Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A pulsing headache can feel like your brain is fighting for space. New research suggests that this tug-of-war may trace back to Neanderthal skull traits we share with our extinct cousins.



A recent study zeroes in on Chiari malformation type 1, a condition in which the lower <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538167/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cerebellum</a> droops through the foramen magnum, the bony opening at the skull’s base.



Lead author Kimberly Plomp of the <a href="https://upd.edu.ph" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Philippines Diliman</a> teamed up with neurosurgeon Yvens Barbosa Fernandes from Brazil’s <a href="https://unicamp.br/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">State University of Campinas</a> to test an idea he floated in 2013.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthal-skull-shape-squeezes-the-brain">Neanderthal skull shape squeezes the brain</h2>



Surgeons diagnose <a href="https://www.ninds.nih.gov/chiari-malformation-fact-sheet" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chiari</a> after spotting a compressed cerebellum on MRI scans, but the root cause has stayed murky. Scientists estimate that type 1 affects about one in every 100 Americans.



The new modeling work confirms that people with Chiari share a smaller, flatter <a href="https://bvajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1136/inp.m1869" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">occipital bone</a> than unaffected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-inject-40000-year-old-neanderthal-dna-gli3-gene-into-mice-with-incredible-results/">peers</a>. That subtle tilt reduces the bony cradle that normally cups the cerebellum and keeps it clear of the spinal canal.



“It makes sense, if you have less angulation, you have less space for the modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-superhighways-through-eurasia-recreated-with-supercomputers/">human</a> brain,” said Barbosa Fernandes at the end of surgery rounds. He first noticed the resemblance while examining museum casts of ancient skulls during a European trip.



Headaches are common, yet <a href="https://www.aans.org/Patients/Neurosurgical-Conditions-and-Treatments/Chiari-Malformation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chiari</a> pain often flares when coughing, straining, or even laughing. Other symptoms range from neck pain to tingling hands, and some cases stay silent for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthal-skull-shape-linked-to-brain-condition">Neanderthal skull shape linked to brain condition</h2>



Plomp’s team built digital 3‑D models of 46 Chiari skulls and 57 controls from hospital CT scans, then compared them to eight fossil crania. 



The Chiari group <a href="https://academic.oup.com/emph/advance-article/doi/10.1093/emph/eoaf009/8175225" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">matched</a> Homo neanderthalensis almost point for point, while Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, and early Homo sapiens aligned with today’s rounder <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-fossils-reveal-signs-of-a-population-collapse/">skulls</a>.



“It highlights the idea that these are Neanderthal traits, not just early traits,” said Plomp, her screen filled with color‑coded heat maps of bone angles. She called the overlap “another way that Neanderthal genes might be influencing our health, and in this case, in a negative way.”



Neanderthals carried brains slightly larger than ours, but their cranial base sloped backward like a built‑in ramp. That shape fits an ice‑age life of powerful jaw muscles and big sinus spaces, yet it also left scant room for a bulging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-theory-explains-why-neanderthals-vanished-and-homo-sapiens-are-alive-today/">human</a> cerebellum.



Most people carry between 1 and 2 percent <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12961" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthal DNA</a>, a legacy of interbreeding roughly 50,000 years ago. Much of that genetic cargo is benign, though some alleles affect immune response, metabolism, and now, it seems, skull geometry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-neanderthal-dna-and-skull-shape">Ancient Neanderthal DNA and skull shape</h2>



The overlap does not prove cause and effect, so the team now plans full‑genome scans of Chiari patients to hunt “introgressed” sequences, bits of archaic DNA that slipped into the modern gene pool. 



Introgression <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36763080/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have already linked certain Neanderthal variants to nicotine addiction and even severe COVID‑19 cases.



If a skull‑shaping gene set turns up, clinicians could screen high‑risk families before symptoms strike. Early detection matters because decompression surgery, while effective, involves removing bone and sometimes fusing vertebrae.



“I didn’t have the science to prove my hypothesis. This paper is a big step closer toward that proof,” said Barbosa Fernandes after reviewing the metric curves.



Other forms of Chiari, labeled types 2 through 4, follow different rules. Type 2, in contrast, is tightly linked to severe <a href="https://www.spinabifidaassociation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spina bifida</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-skull-shape-affects-daily-life">How skull shape affects daily life</h2>



The cerebellum fine‑tunes balance, speech, and motor control, so its squeeze can scramble day‑to‑day skills such as handwriting or climbing stairs. 



MRI technicians now know to look for the tell‑tale “tonsillar descent,” a downward bulge of cerebellar tissue past the foramen magnum.



