Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Approximately 252 million years in the past, our Earth was gripped by a cataclysmic event of mass extinction so severe it's now referred to as "the Great Dying." Vast volcanic eruptions ignited an unparalleled climate shift, leading to the extinction of 90% of all species, thus setting the stage for the era of the dinosaurs.&nbsp;



This catastrophic event, however, was not a sudden occurrence. Instead, the Great Dying stretched over the course of nearly a million years, marking the end of the Permian period with a drawn-out farewell.



During this prolonged extinction event, a tiger-sized, saber-toothed creature named Inostrancevia symbolized the struggle for survival in the face of the Earth's drastically shifting environments.&nbsp;



The fossil record reveals a recent discovery that this creature embarked on a 7,000-mile migration across the supercontinent Pangaea, establishing its presence in a far-off ecosystem that had lost its apex predators. Yet, despite its monumental journey, Inostrancevia was also eventually doomed to extinction.



"All the big top predators in the late Permian in South Africa went extinct well before the end-Permian mass extinction. We learned that this vacancy in the niche was occupied, for a brief period, by Inostrancevia," said Pia Viglietti, a research scientist at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> in Chicago and a co-author of the new study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.007">Current Biology</a>.



<h2 id="h-inostrancevia-was-an-extraordinary-creature">Inostrancevia was an extraordinary creature</h2>



Indeed, Inostrancevia was not an ordinary creature. Viglietti explained: "Inostrancevia was a gorgonopsian, a group of proto-mammals that included the first saber-toothed predators on the planet."&nbsp;



Resembling a tiger in size, Inostrancevia likely bore skin akin to an elephant or a rhino, and despite its somewhat reptilian appearance, it was actually a part of the lineage leading to modern mammals.



Before this study, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-marine-ichthyosaur-fossils-found-high-in-the-alps/">fossils</a> of Inostrancevia had only been identified in Russia. However, during the examination of South Africa’s Karoo Basin fossil record, Christian Kammerer, Viglietti's colleague, identified the fossils of two large predatory animals that were distinct from those typically found in the region.



"The fossils themselves were quite unexpected," said Viglietti. The mystery of how these creatures traveled from modern-day Russia, across Pangaea, and arrived in what's now South Africa remains. Yet, their distant journey was just one facet of what made these fossils remarkable.



<h2 id="h-researchers-make-exciting-revelation">Researchers make exciting revelation</h2>



The discovery brought forth an exciting revelation. "When we reviewed the ranges and ages of the other top predators normally found in the area, the rubidgeine gorgonopsians, with these Inostrancevia fossils, we found something quite exciting," explained Viglietti. “The local carnivores actually went extinct quite a bit before even the main extinction that we see in the Karoo - by the time the extinction begins in other animals, they're gone.”



Thus, the journey of Inostrancevia from 7,000 miles away and its subsequent extinction suggests that these top predators were like the proverbial “canaries in the coal mine” for the more substantial extinction event that was to follow.



“This shows that the South African Karoo Basin continues to produce critical data for understanding the most catastrophic mass extinction in Earth’s history,” explained study co-author Professor Jennifer Botha, director of GENUS Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences.



<h2 id="h-shifting-roles-of-apex-predators">Shifting roles of apex predators</h2>



This study also discovered that the role of apex predators shifted an unprecedented four times over a span of less than two million years around the Permian-Triassic mass extinction.&nbsp;



"This underlines how extreme this crisis was, with even fundamental roles in ecosystems in an extreme state of flux," said study lead author Christian Kammerer, a research curator of paleontology at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences and research associate at the Field Museum.



The susceptibility of these top predators mirrors what we observe in our current ecosystems.&nbsp;



"Apex predators in modern environments tend to show high extinction risk, and tend to be among the first species that are locally extirpated due to human-mediated activities such as hunting or habitat destruction," said Kammerer.&nbsp;



He referred to examples like the European wolves or Asian tigers, species that reproduce and grow slowly and require large areas to roam and hunt prey, but are now missing from most of their historic ranges. "We should expect that ancient apex predators would have had similar vulnerabilities, and would be among the species that first go extinct during mass extinction events."



<h2 id="h-valuable-lessons-learned">Valuable lessons learned</h2>



The study not only throws new light on the extinction event that paved the way for the rise of the dinosaurs, but also imparts valuable lessons about the ecological crises that our planet currently faces.



“It's always good to get a better understanding of how mass extinction events affect ecosystems, especially because the Permian is basically a parallel on what we’re going through now," said Viglietti.



She further emphasized the lack of modern analogs to compare with the mass extinction happening today. The Permian-Triassic mass extinction event offers one of the best references of what our planet might endure due to the ongoing climate crisis and extinctions. But unlike the past, "we know what to do and how to stop it from happening."



This groundbreaking study not only reveals intriguing aspects of prehistoric life but also serves as a timely reminder of the need to preserve our ecosystems and avert the looming ecological disasters threatening our planet today.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-great-dying">More about the Great Dying</h2>



The Great Dying, formally known as the Permian-Triassic (P-Tr) extinction event, is the most devastating mass extinction event that our planet has ever experienced. This catastrophic event occurred roughly 252 million years ago, marking the boundary between the Permian and Triassic geological periods, hence its name.



This extinction event wiped out approximately 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species. The sheer scale of life lost earned it the moniker "the Great Dying." It was an extinction event so severe that it took the Earth up to 10 million years to recover its biodiversity levels.



Several theories attempt to explain the cause of this mass extinction. Most scientists agree that a combination of environmental changes likely led to this catastrophe, rather than a single event.



<h3 id="h-volcanic-activity">Volcanic Activity</h3>



Massive volcanic eruptions in the Siberian Traps released a vast amount of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, leading to drastic global warming. These eruptions also spewed out sulfur dioxide, which can cause acid rain and further environmental damage.



<h3 id="h-ocean-anoxia">Ocean Anoxia</h3>



The increased global temperatures could have led to the depletion of oxygen levels in the oceans, a state known as ocean anoxia. This could have made the oceans inhospitable for many marine species, leading to widespread death.



<h3 id="h-methane-hydrate-gasification">Methane Hydrate Gasification</h3>



Some scientists also theorize that warming oceans might have destabilized deposits of methane hydrates (a type of ice that contains a lot of trapped methane) on the seafloor, leading to a massive release of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. This could have caused temperatures to spike even further.



The Great Dying had significant long-term impacts on life on Earth. In the aftermath of the extinction, a group of reptiles known as archosaurs emerged as dominant, leading eventually to the age of dinosaurs in the later Mesozoic Era. It also took a long time for life to fully recover from this event, with some estimates suggesting it took as long as 10 million years for biodiversity to return to pre-extinction levels.



As we face our own environmental challenges today, understanding events like the Great Dying can help scientists predict potential outcomes and develop strategies to prevent similar scenarios from occurring due to human-induced climate change.



Image Credit: Art by Matt Celeskey



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Saber-toothed predator was king prior to the Great Dying

Approximately 252 million years in the past, our Earth was...

Biological diversity is an invaluable global asset that must be safeguarded for future generations. Yet, this biodiversity is increasingly threatened by human activities such as deforestation, overfishing, and pollution, which are dramatically reducing the number of species.&nbsp;



Recognizing the critical need for public awareness on this matter, the United Nations decided to annually celebrate the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/ibd/">International Day for Biological Diversity</a>, a day that highlights our responsibility to protect the natural world.



In an era of rapid technological advancement and increasing global connectivity, we must reassess our relationship with nature. The reality is that our survival depends on the health of the world's ecosystems.&nbsp;



Our <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=water&amp;start=0">water</a>, food, medicine, clothing, fuel, shelter, and energy all stem from the invaluable resources provided by nature, underscoring the urgency of nurturing and conserving our planet's biological diversity.



Protecting and restoring biological diversity has never been more crucial, or more possible. This year presents an unprecedented opportunity for biodiversity conservation.



The adoption of the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/gbf">Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework</a> in December 2022 has set a groundbreaking precedent for our battle against nature's loss. The historic agreement lays out definitive goals aimed at halting and eventually reversing the devastating loss of nature by 2050.



This transformative commitment is the inspiration for this year's International Day for Biological Diversity and its theme: "From agreement to action: build back biodiversity." The globally agreed-upon action plan must be implemented in its entirety before 2030, setting the stage for a thriving, sustainable ecosystem by 2050.&nbsp;



This powerful call to action comes from the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> (CBD). Recognized as the primary global mechanism advocating for sustainable development, the CBD emphasizes that our future rests heavily on how effectively we implement measures that are not merely reactive but also preemptive, to nurture and conserve our world's biological diversity



"Biological diversity has a problem, humanity has a problem," says the CBD. The concept of biodiversity extends beyond wildlife to the genetic variability within individual species, such as crop varieties and livestock breeds, and the diversity of ecosystems that sustain interactions among their inhabitants.



Biological diversity serves as the foundation upon which our civilizations are built, providing resources that are integral to our survival and well-being. For example, the critical role of fish as a primary protein source cannot be overstated. Fish fulfill 20 percent of the animal protein needs for an estimated three billion people globally. Meanwhile, plants are responsible for over 80 percent of the human diet.



