWST will be positioned near the second Lagrange point (L2), approximately 1.5 million kilometers (about 930,000 miles) from Earth – a position that allows it to stay in line with the Earth as it orbits the Sun.



<h4 id="h-mission-goals">Mission goals</h4>



The primary science goals of JWST are to study the formation of stars and galaxies, understand the formation of stellar and planetary systems, and investigate the potential for life in other planetary systems.



<h4 id="h-technology-and-instruments">Technology and instruments</h4>



JWST features a range of technologies and instruments that far surpass the capabilities of the Hubble Space Telescope. Its primary mirror, at 6.5 meters (21 feet) in diameter, is over two and a half times larger than Hubble's, allowing it to collect significantly more light.



<h4 id="h-infrared-focus">Infrared focus</h4>



JWST is primarily an infrared observatory, allowing it to see through dust clouds where stars are born, observe distant galaxies whose light has been redshifted into the infrared part of the spectrum, and study objects within our own solar system in extraordinary detail.



<h4 id="h-instruments">Instruments</h4>



JWST has four main instruments: The Near Infrared Camera (NIRCam), the Near-Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec), the Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI), and the Fine Guidance Sensor/Near InfraRed Imager and Slitless Spectrograph (FGS/NIRISS). These instruments will allow astronomers to perform a wide range of observations.



<h4 id="h-sunshield">Sunshield</h4>



JWST features a large, five-layer sunshield that is vital for its operation. This sunshield protects the telescope from the heat and light of the Sun, Earth, and Moon, keeping its instruments cooled down enough to observe faint infrared emissions.



The JWST represents a major leap forward in our capabilities to observe the universe, and the scientific community eagerly awaits the wealth of data and discoveries it will generate.



Image Credit: NASA



—-



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Life on Saturn’s moon Enceladus? Massive water plume has scientists wondering

In a groundbreaking discovery, scientists from the Southwest Research Institute...

A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> and <a href="https://www.brighamandwomens.org/">Brigham and Women’s Hospital</a> has recently discovered that a diet low in flavanols – a type of nutrients found in a variety of fruits, vegetables, and beverages such as tea, cocoa, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-wildfire-smoke-impact-wine-flavors/">wine</a> – plays a fundamental role in driving age-related memory loss. These findings suggest that the aging brain requires specific nutrients for optimal health in a similar way that the developing brain needs specific nutrients for proper development.



“The identification of nutrients critical for the proper development of an infant’s nervous system was a crowning achievement of 20th&nbsp;century nutrition science,” said senior author Scott Small, a professor of Neurology at Columbia.



“In this century, as we are living longer, research is starting to reveal that different nutrients are needed to fortify our aging minds. Our study, which relies on biomarkers of flavanol consumption, can be used as a template by other researchers to identify additional, necessary nutrients.”



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



The study builds on 15 years of research conducted at Small’s lab examining the relation between age-related memory loss and changes in the dentate gyrus – a region of the brain’s hippocampus that is vital for the formation of new memories. In a series of experiments on both mice and humans, Small and his colleagues discovered that flavanols improve function in the dentate gyrus by enhancing the growth of neurons and blood vessels.



The current study was designed to investigate the impact of flavanols in a much larger group, consisting of 3,500 healthy older adults randomly assigned to receive either a daily flavanol supplement or a placebo for three years.&nbsp;



At the beginning of the study, each participant had to complete a survey assessing the quality of their diet. Afterward, the individuals performed a series of web-based activities in their own homes to assess the types of short-term memories structured by the hippocampus. These tests were repeated each year.&nbsp;



Finally, over a third of the participants supplied urine samples in order for researchers to measure a biomarker for dietary flavanol levels to determine if these levels corresponded to performance on the cognitive tests and make sure the participants were sticking to their assigned regimen.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The analyses revealed that, after one year, participants who had initially reported consuming a poor diet with lower flavanol levels saw an increase in their memory scores by an average of 10.5 percent compared to the placebo group and 16 percent compared to their memory at baseline. Such improvements were sustained for at least two more years. However, in the case of participants who did not have a flavanol deficiency at the beginning of the study, no significant increase in memory scores was found after taking the supplement.



These findings, which are published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, suggest that flavanol deficiency is a driver of age-related memory loss, although it is not yet clear what other factors are at play.&nbsp;



“We cannot yet definitively conclude that low dietary intake of flavanols alone causes poor memory performance, because we did not conduct the opposite experiment: depleting flavanol in people who are not deficient,” Small explained.