Many patients report that lying flat eases pressure, hinting that gravity exacerbates the pinch. Others seek help only after years of unexplained migraines, an example of how ancient traits can hide in plain sight.



Anthropologists see the study as proof that evolutionary leftovers do not always vanish quietly. A skull optimized for an Ice Age hunter may pose problems for a modern desk worker whose brain spends hours hunched over screens. 



Pediatric surgeons are also watching. If Neanderthal‑linked genes surface, prenatal scans may one day flag a risky skull angle long before birth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-brain-conditions">Predicting brain conditions</h2>



Plomp’s group now collaborates with population geneticists to map their CT findings onto hundreds of living genomes. They hope to learn whether carriers of specific Neanderthal skull DNA face higher odds of surgical intervention.



Public health officials could then estimate regional Chiari burdens and tailor neurosurgery training programs. In areas with limited MRI access, a simple cranial X‑ray angle might serve as an early warning.



Evolution offers trade‑offs, and the Neanderthal‑style skull saved heat in bitter winters but became a tight squeeze for our expanded cerebellum. Knowing that trade‑off exists empowers clinicians and patients alike.



“It looks like this is just another way that Neanderthal genes might be influencing our health, and in this case, in a negative way,” said Plomp. The team hopes DNA data will seal the evolutionary link.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/emph/advance-article/doi/10.1093/emph/eoaf009/8175225?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health</a>.



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Neanderthal skull traits cause modern human brain problems

A pulsing headache can feel like your brain is fighting...

Antarctica’s surrounding ocean has lost sea ice equal to the size of Greenland since 2015. That’s not just a startling statistic - it marks one of the fastest environmental shifts happening anywhere on Earth today.



For decades, the belief was simple: melting ice made the ocean surface fresher, which helped new ice form. But recent findings show the ocean is behaving differently - and that shift could have far-reaching consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-puzzling-change-in-ocean-salinity">A puzzling change in ocean salinity</h2>



A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a>, working with collaborators in Spain, analyzed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/">ocean salinity</a> data using instruments aboard the European Space Agency’s SMOS satellite. 



The analysis revealed a clear shift: surface waters south of 50° S latitude are becoming saltier. This shift marks a break from a long-standing trend. 



Since the 1980s, surface waters in the Southern Ocean had been cooling and freshening - conditions that helped sea ice expand. That trend has now reversed.



“The discovery was unexpected because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-melting-ice-shelves-threaten-global-sea-levels/">melting ice</a> should freshen the ocean, not make it saltier,” said Dr. Alessandro Silvano, lead author of the study published this week. “Yet SMOS satellite data reveal the opposite is occurring, and this is deeply troubling.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saltier-waters-less-ice">Saltier waters, less ice</h2>



When the ocean’s surface is fresh and cold, it floats on top of warmer, saltier water deep below. This layering keeps the heat trapped underneath, allowing ice to grow and stay intact.



“But now the saltier surface waters are enabling heat from deeper down to rise more readily,” Dr. Silvano explained. “This upward flow of warmer water melts sea ice from beneath, making it significantly harder for ice to reform.”



The consequences are already visible. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-antarctic-sea-ice-loss-is-causing-severe-storms-around-the-world/">Antarctic sea ice</a> has dropped sharply. Even more concerning, a large patch of open water - the Maud Rise polynya - has reappeared in the Weddell Sea. It hadn’t been seen since the 1970s.



“The return of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-hole-polynya-the-size-of-switzerland-appeared-in-the-antarctica-sea-ice/">Maud Rise polynya</a> highlights just how abnormal the current situation is,” said Dr. Silvano. “If this trend of higher salinity and reduced ice persists, it could lead to lasting changes in the Southern Ocean, with consequences for the rest of the world.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-the-ocean-from-space">Monitoring the ocean from space</h2>



Studying the Southern Ocean isn’t easy. It’s isolated, violent, and dark for much of the year. That’s why satellite technology is so essential.



To overcome the challenges, scientists at the University of Southampton and the Barcelona Expert Centre built new algorithms to measure changes in surface salinity more accurately from space. The effort was part of ESA’s Earth Observation FutureEO program.



“This is yet another example of how crucial sea-surface salinity measurements from space are,” said Roberto Sabia, ESA Earth Observation Ocean Scientist. 



“This novel regional product has been devised to overcome the conventional limitations of salinity retrieval at high latitudes, an area where seawater density is largely controlled by salinity.”