Furthermore, the importance of traditional plant-based medicines is magnified in the context of rural communities within developing nations. In these regions, conventional healthcare facilities may be inaccessible or insufficient, making traditional plant-based remedies indispensable.&nbsp;



These natural remedies cater to the basic healthcare needs of as many as 80 percent of individuals in developing areas, emphasizing the vital role that biodiversity plays in human health and well-being.



The International Day for Biological Diversity is an important reminder of the connection between human society and the network of life that sustains us. Protecting this biodiversity is not just an ecological necessity, but also a critical step in safeguarding the future health and prosperity of humanity.



<h2 id="h-how-you-can-help-protect-biological-diversity">How you can help protect biological diversity&nbsp;</h2>



While government policies, business practices, and large-scale conservation efforts play significant roles in protecting biodiversity, individual actions can also contribute immensely. Here are some ways individuals can contribute to preserving biological diversity:



<h3 id="h-mindful-consumption">Mindful Consumption</h3>



Consuming responsibly is perhaps the most direct way we can lessen our impact on biodiversity. This includes opting for sustainably sourced products, reducing waste, and minimizing the use of plastic and other non-biodegradable materials.



<h3 id="h-support-local-produce">Support Local Produce</h3>



Buying locally sourced, organic food not only reduces your carbon footprint due to decreased transport distances, but it also encourages diverse local flora and fauna by promoting environmentally friendly farming practices.



<h3 id="h-plant-native-species">Plant Native Species</h3>



Planting native plants in your gardens or local community spaces can enhance local ecosystems by providing habitats and food sources for local wildlife.



<h3 id="h-reduce-energy-use">Reduce Energy Use</h3>



Lowering your consumption of energy reduces the demand for non-renewable resources and decreases greenhouse gas emissions, thereby mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity.



<h3 id="h-participate-in-citizen-science">Participate in Citizen Science</h3>



Participate in local biodiversity surveys or monitoring programs. This type of citizen science can help scientists and conservationists monitor local wildlife populations and identify emerging threats.



<h3 id="h-educate-others">Educate Others</h3>



Raise awareness about the importance of biodiversity among friends, family, and your community. The more people understand and appreciate the role of biodiversity, the more likely they are to take action to protect it.



<h3 id="h-support-conservation-organizations">Support Conservation Organizations</h3>



Contribute time, resources, or money to organizations committed to biodiversity conservation.



<h3 id="h-advocate-for-nature">Advocate for Nature</h3>



Engage in local, national, or international policy advocacy to protect natural habitats and demand sustainable practices.



Every action, no matter how small, can have a positive impact on the planet's biodiversity. It all begins with an understanding of the essential role that biodiversity plays in our lives and a commitment to preserving it for future generations.



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International Day for Biological Diversity: From agreement to action

Biological diversity is an invaluable global asset that must be...

In a striking revelation from Heart Failure 2023, a scientific congress organized by the <a href="https://www.escardio.org/">European Society of Cardiology</a> (ESC), experts have revealed that women are over twice as likely to die post-heart attack than men. This significant finding highlights the vulnerability of women who have undergone a myocardial infarction.



Dr. Mariana Martinho from the <a href="https://www.hgo.min-saude.pt/">Hospital Garcia de Orta</a> expressed concern about this alarming trend. “Women of all ages who experience a myocardial infarction are at particularly high risk of a poor prognosis,” she said.&nbsp;



Dr. Martinho emphasized the need for consistent monitoring of these women, calling for strict control of their blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and diabetes, and suggested referrals to cardiac rehabilitation. She also highlighted the concerning rise in smoking levels among young women, advocating for a focus on physical activity and healthy living.



<h2 id="h-building-on-previous-research">Building on previous research</h2>



The study’s results build upon previous research which established that women suffering from ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) face worse outcomes during their hospital stay compared to men.&nbsp;



This unfavorable prognosis was attributed to the fact that women are typically older when they experience STEMI, often deal with more underlying health conditions, and are less likely to receive stents to open blocked arteries.



In this new research, outcomes for women and men after STEMI were compared in both the short- and long-term. The study delved deeper to understand if there were differences in outcomes between premenopausal women (55 years and under) and postmenopausal women (over 55).



Dr. Martinho's team conducted a retrospective observational study that enrolled patients admitted with STEMI who were treated with percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) within 48 hours of symptom onset between 2010 and 2015.&nbsp;



The researchers defined adverse outcomes as 30-day all-cause mortality, five-year all-cause mortality, and five-year major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE; a composite of all-cause death, reinfarction, hospitalization for heart failure, and ischemic stroke).



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered</h2>



Of the 884 patients included, the average age was 62 years and women accounted for 27%. Women, with an average age of 67, were older than the men, who averaged 60 years. Moreover, women exhibited higher rates of high blood pressure, diabetes, and prior stroke. In contrast, men were more often smokers and had a higher prevalence of coronary artery disease.



The treatment delay after arriving at the hospital was notably longer for women aged 55 and below, standing at 95 minutes versus the 80 minutes for their male counterparts. However, the time gap between symptoms and PCI treatment did not significantly differ between women and men overall.



Taking into consideration factors like diabetes, high cholesterol, hypertension, coronary artery disease, heart failure, chronic kidney disease, peripheral artery disease, stroke, and family history of coronary artery disease, the team adjusted the risk of adverse outcomes between women and men. The results were startling.



Within 30 days of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-herb-improves-health-of-heart-attack-patients/">heart attack</a>, 11.8% of women had died, in comparison to 4.6% of men, yielding a hazard ratio of 2.76. The five-year picture was equally concerning, with nearly a third of women (32.1%) dying as compared to 16.9% of men. Moreover, over a third of women (34.2%) experienced MACE within five years, contrasting with 19.8% of men.



“Women had a two to three times higher likelihood of adverse outcomes than men in the short- and long-term, even after adjusting for other conditions and despite receiving PCI within the same timeframe as men," said Dr. Martinho.



<h2 id="h-searching-for-causes">Searching for causes</h2>



The team conducted further analysis, matching men and women according to risk factors for cardiovascular disease, including hypertension, diabetes, high cholesterol, and smoking. They then compared adverse outcomes between these matched pairs, categorized into two age groups: those aged 55 years and under, and those over 55 years old.



There were 435 patients included in this matched analysis. Among the group aged over 55, it was seen that women suffered from more adverse outcomes than men. Some 11.3% of women died within 30 days compared to a mere 3.0% of men, which led to a hazard ratio of 3.85.



Over the course of five years, the gap persisted, with one-third of women (32.9%) dying compared to 15.8% of men. More than one-third of women (34.1%) experienced MACE within five years, as opposed to 17.6% of men.



However, in the group aged 55 years and below, the picture was slightly different. Here, one in five women (20.0%) experienced MACE within five years compared to just 5.8% of men. Interestingly, the all-cause mortality at 30 days or five years showed no significant difference between women and men.



<h2 id="h-paying-closer-attention-to-women-s-health">Paying closer attention to women’s health</h2>



This groundbreaking study underscores the urgent need for the medical community to pay closer attention to women's heart health, particularly following a heart attack.&nbsp;



It underlines the importance of regular monitoring, control of various risk factors, and the promotion of a healthy lifestyle, including quitting smoking. In doing so, it hopes to bridge the gap and improve the prognosis for women who experience myocardial infarctions.



“Postmenopausal women had worse short- and long-term outcomes after myocardial infarction than men of similar age. Premenopausal women had similar short-term mortality but a poorer prognosis in the long-term compared with their male counterparts," noted Dr. Martinho.



"While our study did not examine the reasons for these differences, atypical symptoms of myocardial infarction in women and genetic predisposition may play a role. We did not find any differences in the use of medications to lower blood pressure or lipid levels between women and men.”



“The findings are another reminder of the need for greater awareness of the risks of heart disease in women. More research is required to understand why there is gender disparity in prognosis after myocardial infarction so that steps can be taken to close the gap in outcomes.”



<h2 id="h-more-about-heart-attacks-and-heart-health">More about heart attacks and heart health</h2>



Heart health is a crucial aspect of overall wellness, and heart disease is the leading cause of death for both men and women worldwide. One of the most severe events related to heart disease is a heart attack or myocardial infarction.



A heart attack occurs when the blood supply to a part of the heart gets blocked, most often by a blood clot. This typically happens when coronary arteries that supply the heart with blood slowly narrow from a buildup of fat, cholesterol, and other substances, a condition known as atherosclerosis.



The blockage can lead to parts of the heart muscle becoming damaged or dying, leading to chest pain or discomfort, shortness of breath, and potentially more serious outcomes if not treated immediately.



Symptoms of a heart attack can include discomfort in the chest (often described as pressure, squeezing, fullness, or pain), discomfort in other areas of the upper body (such as the arms, back, neck, jaw, or stomach), shortness of breath, nausea, lightheadedness, and cold sweats.