In future research, the scientists plan to confirm flavanols’ effect on the brain through a clinical trial aiming to restore flavanol levels in adults with severe flavanol deficiency.



“Age-related memory decline is thought to occur sooner or later in nearly everyone, though there is a great amount of variability. If some of this variance is partly due to differences in dietary consumption of flavanols, then we would see an even more dramatic improvement in memory in people who replenish dietary flavanols when they’re in their 40s and 50s,” Small concluded.



<h2 id="h-more-about-flavanols">More about flavanols&nbsp;</h2>



Flavanols are a type of flavonoid, a class of compounds with antioxidant effects. Flavonoids are a diverse group of phytonutrients (plant chemicals) found in almost all fruits and vegetables. They are known for their health benefits, which are often attributed to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immune-boosting properties.



<h3 id="h-foods-with-high-levels-of-flavanols">Foods with high levels of flavanols&nbsp;</h3>



<h4 id="h-cocoa-and-dark-chocolate">Cocoa and dark chocolate</h4>



These are perhaps the best-known sources of flavanols. It's important to note that the flavanol content can vary significantly, depending on the cocoa processing method. Dark chocolate and cocoa powders that have undergone minimal processing tend to have the highest flavanol content.



<h4 id="h-fruits-like-apples-grapes-and-berries">Fruits like apples, grapes, and berries</h4>



These fruits, especially their skins, are good sources of flavanols.



<h4 id="h-green-and-black-tea">Green and black tea</h4>



Both these teas are rich in a subclass of flavanols known as catechins.



<h3 id="h-potential-health-benefits-of-flavanols">Potential health benefits of flavanols</h3>



<h4 id="h-cardiovascular-health">Cardiovascular health</h4>



Flavanols might improve cardiovascular health by reducing blood pressure and improving blood flow to the heart and brain. They can also help make blood platelets less sticky, reducing the risk of blood clots.



<h4 id="h-brain-health">Brain health</h4>



Some studies have found that flavanols can improve blood flow to the brain, potentially protecting against age-related cognitive decline.



<h4 id="h-cancer">Cancer</h4>



Flavanols, like other antioxidants, can neutralize harmful free radicals, reducing the risk of cell damage and potentially the risk of certain types of cancer.



<h4 id="h-diabetes">Diabetes</h4>



Some research suggests that flavanols can improve insulin sensitivity and blood sugar control.



<h4 id="h-skin-health">Skin health</h4>



Flavanols in cocoa may improve the structure and function of skin, protect against sun damage, and improve hydration and complexion.



However, it's important to note that while the potential health benefits of flavanols are promising, many of the effects have been observed in laboratory studies or large-scale population studies, and further research, particularly in the form of randomized controlled trials, is needed to confirm these findings



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Flavanols: A key to slowing age-related memory loss in the brain

A team of researchers led by Columbia University and Brigham...

A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au/">Curtin University</a> in collaboration with <a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/">Museums Victoria</a> has recently confirmed that the 107-million-year-old <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-pterosaurs-had-colorful-feathers/">pterosaur</a> bones discovered over three decades ago are the oldest of their kind ever found in Australia. The study of the fossils sheds new light on the life of these powerful, flying reptiles that lived among the dinosaurs during the Mesozoic era.



The experts examined a partial pelvis bone and a small wing bone discovered at the Dinosaur Cove in Victoria, Australia in the late 1980s by Dr. Tom Rich, Professor Pat Vickers-Rich, and colleagues.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



The analysis revealed that the bones belonged to two different pterosaurs: while the partial pelvis bone belonged to a pterosaur with a wingspan exceeding two meters, the small wing bone belonged to a juvenile pterosaur (the first ever reported in Australia).



“During the Cretaceous Period (145–66 million years ago), Australia was further south than it is today, and the state of Victoria was within the polar circle — covered in darkness for weeks on end during the winter. Despite these seasonally harsh conditions, it is clear that pterosaurs found a way to survive and thrive,” said study lead author Adele Pentland, a PhD student in Paleontology at Curtin.



“Pterosaurs are rare worldwide, and only a few remains have been discovered at what were high palaeolatitude locations, such as Victoria, so these bones give us a better idea as to where pterosaurs lived and how big they were. By analyzing these bones, we have also been able to confirm the existence of the first ever Australian juvenile pterosaur, which resided in the Victorian forests around 107 million years ago.”