By combining satellite data with instruments in the ocean, the team built a 15-year dataset tracking changes in salinity, temperature, and ice cover in the Southern Ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-dangerous-feedback-loop">A dangerous feedback loop</h2>



The findings challenge previous assumptions about how the ocean and climate interact. For years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-models-underestimate-sea-ice-melt-and-global-warming/">climate models</a> predicted that warming would lead to more ice melt and freshening at the surface, which would help balance things out. That’s no longer the case.



“Our new study has revealed that the Southern Ocean is changing, but in a different way to what we expected,” said Dr. Silvano.



“We might be closer to passing a tipping point than expected and we have potentially entered a new state defined by persistent sea ice decline, sustained by a newly discovered feedback loop.”



The feedback loop works like this: warmer, saltier surface water melts ice from below. Less ice means more exposed ocean. That exposed water absorbs more heat, driving even more melting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-global-ripple-effect">The global ripple effect</h2>



The loss of Antarctic sea ice isn’t just a local problem. It’s linked to more heat escaping from the ocean into the air. That fuels stronger storms and speeds up global warming. The result is more extreme weather, more melting of the Antarctic ice sheet, and faster sea level rise.



There’s also a direct threat to wildlife. Penguins, seals, and other species that rely on sea ice for survival are losing their habitat.



These shifts are happening faster - and differently - than climate models predicted. Scientists are now questioning long-held assumptions about how warming should affect ocean layering and ice stability.



“These findings show that we still have gaps in our understanding of ocean and climate dynamics,” said co-author Alberto Naveira Garabato. “Continuous satellite and in-situ monitoring is essential if we want to track and predict these critical changes.”



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Antarctica’s waters are getting saltier - and it could transform Earth's climate

Antarctica’s surrounding ocean has lost sea ice equal to the...

Protocells, the simplest kind of cell‑like bubbles, may have served as reaction chambers where key ingredients could come together, interact, and evolve toward more complex life.



Protocells have been grown in labs for decades, yet scientists have wrestled with where their first scaffolds formed in nature. New evidence points to micrometeorites, the sand‑sized debris that rains on every planet, as ready‑made building sites for these fragile spheres.



Irep Gözen of the <a href="https://www.vr.se/english.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swedish research firm GOMOD</a> led a team that soaked three kinds of cosmic dust particles in fatty liquids overnight. 



In the morning, the grains were covered with neat layers of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrm2330" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lipid membranes</a>, confirming that rough extraterrestrial rock holds enough surface energy to coax protocells into shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-micrometeorites-may-spark-life">Micrometeorites may spark life</h2>



Earth collects between 20,000 and 40,000 tons of cosmic dust each year, most of it in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.2023.0195" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">form</a> of micrometeorites. 



Because a similar drizzle is expected on many rocky <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earth-got-its-water-meteorite-reveals-surprising-new-clues/">worlds</a>, any chemistry triggered on those grains instantly becomes interesting for astrobiology.



Unlike fist‑sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-meteorites-provide-a-window-into-the-early-solar-system/">meteorites</a> that burn visibly, these particles slow gently in the upper air and land almost unchanged. That soft arrival keeps delicate organic molecules intact, giving every planet a daily delivery of carbon‑rich powder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grains-build-bubbles-with-hidden-energy">Grains build bubbles with hidden energy</h2>



The outer atoms of a fresh mineral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/">surface</a> lack bonding partners, leaving the grain with excess energy that seeks release. Gözen’s experiment shows that lipids happily pay the energy debt by spreading out and curling into sealed compartments.



Laboratory <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2890201/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> since the 1990s has shown that similar amphiphiles self‑organize in water, yet many mixtures stay disordered unless a helpful surface is present. 



Meteorite dust, with its pits and sharp edges, appears to be such a surface, outperforming terrestrial sand in the new study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-micrometeorites-help-form-cell-like-bubbles">Micrometeorites help form cell-like bubbles</h2>



The team tested fatty mixtures that mimic membranes from bacteria, eukaryotes, and simple archaea. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28007654/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaea‑like lipids</a> won the race, spreading fastest and budding hundreds of tiny spheres per grain.



“They form these interesting networks of protocells with little nanotubular connections in between, so they can actually transfer their contents,” explained Irep Gözen, founder of GOMOD. 