<h3 id="h-maintaining-a-healthy-heart-to-prevent-heart-attacks">Maintaining a healthy heart to prevent heart attacks&nbsp;</h3>



Heart health is influenced by both genetic and lifestyle factors. Some people are more prone to heart disease due to their family history, but many risk factors can be controlled.&nbsp;



Lifestyle changes, such as eating a heart-healthy diet, regular exercise, maintaining a healthy weight, and avoiding tobacco, can significantly reduce the risk of heart disease. It's also important to manage other health conditions that can increase the risk of heart disease, like high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and diabetes.



Treatment for heart attacks has improved dramatically over the years. Procedures like angioplasty and stenting can open blocked arteries and restore blood flow to the heart. Medications can also help to break up clots, reduce the workload on the heart, and lower the risk of a future heart attack.



Despite these advancements, it's crucial to focus on prevention. Regular check-ups can help detect problems before they become serious, and knowing the signs of a heart attack can lead to faster treatment and better outcomes. Heart health is a lifelong commitment, but the benefits of taking care of your heart are worth the effort.



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Women are more than twice as likely to die after a heart attack

In a striking revelation from Heart Failure 2023, a scientific...

Picture this: you're thousands of kilometers above the Earth's surface, in the ionosphere - the uppermost layer of our planet's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-atmosphere-is-expanding-due-to-climate-change/">atmosphere</a>. Here, atoms and molecules are consistently getting ionized due to constant exposure to solar radiation, giving birth to an abundance of positively charged ions.&nbsp;



This part of the atmosphere, known as the F-region, becomes a vital cog in the mechanism of long-distance radio communication, allowing the reflection and refraction of radio waves used by satellite and GPS tracking systems back to Earth's surface. But the F-region isn't static. Changes in this area can cause severe disruption in these vital communications.



The stability of the F-region is a delicate dance of intricate balance. As the Sun's ultraviolet radiation ionizes the ionosphere during the day, an electron density gradient forms, with the highest density found near the equator.&nbsp;



However, various disruptors such as the movement of plasma, electric fields, and neutral winds can distort this gradient. These disruptions can lead to the creation of a localized irregularity in plasma density, which, when amplified, forms a bubble-like structure termed an equatorial plasma bubble, or EPB.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-epbs-can-cause-huge-problems">EPBs can cause huge problems</h2>



The impact of an EPB on radio communication is nothing short of disastrous - it delays radio waves and significantly deteriorates GPS performance.



Atmospheric waves can meddle with these density gradients, sparking a longstanding hypothesis that these waves could be triggered by terrestrial events, like volcanic eruptions. Recently, this theory was put to the test by an international team of researchers led by Professor Atsuki Shinbori and Professor Yoshizumi Miyoshi from the Institute for Space–Earth Environmental Research (ISEE) at <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/">Nagoya University</a>.



The team collaborated with several renowned institutions, including NICT, The University of Electro-Communications, Tohoku University, Kanazawa University, Kyoto University, and ISAS. Their opportunity? The Tonga volcano eruption - the biggest submarine eruption in recorded history.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The team capitalized on this event, using the Arase satellite to detect EPB occurrences, the Himawari-8 satellite to track the initial arrival of air pressure waves, and ground-based ionospheric observations to trace the movement of the ionosphere.&nbsp;



Their observations unveiled an irregular structure in the electron density across the equator that came into existence following the arrival of pressure waves generated by the volcanic eruption.



"The results of this study showed EPBs generated in the equatorial to low-latitude ionosphere in Asia in response to the arrival of pressure waves caused by undersea volcanic eruptions off Tonga," stated Shinbori.



The study led to another striking revelation. Contrary to the long-held model geosphere-atmosphere-cosmosphere coupling that suggests ionospheric disturbances only occur after the eruption, the team discovered that ionospheric fluctuations start a few minutes to a few hours before the arrival of atmospheric pressure waves that generate plasma bubbles.&nbsp;



This discovery nudges the scientific community to reconsider the existing model and could potentially reshape our understanding of the atmospheric-ionospheric relationship.



The findings have been meticulously compiled and published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33603-3">Scientific Reports</a>. These discoveries could be monumental in predicting the effects of terrestrial events on our satellite-based communication systems.



<h2 id="h-more-surprising-results-from-the-study">More surprising results from the study</h2>



“Our new finding is that the ionospheric disturbances are observed several minutes to hours before the initial arrival of the shock waves triggered by the Tonga volcanic eruption,” Shinbori said.&nbsp;



“This suggests that the propagation of the fast atmospheric waves in the ionosphere triggered the ionospheric disturbances before the initial arrival of the shock waves. Therefore, the model needs to be revised to account for these fast atmospheric waves in the ionosphere.”&nbsp;



The research team also found that the EPB extended much further than standard models had predicted.&nbsp;



“Previous studies have shown that the formation of plasma bubbles at such high altitudes is a rare occurrence, making this a very unusual phenomenon,” Shinbori said.&nbsp;



“We found that the EPB formed by this eruption reached space even beyond the ionosphere, suggesting that we should pay attention to the connection between the ionosphere and the cosmosphere when extreme natural phenomenon, such as the Tonga event, occur.”&nbsp;



“The results of this research are significant not only from a scientific point of view but also from the point of view of space weather and disaster prevention."



"In the case of a large-scale event, such as the Tonga volcano eruption, observations have shown that a hole in the ionosphere can form even under conditions that are considered unlikely to occur under normal circumstances. Such cases have not been incorporated into space weather forecast models."



This study will contribute to the prevention of satellite broadcasting and communication failures associated with ionospheric disturbances caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and other events.”



<h2 id="h-more-about-equatorial-plasma-bubbles">More about equatorial plasma bubbles</h2>



Equatorial plasma bubbles (EPBs), also known as equatorial ionospheric irregularities, are a phenomenon that primarily occurs in the F-region of the Earth's ionosphere, a layer in the upper atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation.&nbsp;



These structures, often described as "bubble-like," can play a significant role in disrupting communications systems that rely on ionospheric radio wave propagation, such as GPS tracking and satellite-based communication systems.



EPBs are typically observed in the post-sunset period and extend from the equatorial region towards higher latitudes. During the day, the ionosphere is bombarded by the sun's ultraviolet radiation, creating a density gradient of electrons, with the highest concentration near the equator. But this stable condition can change.



<h2 id="h-true-understanding-of-epbs-is-still-evolving">True understanding of EPBs is still evolving</h2>



Disruptions, such as moving plasma, electric fields, and neutral winds, can lead to the creation of localized irregularities in plasma density. Over time, these irregularities can grow and evolve into EPBs. They appear like tube-like structures extending along the Earth's magnetic field lines, with the 'empty' or 'bubble' part representing regions of depleted electron density.



The development of these bubbles can cause significant disruption in radio communications. They distort the path of the radio signals as they travel through the ionosphere, leading to scintillations or rapid variations in amplitude and phase of the signals. This effect can lead to significant issues for GPS receivers, causing errors in positioning or even loss of lock on the signal.



Research has suggested that atmospheric waves, possibly triggered by terrestrial events like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, can affect the electron density gradient in the ionosphere, leading to the formation of EPBs.&nbsp;



However, our understanding of the formation, evolution, and dynamics of EPBs is still evolving. Scientists use a variety of techniques, including satellite observations, ground-based radar, and advanced computational modeling, to study these complex phenomena and to better predict their occurrence and potential impacts on communication systems.



Image Credit: NOAA/ NASA



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Tonga eruption disrupted satellite communication halfway around the world

Picture this: you're thousands of kilometers above the Earth's surface,...

In the mountain ranges of Western North America, winters are not what they used to be. More rain is falling instead of snow, and the snow is melting earlier.&nbsp;The resulting leaner snowpack could pose significant problems for agriculture, wildfire risk, and municipal water supplies come summer, according to a study conducted by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a>.



The study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-00751-3">Nature Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>, chronicles over six decades of change in snowpack water storage across this region.&nbsp;



From 1950 to 2013, there has been a significant reduction in snowpack water storage in more than 25 percent of the Mountain West. This is partly due to snow melting earlier in the winter and spring seasons, effectively wearing down this seasonal boundary.



<h2 id="h-timing-is-everything-when-it-comes-to-snowpack-melting">Timing is everything when it comes to snowpack melting</h2>



"On average and in every mountainous region that we looked at, snow melt is occurring closer in time to when it fell," explained study lead author Kate Hale.



This shift in the timing of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-water-is-the-key-to-a-long-and-healthy-life/">water</a> availability is moving toward earlier in the springtime, with less snow melt and water availability later in the summertime, implying an impending water scarcity later in the year.



Western U.S. and Canada heavily depend on snow for most of their water needs. For a long time, the Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevadas, and other mountain ranges have been the region's "water towers," storing snow throughout the winter which then melts and provides water in the spring and summer when demand is highest.



Every April 1st, state and regional water managers use a metric known as the snow water equivalent (SWE) to predict and plan for water resources that year. But this measurement is merely a snapshot and does not reveal how the snow accumulated or if it is already melting, says Hale, who is currently a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Vermont.