However, further research is needed to determine whether pterosaurs migrated north during the harsh winters to breed, or whether they managed to adapt to polar conditions. “Finding the answer to this question will help researchers better understand these mysterious flying reptiles,” Pentland concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2023.2201827">Historical Biology</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-pterosaurs">More about pterosaurs</h2>



Pterosaurs, often referred to as pterodactyls, were a group of flying reptiles that lived during most of the Mesozoic Era, from the late Triassic to the end of the Cretaceous Period, approximately 228 to 66 million years ago. They were the first known vertebrates to have evolved powered flight, predating the birds and bats by millions of years. Pterosaurs are closely related to dinosaurs but are not considered dinosaurs themselves.



<h3 id="h-size">Size&nbsp;</h3>



Pterosaurs varied greatly in size, with wingspans ranging from a few centimeters to over 10 meters (33 feet). The largest known pterosaurs, such as Quetzalcoatlus, are among the largest known flying animals of all time. On the other hand, some smaller pterosaurs, like Anurognathus, were only about 50 centimeters (20 inches) in wingspan.



<h3 id="h-anatomy">Anatomy&nbsp;</h3>



Pterosaurs had a unique anatomy, which included a body covered by pycnofibres, a type of hair-like covering similar to but not identical with the fur of modern mammals. Some types of pterosaurs also featured crests of various sizes and shapes. Their wings were formed by a skin and muscle membrane that stretched from their elongated fourth finger to their hind limbs.



<h3 id="h-lifestyle">Lifestyle</h3>



The diet and lifestyle of pterosaurs varied significantly among species. Some were fish-eaters, others ate small dinosaurs or insects, and some species may have been scavengers. Despite their reptilian nature, many paleontologists believe that pterosaurs were warm-blooded, similar to modern birds and mammals, allowing them to sustain high levels of activity.



Pterosaurs became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous Period, about 66 million years ago, likely due to the same event that killed off the non-avian dinosaurs - the impact of a large asteroid or comet in what is now the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico.



Pterosaurs remain a subject of active research, and new species and findings continue to expand our understanding of these fascinating prehistoric creatures.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Oldest pterosaur bones found in Australia date back 107 million years

A team of researchers led by Curtin University in collaboration...

Astronomers have long known that our warm and yellow sun is a relative rarity in our galaxy, with the most common stars in the Milky Way being considerably smaller and cooler, and sporting just half of the mass of our sun at most. Although billions of planets orbit these common dwarf stars, in order to be warm enough to be habitable, they would need to huddle very close to their small stars, leaving them susceptible to extreme tidal forces.



Now, by using data collected by the Kepler and Gaia telescopes, which capture information about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-class-of-exoplanets-discovered/">exoplanets</a> as they move in front of their host stars, a team of astronomers led by the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> has found that two-thirds of the planets orbiting these ubiquitous small stars are probably roasted by these tidal forces, leaving them uninhabitable.&nbsp;



However, one third of them – meaning hundreds of millions across the entire galaxy – could be in a so-called “goldilocks orbit” that is close enough and gentle enough to hold onto liquid water and thus possibly harbor life.



“I think this result is really important for the next decade of exoplanet research, because eyes are shifting toward this population of stars,” said study lead author Sheila Sagear, a doctoral student in Astronomy at UF. “These stars are excellent targets to look for small planets in an orbit where it’s conceivable that water might be liquid and therefore the planet might be habitable.”



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The experts measured the eccentricity of over 150 planets around these M dwarf stars, which are about the size of Jupiter. The greater the oval shape of an orbit, the higher its eccentricity.&nbsp;



When a planet orbits in close proximity to its star - similar to Mercury’s distance from the sun - an eccentric orbit can lead to a phenomenon called tidal heating. Due to the varying gravitational forces acting on the planet as a result of its irregular orbit, it experiences stretching and deformation, which generates friction and subsequently raises its temperature. In the most extreme cases, this heating process can result in the planet being completely “baked,” eliminating any possibility of liquid water.