Under the microscope each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whats-up-in-the-night-sky-during-the-month-of-april-2025/">sphere</a> sat snug against mineral peaks and valleys, a geometry that likely stabilized the fragile bilayers.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nanotubes-let-bubbles-share-molecules">Nanotubes let bubbles share molecules</h2>



“I think it’s exciting that micrometeorites have sufficient surface energy to drive the [protocell] formation mechanism,” said Anna Wang, a physicist at UNSW Sydney.&nbsp;



Tube links mean the bubbles are not isolated; <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5370405/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecules</a> can pass from one to another, hinting at primitive chemical communication. 



Surface‑bound networks could therefore solve a classic puzzle: how early compartments shared catalysts before true genes existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-may-start-from-rocks">Life may start from rocks</h2>



Gözen’s interest in micrometeorites began after examining a fragment from Mars and noticing how its surface promoted membrane formation in earlier tests. 



That texture, with its jagged peaks and clefts, helped spark the idea that incoming dust could act like scaffolding for early chemical structures.



Unlike Earth rocks that are smoothed by water and wind, space rocks arrive raw, unweathered, and rich in energy. This makes them ideal for exploring how early membranes may have formed in places with no tectonics or erosion to create flat, low-energy surfaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-dust-spreads-life-ingredients">Space dust spreads life ingredients</h2>



Micrometeorites emerge from comets and asteroids that wander through the inner Solar System. Their <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019JE006241" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variety</a> is enormous, from iron‑rich metal beads to porous carbonates laced with amino acids.



Each grain is a self‑contained reactor, already loaded with simple organics, and its rough coat invites membranes to wrap around it. 



If similar dust showers drape Mars, Europa, or a distant exoplanet, protocell seeds could appear wherever liquid water occasionally laps the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bubbles-may-become-living-cells">How bubbles may become living cells</h2>



The study leaves open how these surface‑grown bubbles might detach and float free, a step needed for true cellular life. It also raises fresh questions about selection, because not every lipid mix behaved the same, and planets will host an ever‑changing soup of chemicals.



Future work will probe thousands of dust types to map which minerals, textures, and trace metals boost membrane growth. Gözen’s team is already designing flow‑through chambers to simulate river beds and tidal flats where dust and water meet repeatedly.



Experts also plan to watch chemistry inside the nanotube networks. If simple reactions can cycle nucleotides or peptides between bubbles, the micrometeorite scenario may offer a tidy route from messy prebiotic soup to the first lineage that could evolve.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.03.31.646313v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioRxiv</a>.



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Micrometeorites may have helped create life billions of years ago

Protocells, the simplest kind of cell‑like bubbles, may have served...

Most of us have heard a parent or grandparent say, “Time goes by faster every year,” while shaking their head at how quickly July 4 seems to roll around. 



When you’re twelve, however, the brain has a different perception of time - the wait for summer vacation feels endless, and a single school day can feel as slow as a traffic jam in August heat.



That gap between the child’s long afternoon and the adult’s lightning-fast month isn’t just storytelling, it’s how our brain's perception of time changes, altering the way it measures all of the moments that make up our lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-vs-fresh-experiences">First vs. fresh experiences</h2>



Children cram their days with firsts: a first dive into the pool, a first try at long division, a first sleepover away from home.



These fresh experiences swarm the brain with new images to file away, stretching the subjective length of a single afternoon.



Adults, by contrast, tend to replay <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-impacts-our-daily-routines-and-transportation/">familiar routines</a>. With fewer novel snapshots to store, the days collapse into something closer to a highlight reel than a feature film.



According to psychologist Marc Wittmann at the Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology and Mental Health <a href="https://igpp.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(IGPP</a>), the feeling that time accelerates is tightly linked to how much new material our brains record each day.



He points out that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/">memory</a> and time perception sit on the same neural bench; when one slows, the other shrinks. "Newness" holds the key to this phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-brain-and-time-perception">Human brain and time perception</h2>



Whenever a brain encounters something it has never processed before, a quick surge of attention flags the event as worth keeping. The more flags raised, the thicker the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-use-storage-trick-to-keep-your-memories-in-sequential-order/">memory log</a> becomes, and the longer that span later feels.



Kids, still green to nearly everything, throw flags left and right. A lunchroom joke, a new word in science class, or a game of tag - each registers as its own small chapter.



Adults often glide through copy-and-paste days that differ only by the date on the calendar. With fewer chapters recorded, the book of any given week reads as a short story.



Research using immersive virtual reality in 2024 showed that older volunteers underestimated simple time intervals by roughly 15 percent, highlighting how novelty <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S096800042300302X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharpens the inner clock</a>.



Routine doesn’t just compress the past; it also drains the present.