"From a hydrologic perspective, the only thing that's unique about snow is that it delays the timing of water input to watersheds. And just looking at a snapshot of snow water equivalent doesn't give you a sense as to how long that snow water equivalent has been on the ground," said Noah Molotch, an associate professor in the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR) at CU Boulder.



<h2 id="h-the-challenge-of-managing-water-resources">The challenge of managing water resources</h2>



To gain more clarity, Hale developed a new measurement known as Snow Storage Index (SSI), which takes into account the timing and quantity of snowfall and snowmelt, both before and after April 1st. Unlike SWE, the SSI provides a more comprehensive understanding, encapsulating into a single number the time elapsed from when rain or snow falls in winter to when it becomes available as surface water.



The SSI gives a broader perspective on snow water storage. "The snow storage index allows us to look at snow water storage, not just in the context of how much is there at any given time, but the duration of that storage on the ground,” explained Molotch.



By using this tool, the researchers were able to study the performance of each mountainous region of the West as a water tower over the past 60 years, revealing a declining trend across the board.



High SSI values, close to 1.0, were found in places with a highly seasonal snowfall pattern. In the Cascades, for example, snow piles up during the fall and winter seasons and stays on the ground up to six months before it gradually melts in the spring and summer.&nbsp;



By Contrast, in Colorado's Rocky Mountains, the SSI is lower - between 0 and 0.5—indicating snow both accumulates and melts during the colder half of the year.



<h2 id="h-some-areas-adapt-easier-to-changes-in-snowpack">Some areas adapt easier to changes in snowpack</h2>



Interestingly, areas like the Rockies and the Front Range, which are accustomed to this fluctuating pattern of snowfall and snowmelt, may find it easier to adapt to the declining snowpack water storage patterns linked with global warming.&nbsp;



However, the mountain regions near the West Coast, which heavily rely on snowpack meltwater during spring and summer, might face significant challenges when that water melts earlier and is not available during the late summer.



The researchers hope that this new SSI measurement will prove valuable for scientists and water resource managers, enabling them to make more accurate predictions and plan more effectively for the possibility of less water availability.



Half a century ago, the era of dam building enabled the Western United States to prosper with a reliable access to water for cities and agriculture, said Molotch. However, as these natural "water towers" of snow melt away, the reservoirs they filled may also deplete.



"The snowpack is eroding and disappearing before our eyes. That's going to present challenges in terms of managing the infrastructure that's allowed the Western United States to flourish over the last 100 years," said Molotch.



Thus, as the snowpack continues to dwindle, managing water resources in the Western North America could become a complex puzzle, demanding innovation, forward thinking, and sustainable solutions.



<h2 id="h-more-about-snowpack-and-water-resources">More about snowpack and water resources</h2>



Snowpack plays a critical role in both human and environmental water resources, especially in regions where a significant portion of annual precipitation falls as snow.



At its most basic level, snowpack refers to the accumulated snow that covers the ground in mountainous or high-altitude areas. During the colder months, the snowpack builds up, acting as a frozen reservoir.&nbsp;



As temperatures rise in the spring and summer, this snow melts, releasing water gradually into rivers, lakes, and the ground. This slow release of water over time is incredibly important for several reasons.



<h3 id="h-water-supply">Water Supply</h3>



In many regions, especially in the western United States and Canada, snowpack is the primary source of water supply. As the snowpack melts in spring and summer, it replenishes reservoirs that provide drinking water to cities and towns. Without a healthy snowpack, there would be less water available during the driest parts of the year.



<h3 id="h-agriculture">Agriculture</h3>



Many farming areas rely on the melting of snowpack to irrigate crops. The water that comes from melting snow travels down mountains into rivers and streams, which farmers then divert for irrigation. Without this reliable water source, agriculture in these areas would face significant challenges.



<h3 id="h-hydropower-generation">Hydropower Generation</h3>



The flow of water from melting snowpack is also critical for hydropower, which generates electricity by using flowing or falling water to turn a turbine. In areas like the Pacific Northwest, hydropower accounts for a large percentage of electricity generation.



<h3 id="h-ecosystem-health">Ecosystem Health</h3>



Snowpack is essential to maintaining healthy ecosystems. Many species of fish, for example, rely on the cold, clean water from snowmelt for spawning. Additionally, the slow melt of snowpack into the ground helps replenish groundwater, which many plants and animals rely on.



<h3 id="h-climate-change-indicator">Climate Change Indicator</h3>



Changes in snowpack can serve as a useful indicator of climate change. Decreases in snowpack and earlier melt seasons can be linked to global warming. These changes can lead to water shortages, increased wildfire risks, and impacts on wildlife and ecosystems.



The reduction in snowpack and changes in snowmelt timing due to climate change pose significant risks to water resources. If less snow is falling and it's melting earlier in the year, there may not be enough water available during the dry summer months when demand is highest. This could have serious implications for drinking water supplies, agriculture, energy production, and the health of our ecosystems.



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Despite record snowpack in the West, early melting could lead to water scarcity

In the mountain ranges of Western North America, winters are...

In the ever-evolving landscape of education, social robots are carving out a niche for themselves. With their potential to bolster learning and collaboration, they're increasingly making their presence felt. But a team of Danish scientists decided to dig deeper.&nbsp;



The experts ventured to find out if the sound of a social robot's voice could significantly impact its performance while dealing with teams of humans. Does a charismatic voice make a robot a better facilitator for team creativity?



"We had a robot instruct teams of students in a creativity task. The robot either used a confident, passionate - ie charismatic - tone of voice or a normal, matter-of-fact tone of voice," explained Dr. Kerstin Fischer of the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en">University of Southern Denmark</a>, a corresponding author of the study.&nbsp;



The scientists found that the students generated more original and more elaborate ideas when the robot adopted a charismatic speaking style.



<h2 id="h-can-a-robot-be-charismatic">Can a robot be charismatic?</h2>



In previous studies, social robots acting as facilitators have demonstrated their ability to boost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meditation-is-far-better-than-drugs-to-spark-creativity/">creativity</a>. The success of these facilitators hinges partially on charisma, with individuals becoming more confident and engaged in response to charismatic speech.



Dr. Fischer and her team sought to replicate this effect using the voices of social robots. They employed a text-to-speech function specifically engineered to mimic characteristics associated with charismatic speaking, like a specific pitch range and a unique way of stressing words.&nbsp;



They created two voices, one charismatic and one less expressive, based on a series of parameters associated with perceived speaker charisma.



To test these voices, the researchers brought in five classes of university students, all enrolled in courses that included an element of team creativity. The students were informed that they were participating in a creativity workshop, wherein they brainstormed ideas based on images and utilized those ideas to formulate a new chocolate product.



The workshop was guided by videos of a robot speaking, with the robot introducing the task, reassuring the students that there were no bad ideas, and then congratulating them for completing the task.&nbsp;



The students were then asked to fill out a self-evaluation questionnaire, evaluating the robot's performance, their own views on their teamwork, and the overall success of the session. The researchers also measured the creativity of each session by the number of original ideas produced and their elaboration.



<h2 id="h-charisma-shown-to-boost-creativity">Charisma shown to boost creativity</h2>



The results were telling. The group exposed to the charismatic voice viewed the robot more favorably, finding it more charismatic and interactive. They had a more positive perception of their teamwork and generated more original and elaborate ideas.&nbsp;



Interestingly, the group that interacted with the non-charismatic voice viewed themselves as more resilient and efficient. The researchers suggested that a less charismatic leader might lead to better self-organization by the team members, despite producing fewer ideas.



"I had suspected that charismatic speech has very important effects, but our study provides clear evidence for the effect of charismatic speech on listener creativity," said study co-author Dr. Oliver Niebuhr. The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2023.1115360">Frontiers in Communication</a>, is the first of its kind to establish a link between charismatic voices, artificial speakers, and creativity outputs.



However, the scientists pointed out that not every team responded in the same way to the different voices. The diverse experiences of the students in their respective classes might have influenced their response.&nbsp;



To further understand how these external factors impacted team performance, larger studies are needed. In the realm of social robotics, it seems the sound of a voice can echo far and wide, influencing the quality and quantity of human creativity.



“The robot was present only in videos, but one could suspect that more exposure or repeated exposure to the charismatic speaking style would have even stronger effects,” said Dr. Fischer.&nbsp;



“Moreover, we have only varied a few features between the two robot conditions. We don't know how the effect size would change if other or more features were varied. Finally, since charismatic speaking patterns differ between cultures, we would expect that the same stimuli will not yield the same results in all languages and cultures.”



<h2 id="h-more-about-robots-and-education">More about robots and education</h2>



As we journey further into the 21st century, the fusion of technology and education continues to evolve, with robots playing an increasingly significant role in student education. Here's how:



<h3 id="h-personalized-learning">Personalized Learning</h3>



One of the major benefits of using robots in education is their capacity for personalization. Robots can adapt learning materials to the needs of individual students, helping to cater to their unique learning styles and paces. They can provide extra support to students who struggle with certain concepts, offering additional practice or alternative methods of understanding.