“It’s only for these small stars that the zone of habitability is close enough for these tidal forces to be relevant,” explained senior author Sarah Ballard, a professor of Astronomy at UF.&nbsp;



To measure the planets’ orbits, Ballard and Sagear used data collected by the Kepler telescope, focusing particularly on how long the planets took to move across the face of the stars. In addition, they also relied on new data from the Gaia telescope that measured the distance to billions of stars in our galaxy. “The distance is really the key piece of information we were missing before that allows us to do this analysis now,” Sagear said.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered</h2>



The investigation revealed that stars with multiple planets were the most likely to have the type of circular orbits allowing them to retain liquid water. By contrast, stars with only one planet were more often experiencing tidal extremes sterilizing the surface of the planet.



Since one third of the planets in this small sample had gentle enough orbits to potentially host liquid water, our galaxy may contain hundreds of millions of planets where life could develop.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2217398120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



<h2 id="h-what-makes-a-planet-habitable">What makes a planet habitable?</h2>



A habitable planet is one that has conditions that are "just right" for life as we understand it. However, the exact conditions required for a planet to be habitable can depend on a variety of factors, some of which we may not yet fully understand.



Generally, though, scientists consider a few main factors when considering if a planet is potentially habitable:



<h3 id="h-distance-from-its-star">Distance from its star</h3>



The planet needs to be at the right distance from its star where it's not too hot and not too cold. This region is often called the "habitable zone" or the "Goldilocks zone." If a planet is in its star's habitable zone, it could potentially have liquid water on its surface, a key ingredient for life as we know it.



<h3 id="h-presence-of-water">Presence of water</h3>



Liquid water is essential for life as we know it. Therefore, for a planet to be considered habitable, there must be a likelihood of the presence of water. This means the planet should not only be in the habitable zone of its star but also have the right atmospheric pressure to maintain water in liquid form.



<h3 id="h-stable-atmosphere">Stable atmosphere</h3>



A planet needs a stable and suitable atmosphere for life to exist. The atmosphere plays a role in maintaining the right temperature range and pressure for liquid water. It also helps protect the planet (and any potential life) from harmful radiation from space.



<h3 id="h-suitable-size-and-composition">Suitable size and composition</h3>



The planet needs to be of the right size and composition. It should be rocky (like Earth), and have a sufficient mass to maintain its atmosphere. Planets that are too small (like Mars) can lose their atmospheres over time.



<h3 id="h-geological-activity">Geological activity</h3>



Geological activity such as volcanism and tectonic activity can play a role in maintaining a planet's habitability over long timescales, by cycling important elements and maintaining a planet's magnetic field.



<h3 id="h-stable-orbit-and-rotation">Stable orbit and rotation</h3>



A planet with a stable orbit and rotation is more likely to have a stable climate. A stable rotation could prevent temperature extremes between day and night.



<h3 id="h-magnetic-field">Magnetic field</h3>



A strong magnetic field can protect a planet's atmosphere from being stripped away by solar wind, and shield the surface from harmful cosmic and solar radiation.



It is important to note that these are the conditions necessary for life as we know it. There could be other forms of life that have adapted to conditions we would find inhospitable.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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One third of our galaxy’s planets could be habitable

Astronomers have long known that our warm and yellow sun...

A groundbreaking study conducted by the <a href="https://www.umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a> School of Public Health has revealed the remarkable benefits of regular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-may-actually-be-the-fountain-of-youth/">exercise</a>, specifically walking, for the health of our brain. According to the researchers, the positive cognitive impacts of walking are especially noticeable in older adults.&nbsp;



The study unveiled how this simple, low-impact physical activity can fortify connections within three pivotal brain networks, including one associated with Alzheimer's disease. This discovery adds a significant dimension to a growing collection of evidence which confirms the powerful role of regular exercise in promoting brain health and delaying the onset of cognitive decline.



The study, recently published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/ADR-220062">Journal for Alzheimer's Disease Reports</a>, scrutinized the narrative recall abilities of older adults who have been diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), as well as those with normal brain function. MCI is characterized by a mild decline in mental faculties such as memory, reasoning, and judgment, and is considered a risk factor for Alzheimer's.



Professor J. Carson Smith, the study's principal investigator, explained: "Historically, the brain networks we studied in this research show deterioration over time in people with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. They become disconnected, and as a result, people lose their ability to think clearly and remember things. We're demonstrating that exercise training strengthens these connections."&nbsp;



Professor Smith's previous studies have also suggested that walking can reduce cerebral blood flow and improve brain functionality in older adults diagnosed with MCI.



In this new study, thirty-three participants, aged between 71 and 85, were asked to walk on a treadmill under supervision for four days a week over a period of 12 weeks. Prior to and beyond this exercise regimen, the researchers evaluated the participants' recall abilities by asking them to read a short story and then repeat it out loud with as much detail as possible.



In addition to this, the researchers employed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to monitor and measure changes in communication within and between the three crucial brain networks responsible for cognitive functions. These networks include:



The default mode network, which activates when a person isn't engaged in a specific task. This network is linked to the hippocampus, a brain region first affected by Alzheimer's, and the first location where Alzheimer's and amyloid plaques appear.



The frontoparietal network, which regulates decisions made when a person is completing a task. This network also plays a role in memory retention.



The salience network, which monitors the external world and stimuli, and determines what requires attention. It also facilitates the transition between networks to optimize performance.



Post 12 weeks of regular walking, the tests were repeated and the researchers observed substantial enhancements in the story recall abilities of the participants.&nbsp;



"The brain activity was stronger and more synchronized, demonstrating exercise actually can induce the brain's ability to change and adapt," noted Professor Smith. "These results provide even more hope that exercise may be useful as a way to prevent or help stabilize people with mild cognitive impairment and maybe, over the long term, delay their conversion to Alzheimer's dementia."



Furthermore, the researchers observed intensified activity within the default mode network, within the salience network, and in the connections between the three networks. This exciting revelation highlights the potential of regular physical activity as a powerful tool to bolster cognitive health and slow the progression of debilitating diseases like Alzheimer's.



<h2 id="h-additional-health-benefits-of-walking">Additional health benefits of walking&nbsp;</h2>



Walking is a simple and accessible form of exercise that offers a plethora of health benefits beyond its positive impact on brain health. Here are some of the additional health advantages of walking:



<h3 id="h-cardiovascular-health">Cardiovascular health</h3>



Regular walking increases the heart rate, strengthens the heart, and enhances overall cardiovascular fitness. Numerous studies have shown that walking reduces the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, such as heart disease and stroke.



<h3 id="h-blood-pressure-and-cholesterol">Blood pressure and cholesterol</h3>



Walking helps to lower blood pressure and reduce levels of LDL (bad) cholesterol while increasing levels of HDL (good) cholesterol. This leads to improved blood circulation and overall heart health.



<h3 id="h-bone-health">Bone health&nbsp;</h3>



Regular walking, being a weight-bearing exercise, can slow the loss of bone mass for those with osteoporosis. It improves bone density and decreases the risk of fractures.



<h3 id="h-weight-management">Weight management</h3>



Walking burns calories, and thus can contribute to maintaining a healthy weight. It boosts metabolic rate and helps in fat burning, which is crucial for weight management and obesity prevention.



<h3 id="h-muscle-strength-and-endurance">Muscle strength and endurance</h3>



Walking, especially speed walking or walking uphill, can strengthen the leg muscles, improve endurance, and increase flexibility.



<h3 id="h-mental-health">Mental health</h3>



Walking, like other forms of exercise, releases endorphins, often known as "feel-good hormones." This can help to alleviate symptoms of depression and anxiety, boost mood, and promote a sense of well-being.



<h3 id="h-diabetes-management">Diabetes management</h3>



Regular walking has been found to help lower blood sugar levels and overall help in the management of type 2 diabetes.



<h3 id="h-digestion">Digestion</h3>



Regular walking helps improve gastric mobility, aiding the digestive process. It can help prevent constipation and other digestion-related problems.



<h3 id="h-immunity-boost">Immunity boost</h3>



Walking can boost the immune system, leading to a better defense mechanism against various diseases and infections.



<h3 id="h-improved-sleep">Improved sleep</h3>



Walking, especially when done in the morning or afternoon, can help individuals fall asleep more quickly and enjoy better quality sleep.



The beauty of walking is its simplicity and versatility; it requires no special equipment and can be done almost anywhere – around your neighborhood, in parks, on a treadmill, or even while shopping. Incorporating walking into your daily routine can lead to substantial health improvements over time.&nbsp;



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Walking is a powerful tool to boost brain health and overall well-being

A groundbreaking study conducted by the University of Maryland School...

In a recent study conducted in the lowland rainforests along the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, researchers have unraveled fascinating details about the behavior and activity patterns of two sympatric sloth species, Bradypus variegatus and Choloepus hoffmanni. These revelations not only shed light on the ecological dynamics of these intriguing creatures, but also highlight their remarkable ability to adapt to a myriad of environmental conditions.