<h3 id="h-interactive-learning">Interactive Learning</h3>



Social robots offer a highly interactive way to engage students in learning. They can bring learning to life through real-time demonstrations, encouraging participation and interaction. Learning through robotics can be particularly beneficial in STEM subjects (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics), where abstract concepts can be made tangible.



<h3 id="h-boosting-coding-skills">Boosting Coding Skills</h3>



The importance of learning to code has skyrocketed in our digital age. Coding is an invaluable skill in many professions, and teaching it at an early age can set students up for success in their future careers. Educational robots often come with user-friendly programming interfaces that allow students to manipulate their actions, helping them learn coding in a fun and engaging way.



<h3 id="h-social-skills-and-teamwork">Social Skills and Teamwork</h3>



Robots can also help students improve their social skills and teamwork. In classrooms where students work together to program a robot or solve a challenge, they need to communicate effectively, delegate tasks, and collaborate to reach their goals.



<h3 id="h-emotional-support">Emotional Support</h3>



Certain robots, known as social or emotional robots, have been designed to support students emotionally. These robots can recognize and respond to human emotions, providing comfort or encouraging positive behavior. For example, they can be particularly beneficial for students on the autism spectrum by helping them understand and express emotions.



<h3 id="h-motivation">Motivation</h3>



Robots can make learning fun, providing a level of novelty and interactivity that traditional teaching methods may lack. This can boost students' motivation and engagement with their learning, leading to better retention of information.



While there's much to be excited about, it's also important to note that the integration of robots into education is not without challenges. Issues around cost, access, and ensuring the technology is used effectively and ethically are all ongoing considerations.&nbsp;



Nonetheless, as technological advances continue, social robots are likely to become a more common and valuable tool in classrooms across the globe.



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Social robots with charismatic voices get better results from students

In the ever-evolving landscape of education, social robots are carving...

A groundbreaking study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adg1213">Science Advances</a> suggests that the catastrophic Australian bushfires in 2019-2020 precipitated a chain of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-may-cause-stingrays-to-move-toward-danger/">climate</a> interactions leading to a chilling effect on the Tropical Pacific. This cooling, thousands of miles away from the burning Australian shores, eventually triggered the formation of a multi-year La Niña event, a phenomenon that has only recently dissipated.



La Niña events, characterized by cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific, have historically exerted substantial influence on North America's winter climate.&nbsp;



These weather oscillations typically induce drier and warmer conditions in the southwest U.S., foster increased precipitation in the Pacific Northwest, and bring about colder temperatures in Canada and northern parts of the U.S. Due to the potential for their emergence to be anticipated months in advance, La Niña events play a crucial role in seasonal climate forecasting.



However, the recent wave of La Niña events, observed over three consecutive winters starting from 2020-21, signifies a rare climate phenomenon. The pattern is only the third streak of its kind in the historical record, dating back to 1950. Moreover, unlike previous instances, this La Niña chain did not succeed a potent El Niño event, which characteristically manifests as a warming of the Tropical Pacific.



"Many people quickly forgot about the Australian fires, especially as the COVID pandemic exploded, but the Earth system has a long memory, and the impacts of the fires lingered for years," said study lead author John Fasullo, a scientist at the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu/">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> (NCAR).



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers set out to investigate the potential climate impacts of the Australian fires, which charred an estimated 46 million acres. With large-scale events like these or major volcanic eruptions known to shift the odds towards a La Niña event, the team leveraged an advanced computer model, the Community Earth System Model version 2, to carry out two sets of simulations.



Both simulation sets started from the same point, August 2019, prior to the escalation of the Australian fires. One incorporated the observed wildfire emissions from the catastrophic blazes, while the other simulated average wildfire emissions typically used in long-term climate model simulations.



Contrary to the direct sunlight-reflecting action of high-altitude volcanic emissions, wildfire emissions have a different modus operandi. These fire-originated aerosols, enveloping the Southern Hemisphere, intensified the brightness of cloud decks, particularly off the coast of Peru.&nbsp;



The amplified brightness led to a cooling and drying of the air, consequently shifting the junction of the northern and southern trade winds. This overall climatic shift incited a sustained cooling of the Tropical Pacific ocean, a critical component in the formation of La Niña events.



Discussing the complexity of the climate interactions, Fasullo said, "It’s a Rube Goldberg of climate interactions that we were only able to identify because our model now represents specific details in the evolution of smoke and cloud-aerosol interactions, a recent improvement to its capabilities.”



<h2 id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



The research, primarily funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NCAR's sponsor), NASA, and the U.S. Department of Energy, has far-reaching implications for future climate forecasts. It throws light on the failure of several forecasts to predict the onset of the three-year La Niña, which had been indicating "neutral" conditions as late as June 2020.&nbsp;



The research emphasizes the significance of utilizing coupled Earth system models, which consider both atmospheric and oceanic components, as essential forecasting tools. Furthermore, it points to the need for accurate representation of wildfire emissions in both seasonal and long-range climate projections.



“As the climate changes, the emissions from wildfires will also change,” said Fasullo. “But we don’t have that feedback in the model. It is the goal of our current work to incorporate these effects as realistically as possible.”



This material is based upon work supported by the National Center for Atmospheric Research, a major facility sponsored by the National Science Foundation and managed by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.



<h2 id="h-global-impacts-of-la-nina">Global impacts of La Niña</h2>



La Niña can have wide-reaching effects that influence weather patterns and climate conditions worldwide. Here's a broad overview of some of the impacts typically associated with La Niña:



North America



La Niña tends to bring colder and snowier winters to the northern tier of the United States and drier, warmer conditions to the southwestern states. The Pacific Northwest may experience wetter weather, while the Southeast could be warmer and drier. Canada often sees colder temperatures during a La Niña event.



<h3>South America</h3>



La Niña can result in excessive rainfall over Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru, increasing the risk of flooding. In contrast, it can cause drier conditions in southeastern South America, including parts of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay, leading to drought.



<h3>Asia and Australia</h3>



Southeast Asia, especially Indonesia, the Philippines, and Australia, often see more rainfall during a La Niña event. This increased rainfall can sometimes result in flooding. Conversely, India may experience a weaker monsoon season.



<h3>Africa</h3>



East Africa, including Kenya, Somalia, and Tanzania, may receive above-average rainfall during the short rains of October to December, which can lead to flooding. Meanwhile, southern Africa can experience drier than normal conditions, increasing the risk of drought.



<h3>Atlantic hurricanes</h3>



La Niña can contribute to an intensification of the Atlantic hurricane season because it decreases the vertical wind shear over the Caribbean Sea and tropical Atlantic Basin, which makes conditions more favorable for tropical storm development.



These are general tendencies and can be influenced by other climatological factors. It is also important to note that while La Niña events can often be predicted months in advance, there is still a level of uncertainty associated with predicting specific weather outcomes during these events. Climate scientists are continually working to improve our understanding and prediction of these global effects.



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Australian bushfires triggered rare multi-year La Niña

A groundbreaking study published in the journal Science Advances suggests...

In a groundbreaking study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adg077">Science Advances</a>, a team of researchers has made a fascinating discovery about the microbiome of corals in the Great Barrier Reef. The scientists unearthed the presence of a Chlamydia-like bacteria in these underwater ecosystems.&nbsp;



The research not only adds another layer to our understanding of the coral microbiome but also sheds new light on the complex factors affecting the health of coral reefs. The team was led by the <a href="https://www.unimelb.edu.au/">University of Melbourne</a>, in collaboration with the Australian Institute of Marine Science and the University of Vienna,&nbsp;



The researchers identified two distinct types of bacteria clusters nestled inside the tissues of the coral. One of these is a close relative of the bacterium causing chlamydia (Chlamydiales), an infection typically found in mammals. Until now, its existence within coral has been unknown.



"The novel Chlamydiales exhibit many similarities with mammalian pathogens, but we are unsure if they are detrimental or beneficial to corals. There is a possibility that this bacterium gets nutrients and energy from other coral-associated bacteria," explained Dr. Justin Maire, lead researcher from the Faculty of Science at the University of Melbourne.&nbsp;



Dr. Maire, together with Chlamydiales specialists Dr. Astrid Collingro and Professor Matthias Horn from the University of Vienna, made this discovery. "The possibility that the bacteria living inside coral tissues are interacting with each other is quite thrilling," said the experts.&nbsp;



This discovery is significant as it could unlock potential pathways to improve the resilience of corals and consequently, their survival rates.&nbsp;



In addition to the Chlamydia-like bacteria, the research team found a second type of bacterium called Endozoicomonas within the coral tissues. This bacterium is known to be widespread in corals, and is generally considered beneficial. Endozoicomonas can produce B vitamins and antimicrobial compounds, which are essential for the coral's health.



"One of the focus areas in my lab is the development of bacterial probiotics for corals, helping to improve their resistance to thermal stress and survival rates caused by climate warming," said study senior author Professor Madeleine van Oppen of the University of Melbourne.