The elusive nature of sloths has historically posed significant challenges to conducting long-term observational research on them. A team led by Dr. Rebecca Cliffe, Founder and Executive Director of <a href="https://slothconservation.org/">The Sloth Conservation Foundation</a>, set out to use micro data loggers to continuously monitor the activities of both three-toed (Bradypus) and two-toed (Choloepus) sloths.&nbsp;



The observation period spanned over days to weeks, which allowed the researchers to explore how these slow-moving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-will-happen-if-modern-large-mammals-become-extinct/">mammals</a> adjusted their activities in response to fluctuating environmental conditions and how such behavior correlated with their unique low-energy lifestyle.



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.15430">PeerJ Life &amp; Environment</a>, the study's findings reveal that both Bradypus and Choloepus sloths display cathemeral activity patterns, which are marked by irregular and variable periods of activity throughout the 24-hour day. This behavior pattern allows the sloths to optimize favorable environmental conditions while minimizing their exposure to predation.



One of the most intriguing findings of this study was the significant variability observed in the activity levels of the sloths. Such flexibility is suggestive of the various strategies these sloths have evolved to adapt to their surroundings, which improves the odds of survival in fluctuating environmental conditions.



Contrary to initial expectations, the researchers found that the daily temperature did not notably influence the sloths' activity. However, the Bradypus sloths displayed an interesting trait: they were more active at night when the temperature dropped, and the nights following colder days saw increased nocturnal activity as well. This observation implies a potential link between temperature variations and the behavioral tendencies of these sloths.



Dr. Cliffe stressed how vital this research is for conservation efforts and for better understanding the repercussions of anthropogenic activities and climate change on the tropical ecosystems of South and Central America. As these ecosystems become increasingly vulnerable, understanding the behavioral ecology of their inhabitants, such as sloths, becomes vital for formulating effective conservation strategies.



The use of micro data loggers in this study has undoubtedly offered unprecedented insights into the behavioral patterns and adaptations of these enigmatic creatures, demonstrating a revolutionary way to investigate the behavioral ecology of elusive species. These findings not only contribute valuable knowledge about sloth ecology, but also underline the importance of preserving and protecting tropical rainforests and their unique inhabitants.



<h2 id="h-more-about-sloths">More about sloths</h2>



Sloths are fascinating creatures that inhabit the tropical rainforests of Central and South America. Belonging to the family Bradypodidae, there are six species of sloths, divided into two groups: the two-toed sloths and the three-toed sloths.



Sloths are arboreal mammals known for their slow movements and unique energy-saving adaptations. These adaptations are part of their survival strategy, as they allow sloths to spend most of their lives in trees, feeding on leaves, twigs, and buds. Their low-energy diet and slow metabolism allow them to conserve energy, which is critical for their survival in resource-poor environments.



One of the most distinctive traits of sloths is their ability to hang from branches with their strong and long claws. This behavior helps protect them from predators like eagles and jaguars. Additionally, sloths are excellent swimmers and can drop from a tree into a river to swim across it.



Sloths have a highly unusual trait: they have the lowest and most variable body temperature of any mammal, ranging from 24 to 33 degrees Celsius. This variability allows them to better regulate their energy usage. Also, sloths only descend from their tree dwellings about once a week to defecate and urinate, a unique behavior among arboreal mammals.



Sloths have a symbiotic relationship with the algae that grow on their fur. The algae provide sloths with camouflage, helping them blend in with the green foliage of their habitat and avoid predators. In return, sloths provide the algae with shelter and water. Additionally, the fur of sloths houses a variety of insects, including beetles and moths.



Sloths are not just slow movers, but they also sleep a lot. Depending on the species, sloths sleep for around 15 to 20 hours a day. This extreme sleep schedule is another energy-saving adaptation.



Conservation efforts are crucial for sloths as they face numerous threats from deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and illegal pet trade. While some sloth species are listed as vulnerable, others, like the critically endangered Pygmy Three-toed Sloth, are on the brink of extinction. Therefore, understanding the behavior and ecological needs of sloths, as demonstrated in the study conducted by Dr. Rebecca Cliffe and her team, is key to ensuring their survival.