Despite the crucial role of bacteria in maintaining coral health, our understanding of coral-associated bacteria remains limited. This new research opens up avenues for further exploration.&nbsp;



"We still know very little about the functions of coral-associated bacteria, and this new study will help us to figure out whether probiotics are a feasible solution and if bacteria such as Endozoicomonas are best placed to do the job," said Professor van Oppen.



Understanding more about coral microbiomes and the intricate bacterial interplay within them could pave the way for innovative solutions in the face of climate change threats to these delicate marine ecosystems.&nbsp;



Such discoveries underscore the importance of continued research in this field and the need for strategies that leverage the corals' own microbiomes to promote their resilience and survival.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-health-of-coral-reefs">More about the health of coral reefs</h2>



Coral reefs, often described as the "rainforests of the sea," are some of the most diverse and valuable ecosystems on Earth.&nbsp;



They provide habitat for a multitude of marine species, protect coastlines from storms and erosion, and support human economies through tourism and fisheries. However, the health of these critical ecosystems is currently under significant threat from numerous fronts, both natural and human-induced.



One primary concern is the phenomenon of coral bleaching, a stress response caused mainly by warmer water temperatures resulting from climate change.&nbsp;



When corals are stressed, they expel the symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them to turn completely white or "bleached." These algae provide the coral with the majority of their energy through photosynthesis. Without them, the corals can starve, resulting in substantial loss of coral populations.



Apart from climate change, coral reefs also face threats from overfishing, which disrupts the balance of the coral reef ecosystem, and pollution, particularly from agricultural runoff and plastics.&nbsp;



These pollutants can smother corals or lead to disease outbreaks in coral populations. Furthermore, certain types of fishing, like cyanide fishing and blast fishing, can directly destroy reefs.



Another threat is ocean acidification, a side effect of increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. As the ocean absorbs more carbon dioxide, the water becomes more acidic, which can negatively impact the calcification process that corals use to build their skeletal structure.



However, recent research like the Melbourne study provides hope. By understanding more about the microbiome of corals - the community of microorganisms living within and on corals - scientists can potentially find ways to improve coral resilience.&nbsp;



As described in the study, the discovery of Chlamydia-like bacteria and Endozoicomonas in corals is an important step towards this goal. It not only deepens our understanding of the coral microbiome but also could pave the way for the development of bacterial probiotics that could strengthen coral resistance to thermal stress and disease.



While coral reefs are currently facing significant challenges to their health and survival, research into their biology and microbiome offers promising avenues for their conservation and restoration.&nbsp;



Continued research, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, responsible fishing practices, and minimizing pollution can all play a part in preserving these vital marine ecosystems for future generations.



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Study finds Chlamydia-like bacteria in Great Barrier Reef corals

In a groundbreaking study published in the journal Science Advances,...

Bumble,Bees,In,The,Meadow,Of,Flowers

In an increasingly challenging global environment, the role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-without-bees-food-shortages/">bees</a> and other pollinators, such as butterflies, bats, and hummingbirds, cannot be overstated. These diligent workers play an invaluable role in thriving ecosystems. However, recent trends suggest that pollinators are under grave threat due to human activities.



Pollination, the largely invisible act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma, is a crucial process that supports the health of our ecosystems.&nbsp;



It is estimated that nearly 90 percent of the world’s wild flowering plant species depend on animal pollination, either entirely or to some degree. This biological interaction further impacts the human world, affecting more than 75 percent of the world's food crops and 35 percent of global agricultural land.



Pollinators are not only vital for our food security, but also contribute to preserving biodiversity. The diversity they promote throughout ecosystems is not just beautiful, but also essential to the natural balance of our planet.&nbsp;



Recognizing the need to increase awareness of pollinators' roles, the United Nations has designated May 20th as <a href="https://www.un.org/en/observances/bee-day">World Bee Day</a>.



The initiative strives to secure measures to safeguard bees and their fellow pollinators. This effort has enormous potential to address critical issues concerning global food supply and the eradication of hunger in developing nations. In essence, our survival is intricately linked with theirs.&nbsp;



The theme for World Bee Day 2023, “Bee engaged in pollinator-friendly agricultural production," underlines the pressing need for universal action.&nbsp;



Bees and other pollinators are threatened by intensive monoculture production and improper pesticide use. These factors diminish their food and nesting sites, expose them to dangerous chemicals, and undermine their immune systems.



The call to action extends to implementing and supporting pollinator-friendly agricultural production. The global ceremony for World Bee Day, hosted at the <a href="https://www.fao.org/home/en">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO) headquarters on May 19th, will serve as a platform to emphasize the significance of adopting such strategies, contributing to the resilience, sustainability, and efficiency of agri-food systems.



However, the gravity of the situation demands immediate action. Bees, among other pollinators, are vanishing at a disturbing pace.&nbsp;



The current rates of species extinction are reported to be 100 to 1,000 times higher than usual, primarily due to human impact. Close to 35 percent of invertebrate pollinators, notably bees and butterflies, and around 17 percent of vertebrate pollinators, such as bats, are on the brink of extinction.



If this alarming trend persists, our diets could soon be deficient in nutritious crops, like fruits, nuts, and vegetables. These would gradually be replaced by staple crops, including rice, corn, and potatoes, leading to an imbalanced diet.&nbsp;



Factors such as intensive farming practices, land-use changes, mono-cropping, pesticides, and the increasing temperatures linked with climate change all compound the issues faced by bee populations, indirectly impacting the quality of the food we cultivate.



In response to this crisis, the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> has prioritized the conservation and sustainable utilization of pollinators. Since the turn of the millennium, the International Pollinator Initiative (IPI) has been active, with a goal of promoting the sustainable use of pollinators in agriculture and related ecosystems.&nbsp;



The IPI monitors the decline of pollinators, works to fill gaps in taxonomic information, and assesses the economic impact of the decline of pollination services.



<h2 id="h-more-about-pollinator-decline">More about pollinator decline</h2>



Pollinators are vanishing globally, which is a cause of great concern. The decline is not confined to any one specific geographic area; it's a widespread phenomenon.



In North America and Europe, honeybee populations have notably declined. For instance, Colony Collapse Disorder has caused significant losses in honeybee populations in the United States.&nbsp;



In Europe, changes in land use, agricultural practices, and climate have resulted in declining pollinator populations, with some species disappearing from certain areas entirely.



Similarly, in Asia, Africa, and South America, factors such as deforestation, intensive monoculture farming, and the excessive use of pesticides have led to habitat loss and a decrease in the populations of various pollinator species. The spread of diseases and parasites, along with climate change, further exacerbates the issue.



<h2 id="h-how-you-can-help-protect-pollinators">How you can help protect pollinators&nbsp;</h2>



There are several ways that individuals, communities, and governments can help protect and encourage the health of pollinators:



<h3 id="h-plant-a-pollinator-garden">Plant a pollinator garden</h3>



Grow native plants that provide nectar and pollen sources. Bees are particularly attracted to blue, purple, violet, white, and yellow flowers. Try to have blooms throughout the year to provide a consistent food source for pollinators.



<h3 id="h-limit-or-avoid-pesticide-use">Limit or avoid pesticide use</h3>



Pesticides can be harmful or deadly to pollinators. If you must use them, try to apply them at night when bees and other pollinators are less active.



<h3 id="h-create-habitat-for-pollinators">Create habitat for pollinators</h3>



Many bees are solitary creatures that need a safe place to build their nests. You can help by leaving a patch of your garden wild, providing a habitat for native bees. Other pollinators, like butterflies, need specific plants or environments to breed. For example, monarch butterflies need milkweed plants to lay their eggs.



<h3 id="h-provide-water-for-pollinators">Provide water for pollinators</h3>



Just like all creatures, pollinators need water to survive. Consider adding a birdbath or shallow dish of water with rocks for them to land on.



<h3 id="h-support-local-beekeepers-and-farmers">Support local beekeepers and farmers</h3>



Buying local honey and produce helps support agriculture that is friendly to bees and other pollinators.



<h3 id="h-advocate-for-pollinators">Advocate for pollinators</h3>



Use your voice to push for governmental policies that protect pollinators. This could be in the form of supporting policies that limit pesticide use, preserve natural habitats, or fund scientific research on pollinators.



<h3 id="h-educate-others">Educate others</h3>



Raise awareness about the importance of pollinators and what others can do to help. This can be as simple as talking to friends and family, or it could involve organizing educational events in your community.



Remember, every little bit helps. By taking small steps to protect pollinators, we can collectively make a big difference.



—--



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World Bee Day highlights urgent need to protect pollinators

In an increasingly challenging global environment, the role of bees...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.fau.edu/">Florida Atlantic University</a> (FAU) has examined how the highly pathogenic Vibrio bacteria, the macroalgae Sargassum spp., and plastic marine debris can interact to create a “perfect pathogen storm” threatening both marine life and public health.