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Study reveals the secret survival strategies of sloths

In a recent study conducted in the lowland rainforests along...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a> and the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/">British Antarctic Survey</a> (BAS), a tiny flightless midge (Eretmoptera murphyi) that has recently colonized Antarctica’s Signy Island is currently driving major changes to the island’s soil ecosystem. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tweets-provide-insights-on-how-invasive-insects-spread/">invasive insect</a> significantly increasing the rates of plant decomposition, resulting in three to five-fold rises in soil nitrate levels compared to sites housing only native invertebrates.



“Antarctic soils are very nutrient limited systems because decomposition rates are so slow. The nutrients are there, but it has taken this invasive midge to unlock them on Signy Island. It is an ‘ecosystem engineer’ in a similar way to earthworms in temperate soil systems,” said lead author Jesamine Bartlett, a field ecologist at Birmingham.



“Up until now, low nutrient availability has been as much of a barrier to the establishment of certain terrestrial species in Antarctica as low temperatures or low moisture availability. So the activity of&nbsp;Eretmoptera&nbsp;on Signy, in combination with climate change, potentially ‘opens the door’ for other species to become established which can further accelerate ecosystem change,” added senior author Scott Hayward, a senior lecturer in Biosciences at the same university.



E. murphyi is a native of South Georgia (an island in the sub-Antarctic region), and was first introduced to Signy Island accidentally during a botany experiment in the 1960s. 



After the insect had massively proliferated in the 1980s, the levels of nitrates measured in soil colonized by this midge was comparable to that found close to seal wallows – an amazing phenomenon most likely due to the fact that population densities of midge larvae can reach in excess of 20,000 individuals per m2&nbsp;in some locations. 



Since it can ride on the soles of boots of researchers and tourists, and can survive in sea water for extended periods of time, the insect is expected to soon reach and colonize other islands.



“Physiologically,&nbsp;Eretmoptera&nbsp;has the capacity to survive in many other locations in Antarctica, so monitoring its spread on Signy, and associated ecosystem impacts is important and remains part of our ongoing research,” Hayward said.



“A particular feature of the Antarctic is that it has had very few invading species so far and protecting this ecosystem is a very high priority. While at some level, there’s plenty of awareness of the implications of invading species, this research really highlights how the tiniest of animals can still have a hugely significant impact,” concluded co-author Peter Convey, an expert in Polar Ecology at BAS.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2023.108965">Soil Biology and Biochemistry</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-antarctic-soils">More about Antarctic soils</h2>



Antarctic soils are quite different from the soils found in most other regions of the world due to the unique climate and ecological conditions of the Antarctic region.



Antarctica is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent on Earth. Most of Antarctica is covered by ice. The ice-free regions are mainly found in the coastal areas and in the Dry Valleys region of East Antarctica.



Due to the extreme cold, dry, and windy conditions, soil formation processes in Antarctica are very slow compared to those in other parts of the world. These soils also receive very little organic input because there are few organisms (primarily limited to bacteria, lichens, and mosses) capable of surviving in the harsh Antarctic conditions.



The most common types of soil in Antarctica are called "Cryosols". Cryosols are permanently frozen soils (permafrost) that are characterized by ice formations and by the processes, signs and impacts of freezing and thawing. Because of the extreme conditions, Cryosols in Antarctica are often further classified as "Hyperskeletic" (more than 90% coarse material), "Skeletic" (40-90% coarse material), or "Leptic" (thin soils with a maximum thickness of 10 cm over bedrock).



Antarctic soils are also characterized by low nutrient content, high salinity in some areas, and the presence of unique features such as patterned ground and polygonal soil structures caused by freeze-thaw cycles.



These soils are important for studying past climate conditions and for understanding the limits of life on Earth. Because they are so unique and fragile, they are also protected by international treaty (the Antarctic Treaty System) from damage or contamination.



Despite the inhospitable conditions, Antarctic soils harbor diverse microbial communities. These microbes have adapted to survive and thrive in the extreme cold, dryness, and high UV radiation. They play a crucial role in nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition in these soils, and their study provides insights into the possibilities of life in extreme environments, including other planets.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Invasive insect is transforming Antarctic soils, paving the way for new species

According to a new study led by the University of...