Vibrio bacteria are abundant in ocean waters all over the world and represent the main cause of death in humans from marine environments. For instance, Vibrio vulnificus – known as “flesh-eating bacteria” – can lead to life-threatening foodborne diseases from seafood consumption, as well as deaths from open wound infections.&nbsp;



However, the possible interactions of these pathogenic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-travel-thousands-miles/">bacteria</a> with the currently expanding Sargassum populations and the rising levels of plastic marine debris polluting the world’s oceans have not yet been explored.



Since 2011, Sargassum populations have been rapidly expanding in the Sargasso Sea and other parts of the open ocean, frequently leading to unprecedented seaweed accumulation events on beaches.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, plastic debris, which is known to persist decades longer than natural substances in the marine environment, increases at an unprecedented pace in the Sargasso Sea and beyond. Still yet, genomic and metagenomic evidence as to whether vibrios colonizing Sargassum and plastic debris could potentially infect humans is currently lacking.



To address this issue, the researchers fully sequenced and analyzed the genomes of 16 Vibrio cultivars isolated from eel larvae, Sargassum, plastic marine debris, and seawater samples from the Sargasso and Caribbean Seas. The investigation revealed that Vibrio pathogens have a unique ability to adapt and “stick” to both Sargassum and microplastics, thus considerably expanding their range.



“Plastic is a new element that’s been introduced into marine environments and has only been around for about 50 years,” said&nbsp;study lead author Tracy Mincer, an assistant professor of Biology at FAU. “Our lab work showed that these&nbsp;Vibrio&nbsp;are extremely aggressive and can seek out and stick to plastic within minutes. We also found that there are attachment factors that microbes use to stick to plastics, and it is the same kind of mechanism that pathogens use.”



According to the experts, open ocean vibrios posses a blend of pathogenic and low nutrient acquisition genes, reflecting their pelagic habitat and the substrates and hosts they can colonize. For instance, a secreted toxin that increases intestinal permeability (known as “zonula occludens toxin” or “zot” genes and first described in Vibrio cholerae) was one of the most highly retained and selected genes in the vibrios examined.&nbsp;



“Another interesting thing we discovered is a set of genes called ‘zot’ genes, which causes leaky gut syndrome,” Mincer explained. “For instance, if a fish eats a piece of plastic and gets infected by this&nbsp;Vibrio, which then results in a leaky gut and diarrhea, it’s going to release waste nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphate that could stimulate&nbsp;Sargassum&nbsp;growth and other surrounding organisms.”



Since many vibrios were found to have an “omnivorous” lifestyle targeting both plant and animal hosts and being able to persist in oligotrophic conditions, with the expansion of Sargassum and plastic debris, ways of infecting humans increase exponentially.&nbsp;



“I don’t think at this point, anyone has really considered these microbes and their capability to cause infections. We really want to make the public aware of these associated risks. In particular, caution should be exercised regarding the harvest and processing of&nbsp;Sargassum&nbsp;biomass until the risks are explored more thoroughly,” Mincer concluded. The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2023.120033">Water Research</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-sargassum-blooms-and-impact">Sargassum blooms and impact</h2>



Sargassum is a genus of brown macroalgae (seaweed) that's widely distributed throughout temperate and tropical oceans worldwide. There are around 150 to 350 species in the Sargassum genus. Sargassum is unique among seaweeds because some species are free-floating, meaning they don't anchor themselves to the sea floor or any other solid surface.



The most famous area where Sargassum accumulates is the Sargasso Sea, an area of the Atlantic Ocean bounded by four currents forming an ocean gyre. Unlike all other regions called seas, it has no land boundaries.&nbsp;



It's distinctive for its deep blue color and exceptional clarity of water, caused by minimal amounts of nutrients and suspended particles. The Sargasso Sea is named after the Sargassum seaweed that floats en masse on the surface there.



Sargassum plays a vital ecological role by providing habitats and food for a diverse range of marine species. For instance, young sea turtles often shelter and feed within these floating mats, and many fish and invertebrates live in Sargassum beds.



However, in recent years, large blooms of Sargassum have caused issues when they wash ashore in huge quantities on the beaches of the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. This phenomenon, called a Sargassum tide, is believed to be driven by a combination of human impacts such as nutrient pollution and climate change.&nbsp;



These mats can smother coastal ecosystems, harm tourism, and emit foul odors as they decompose. Much research is ongoing to understand the causes of these Sargassum blooms and how they might be managed or mitigated.



<h2 id="h-more-about-marine-plastic-debris">More about marine plastic debris&nbsp;</h2>



Marine plastic pollution is a serious environmental issue that has garnered increased attention over the past several years. This pollution comprises a wide range of products, from plastic bags and straws to microplastics, which are tiny plastic particles less than five millimeters in length.



Plastic enters the marine environment through numerous pathways. It can be washed into rivers and seas from landfills, blown by the wind, or directly dumped into the ocean. It can also originate from ships and fishing vessels in the form of discarded equipment or nets, which is known as "ghost gear".



Once in the ocean, plastic can cause significant harm to marine life. Animals can become entangled in larger pieces of plastic waste, leading to injury or death. Many marine creatures, including birds, fish, and mammals, can also mistake plastic for food, resulting in blockages in their digestive systems when they ingest it, or they can starve because plastic makes them feel full.



Microplastics are particularly concerning because they can be ingested by a wide range of organisms and can accumulate up the food chain. They can also absorb and concentrate other pollutants, like pesticides and heavy metals, increasing their potential harm.



Moreover, the durability of plastics means they can persist in the environment for hundreds to thousands of years. They gradually break down into smaller and smaller pieces, but they do not biodegrade completely.



Combating marine plastic pollution requires a multi-faceted approach. This includes efforts to reduce plastic use and waste, improve waste management systems, develop biodegradable alternatives to conventional plastics, and implement clean-up initiatives in marine environments. Legislation and international agreements can also play a crucial role in regulating the production, disposal, and clean-up of plastic waste.



In addition, public education is important for raising awareness about the issue and promoting behavior changes that can reduce plastic waste. Many researchers are also studying the impacts of marine plastic pollution on ecosystems and human health, as well as exploring innovative solutions to this problem.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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The perfect pathogen storm: Sargassum and plastic debris

A new study led by the Florida Atlantic University (FAU)...

To investigate ocean currents, scientists usually release GPS-tagged buoys and record their velocities to reconstruct the currents that carry them. This recorded data can also be used to identify areas in which water rises up from below the surface or sinks beneath it (phenomena known as “divergences”).&nbsp;



By accurately predicting currents and identifying divergences, experts can more precisely forecast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-animals-are-most-affected-by-extreme-weather/">weather</a>, measure energy transfer rates in the ocean, or estimate how oil will spread after a spill.&nbsp;



Until recently, scientists have largely used a machine-learning technique known as a “Gaussian process” to estimate currents and pinpoint divergences.&nbsp;



Although this method is able to make predictions even in cases when data is sparse, it frequently starts from assumptions that are physically inaccurate, such as that the latitude and longitude components of a current are unrelated. For instance, this model assumes that a current’s divergence and its vorticity (a whirling motion of the water) operate on the same magnitude and length scales –an assumption that ocean scientists know is not true.



To overcome these limitations, a team of computer scientists and oceanographers led by the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) has recently developed a new model which incorporates knowledge from fluid dynamics to better reflect the physics structuring ocean currents.&nbsp;



Using what is known as a “Helmholtz decomposition,” the new method models ocean currents by breaking them into a vorticity component. This captures the water’s whirling motion, and a divergence component, which captures water sinking or rising.&nbsp;



Although this technique is more computationally intensive, its additional costs will be relatively small. Furthermore, it would help scientists make more accurate estimates from buoy data, enabling them to effectively monitor the transportation of biomass, carbon, plastics, nutrients, and oil in the ocean, and to better understand and track the effects on climate change on currents.



“Our method captures the physical assumptions more appropriately and more accurately. In this case, we know a lot of the physics already. We are giving the model a little bit of that information so it can focus on learning the things that are important to us, like what are the currents away from the buoys, or what is this divergence and where is it happening,” explained senior author Tamara Broderick, an associate professor of Computer Science at MIT.



By evaluating this new model using both synthetic and real ocean buoy data from the Gulf of Mexico, the researchers showed that their method was more accurate in predicting currents and identifying divergences than both the standard Gaussian process and another machine-learning approach which used a neural network.&nbsp;



For instance, in a simulation including a vortex adjacent to an ocean current, the new technique correctly predicted no divergence, while both other methods predicted a divergence with very high confidence. A pre-print of the study can be found <a href="https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2302.10364">here</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In future research, the scientists plan to incorporate a time element into their model (since ocean currents can vary over both space and time), and better capture how noise - such as that produced by wind - can impact the data.



“Our hope is to take this noisily observed field of velocities from the buoys, and then say what is the actual divergence and actual vorticity, and predict away from those buoys, and we think that our new technique will be helpful for this,”&nbsp;Broderick concluded.