As cities become rapidly more densified, there is now construction very close to roads and thoroughfares. Although scientists have already known that traffic noise can have a negative impact on human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oil-and-gas-production-linked-to-77-billion-in-annual-health-care-costs/">health</a>, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.chalmers.se/en/">Chalmers University of Technology</a> in Sweden has now found that exposure to even as little as 40 decibels of such noise – the usual level of background noise in an office environment or kitchen – can have a detrimental effect on cognitive performance.



The experts conducted a laboratory experiment in which participants took concentration tests while being exposed to background traffic noise, consisting of two audio sequences simulating trucks passing at a distance of ten and fifty meters. More specifically, they had to look at a computer screen and react to certain letters, and assess their perceived workload afterward.&nbsp;



The results showed that the participants had significantly poorer results on the test, and felt that the task was more difficult to carry out, with traffic noise in the background.



“What is unique about our study is that we were able to demonstrate a decline in performance at noise levels as low as 40 dB, which corresponds to the regular noise level in an office environment or a kitchen,” said lead author Leon Müller, a doctoral student in Applied Acoustic at Chalmers.



“The audio sequence simulating the closer passages, where the sound changes significantly as the vehicle passes by, was usually the one that bothered the test subjects the most. This could be because traffic that is further away is perceived as a more constant drone.”



These findings highlight the negative impact of traffic noise on health and job performance. In recent years, the distance between roads and newly built housing has been allowed to shrink in many cities in Sweden and beyond. For instance, the current Swedish regulations for where construction is permitted are based on the average noise level over a 24-hour period and fail to take into account individual passer-bys or the peaks of low frequency noise indoors.&nbsp;



Since such noise is mainly generated by heavy traffic at low speeds, it is very difficult to avoid even with well-insulated windows and buildings that comply with the construction norms and guidelines for sound isolation.



“The calculations for different types of facades show that it is difficult to achieve ideal indoor sound environments near heavily trafficked roads,” said Jens Forssén, a professor of Applied Acoustics at Chalmers and lead author of a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1351010X221143571">study</a> modelling such low-frequency noise. “Reducing speeds is not a solution, as our calculations show that the indoor noise exposure can even increase at lower speeds.”



According to the researchers, noise and the sound environment are factors that are often considered too late in the planning process. While construction adjustments to better utilize the space in terms of noise pollution could certainly help, the most effective solution would be to avoid urban densification in areas where traffic noise would have too great an impact on health and wellbeing.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20053798">International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-health-impacts-of-traffic-noise">Health impacts of traffic noise</h2>



Traffic noise has several potential health impacts. Here are some of the most significant:



<h3 id="h-sleep-disturbances">Sleep disturbances</h3>



The World Health Organization recognizes traffic noise as a major cause of sleep disturbances. Lack of quality sleep can lead to various health issues such as fatigue, cognitive impairment, depression, and increased risk of chronic conditions like cardiovascular disease.



<h3 id="h-cardiovascular-issues">Cardiovascular issues</h3>



Chronic exposure to traffic noise can potentially lead to cardiovascular diseases. It is believed that noise acts as a stressor, causing the body to release stress hormones which in turn affect heart rate and blood pressure. Over time, this can increase the risk of hypertension, heart attacks, and strokes.



<h3 id="h-hearing-impairment">Hearing impairment</h3>



Long-term exposure to high levels of traffic noise can potentially lead to noise-induced hearing loss. This can occur when the delicate structures within the ear are damaged by prolonged loud noise.



<h3 id="h-mental-health-issues">Mental health issues</h3>



There is evidence to suggest that chronic noise pollution, including traffic noise, can lead to an increase in stress levels, anxiety, and depression. Moreover, it can affect concentration, leading to decreased performance and productivity.



<h3 id="h-child-development">Child development</h3>



Some studies have suggested that chronic exposure to traffic noise may affect cognitive development and learning in children. Noise can be distracting and disruptive, potentially affecting concentration, attention span, and academic performance.



<h3 id="h-annoyance-and-quality-of-life">Annoyance and quality of life</h3>



Apart from specific physical and mental health issues, noise pollution from traffic can also significantly affect people's quality of life. Chronic noise can cause annoyance, disrupt daily activities, and overall decrease well-being.



While further research is needed to fully understand the extent of these impacts and their mechanisms, it is clear that traffic noise has potential negative implications for public health. Mitigation strategies can include things like improved urban planning, the use of noise barriers, noise-reducing asphalt, and promoting quieter modes of transport.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Even slight traffic noise impacts work performance

As cities become rapidly more densified, there is now construction...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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