<h2 id="h-why-is-it-important-to-study-ocean-currents">Why is it important to study ocean currents?</h2>



Studying ocean currents is crucial for many reasons. They play a significant role in controlling the climate, determining marine life distribution, shaping human activity, and more. Here's a breakdown of why we study them:



<h3 id="h-climate-regulation">Climate Regulation</h3>



Ocean currents distribute heat around the planet, helping to regulate climate. For example, the Gulf Stream carries warm water from the Gulf of Mexico up to the North Atlantic, moderating the climate in Western Europe. Understanding these currents allows scientists to make accurate climate predictions and models.



<h3 id="h-biodiversity-and-ecosystems">Biodiversity and Ecosystems</h3>



Ocean currents impact the distribution of nutrients, which in turn affects where marine organisms can live and thrive. Currents can carry nutrient-rich cold water to the surface in a process called upwelling, supporting biodiversity hotspots. By studying ocean currents, we gain insights into marine ecosystems and the factors influencing their health and biodiversity.



<h3 id="h-navigation-and-shipping">Navigation and Shipping</h3>



For centuries, mariners have used ocean currents to help in navigation. Understanding ocean currents can lead to more efficient shipping routes, saving time and fuel.



<h3 id="h-pollution-dispersion">Pollution Dispersion</h3>



When spills or leaks occur (like oil spills), ocean currents help determine where the pollution will spread. By modeling these currents, we can predict the movements of such pollutants and devise better clean-up strategies.



<h3 id="h-fisheries-management">Fisheries Management</h3>



Many commercial fish species follow particular ocean currents during their life cycles. Knowing these patterns helps in managing and protecting these fisheries.



<h3 id="h-weather-prediction">Weather Prediction</h3>



Ocean currents play a role in weather systems. For example, El Niño, a warm ocean current, affects weather patterns around the globe. Understanding these currents can contribute to more accurate weather forecasting.



<h3 id="h-climate-change-study">Climate Change Study</h3>



Ocean currents are expected to change with climate change, affecting global weather patterns, sea levels, and marine life. Studying them helps us understand the impacts of climate change and guide mitigation strategies.



<h3 id="h-marine-archeology-and-history">Marine Archeology and History</h3>



Currents also impact the dispersion of artifacts from shipwrecks, offering clues into historical events and lost civilizations.



Overall, understanding ocean currents is crucial to a wide array of fields, including climate science, biology, navigation, conservation, and more.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Machine learning can more accurately predict ocean currents

To investigate ocean currents, scientists usually release GPS-tagged buoys and...

Ever wondered how mosquitoes find humans from distances of up to a hundred meters away? In a landmark study, a group of researchers have made headway into answering this question. The experts discovered that human body odor is a critical element in the long-range host-seeking behavior of mosquitoes (see image <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/mosquitoes-tracking-ability-graphic_Credit-Giraldo-and-Rankin-Turner_1big.png">here</a>).



The researchers developed an outdoor testing arena, the size of an ice-rink, in Zambia. They then used this setup to study the mosquito attraction to human body <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sense-of-smell-has-diminished-in-humans-and-other-primates/">odor</a>.&nbsp;



In the process, the team also identified specific airborne body-odor components that could potentially explain why some people are mosquito magnets, while others are less appealing to these insects. The groundbreaking study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.050">Current Biology</a>.



The majority of studies in the past that focused on mosquito preference were conducted in controlled laboratory conditions. However, these setups likely don't accurately represent the real-world experiences of mosquitoes.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



To overcome this, researchers from Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health’s <a href="https://malaria.jhsph.edu/">Malaria Research Institute</a> and Macha Research Trust built a testing arena spanning 1,000 cubic meters in Choma District, Zambia.



“This is the largest system to assess olfactory preference for any mosquito in the world,” said study co-author Diego Giraldo. He added that it presents a highly sensory environment for the mosquitoes.



The unique testing arena consisted of a ring of landing pads, each heated to the average human skin temperature of 35 degrees Celsius. The researchers released 200 famished mosquitoes into this arena each night and tracked their activity using infrared motion cameras.&nbsp;



Special attention was paid to how frequently mosquitoes landed on each of the landing pads, as it's a strong indication that they’re ready to feed.



<h3 id="h-stage-1">Stage 1</h3>



The first stage of the investigation involved comparing the relative importance of heat, CO2, and human body odor in attracting mosquitoes.&nbsp;



The experts discovered that the mosquitoes showed no interest in the heated landing pads unless they were also baited with CO2. However, human body odor proved to be an even stronger attractant than CO2 alone.



<h3 id="h-stage-2">Stage 2</h3>



The researchers then tested the discerning nature of mosquitoes. To achieve this, six volunteers slept in single-person tents surrounding the arena over six consecutive nights.&nbsp;



Using repurposed air conditioner ducting, the team directed air from each tent - complete with the unique aromas of each sleeping volunteer - onto the heated landing pads.&nbsp;



Concurrently, they recorded the mosquitoes' preferences and collected nightly air samples from the tents to analyze and compare the airborne components of body odor.



“These mosquitoes typically hunt humans in the hours before and after midnight,” explained study senior author Conor McMeniman. He added that the mosquitoes follow scent trails and air currents originating from humans and usually invade homes and bite between around 10 PM and 2 AM.&nbsp;



Thus, the researchers aimed to assess mosquito olfactory preferences during this peak activity period and gauge the odor from sleeping humans during the same timeframe.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



In their findings, the experts noted a consistent pattern where some people were more attractive to mosquitoes than others. Intriguingly, one of the volunteers, who had a notably different odor composition from the rest, consistently drew very few mosquitoes.



The researchers detected 40 chemicals that were emitted by all the volunteers, albeit at varying rates. “It’s probably a ratio-specific blend that they're following,” explained study co-author Stephanie Rankin-Turner.&nbsp;



She expressed the team’s hope of figuring out what exactly in skin secretions, microbial metabolites, or breath emissions are driving this phenomenon in the coming years.



Despite nightly variations in each person’s odor profile, the researchers detected some enduring patterns. The volunteers who were more attractive to mosquitoes consistently emitted higher amounts of carboxylic acids, a byproduct most likely produced by skin microbes.



Contrastingly, the volunteer least appealing to mosquitoes exhaled fewer carboxylic acids but approximately three times the amount of eucalyptol, a compound commonly found in many plants. The researchers theorize that this surge in eucalyptol levels may be associated with the individual's diet.



<h2 id="h-ability-to-find-the-perfect-meal-impressed-the-scientists">Ability to find the perfect meal impressed the scientists</h2>



The team was taken aback by the mosquitoes' proficient ability to locate and choose between potential human meals within the expansive arena.



“When you see something moved from a tiny laboratory space where the odors are right there, and the mosquitoes are still finding them in this big open space out in a field in Zambia, it really drives home just how powerful these mosquitoes are as host seekers,” said Rankin-Turner.



This groundbreaking study presents significant insights into the host-seeking behavior of mosquitoes and the role human body odor plays in it. It also opens up potential avenues for further research on this topic.&nbsp;



These include a deeper understanding of how specific body odor components influence mosquito attraction. Ultimately, such insights may lead to more effective measures for mosquito control and malaria prevention.



<h2 id="h-more-about-mosquitoes">More about mosquitoes</h2>



Mosquitoes have a significant impact on both humans and the environment, largely because of their role in disease transmission.



From a human health perspective, mosquitoes are one of the deadliest animals on the planet. This is because they are vectors for a number of harmful diseases, including malaria, dengue fever, Zika virus, West Nile virus, yellow fever, and various forms of encephalitis.



Malaria, in particular, is a significant global health issue. According to the World Health Organization, there were an estimated 229 million cases of malaria worldwide in 2019, resulting in about 409,000 deaths. Most of these cases and deaths occurred in Africa, particularly among children under the age of five.



Mosquito-borne diseases can have other impacts as well, such as economic consequences from missed work and the costs of medical treatment. They can also cause societal disruption, particularly in regions where these diseases are endemic.



<h3 id="h-environmental-impact-of-mosquitoes">Environmental impact of mosquitoes</h3>



From an environmental perspective, mosquitoes play several roles. Mosquito larvae, for instance, serve as food for fish and other aquatic animals, and adult mosquitoes are a food source for various species of birds, bats, and spiders.&nbsp;



Some mosquito species also serve as pollinators, feeding on plant nectar and incidentally transferring pollen from one flower to another. However, the negative impact mosquitoes have as disease vectors for both humans and wildlife significantly outweighs their ecological roles.



<h3 id="h-mosquito-population-control-strategies">Mosquito population control strategies</h3>



Various strategies are employed to control mosquito populations and limit their impact. These include insecticide use, bed nets treated with insecticides for malaria control, habitat modification to eliminate breeding sites, and biological controls such as introducing natural predators. There's also considerable research into genetically modifying mosquitoes to reduce their ability to transmit disease.



The increasing global temperatures due to climate change can potentially alter mosquito distributions and disease transmission patterns, making it an important ongoing area of research. Understanding mosquitoes and their behavior, like the work carried out by the team in Zambia, is vital in developing new strategies to combat these threats.



—-



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How mosquitoes find tasty humans from hundreds of meters away

Ever wondered how mosquitoes find humans from distances of up...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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