Studies tracking holiday seasons in several countries found that people who stuck to predictable daily rhythms felt that Christmas or Ramadan arrived sooner every year, while those who sprinkled in new activities reported a slower march toward the festivities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-processing-speed-linked-with-time">Brain processing speed linked with time</h2>



Every sensation has to travel from eye or ear to cortex. In youngsters, those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speech-pattern-wfd-that-is-a-clear-indication-a-person-is-in-cognitive-decline/">neural highways</a> are short and well-paved. As bodies grow, the routes lengthen, and the conduction speed though still quick can’t match its earlier zip.



Add natural age-related slowing of signal processing and the brain starts sampling the world less often each second.



Fewer samples mean fewer “ticks” on the subjective stopwatch, so a morning meeting seems to vanish faster for a forty-year-old than for a fourth grader.



This sampling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-pupil-dilation-to-brains-working-memory-levels/">shows up in the eyes</a>. Our eyes jerk from point to point in rapid saccades, pausing in brief fixations while the brain grabs a visual frame.



Young, rested eyes squeeze in more fixations per minute. Older or fatigued eyes lag, offering the brain fewer still frames to stitch together. With a thinner film strip, the projection of the day speeds along.



Scientists studying eye movements liken perception to a flipbook. Each fixation is a page; flip them fast enough and you see smooth action.



When fixations slow, the flipbook loses pages. Motion still appears, but the storyline gets choppy, and, in recall, it shortens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-and-alertness">Sleep and alertness</h2>



A single night of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-can-boost-memory-in-a-surprising-way/">good sleep</a> can pull the brake on runaway days. When neurons are well-rested, they fire faster, notice more, and form clearer memories.



Athletes know the flip side: stepping onto the field after too little shut-eye makes the whole match blur. The plays happen, but the mind records only a highlight or two before the final whistle.



Students grinding through an all-nighter meet the same fate - an exam that seems to finish moments after it starts.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-best-treatment-for-excessive-daytime-sleepiness/">Chronic fatigue</a> magnifies the effect. Continually short-changing rest lowers baseline alertness, trimming snapshots day after day.



Over months, life can feel like it’s slipping through the cracks, not because the clock sped up but because the recorder slowed down.



<a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/dopamine-the-pathway-to-pleasure" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dopamine</a>, a neurotransmitter tied to motivation and time estimation, also dips with sleep debt, further warping the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1364166/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of duration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-media-and-lost-time-perception">Social media and lost time perception</h2>



Endless feeds promise variety, yet most algorithms serve look-alike posts. Swipe through video after video of the same dance trend, and the brain barely registers a change.



Hours evaporate while the memory log remains nearly blank. Compound that with the blue-light-induced bedtime delay, and you have a double punch: fewer snapshots captured and fewer hours slept.



Cutting back on passive scrolling or swapping it for an activity with genuine novelty - trying a new recipe, learning a chord on guitar - feeds the brain more distinct moments. Those moments stretch subjective time, turning a blur of an evening into something that feels full.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-with-age-comes-responsibility">With age comes responsibility</h2>



Beyond slower processing, adults juggle long lists of responsibilities. Focus narrows to tasks at hand - emails, errands, budgets - scanning less of the environment for new input. Novelty drops, and subjective days shorten.



<a href="https://www.tiaa.org/public/institute/publication/2023/young-adults-their-attitudes-and-outlook-toward-retirement-and-the-future" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A 2023 survey</a> comparing young adults with retirees found that the older group reported the year as “rushing by” nearly twice as often, linking the feeling to the predictability of daily routines rather than to health issues.



Even so, not every senior feels the rush. Researchers tracking so-called “<a href="https://www.nm.org/healthbeat/healthy-tips/4-habits-super-agers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super-agers</a>” note that those who keep learning new skills and staying socially engaged maintain sharper senses of time, along with stronger memory performance. Variety keeps the brain’s camera clicking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-use-your-brain-to-slow-time-perception">Use your brain to slow time perception</h2>



Here's the good news - the tools to lengthen your days fit into ordinary life. Go to bed on a schedule that honors the seven-to-nine-hour rule.



Plan at least one activity each week that forces you out of autopilot: a different jogging route, a museum you’ve never visited, a new language app.



While doing it, pay close attention to sights, sounds, and textures. Engagement packs extra snapshots into the mental album.



Stay curious daily. Swap a lunchtime scroll for a short walk and notice five things you’ve never clocked before - a mural, a bird call, the scent of a bakery vent.



Those micro-discoveries add pages to the flipbook, expanding the subjective afternoon. Over time, the habit can "thicken" the memory book that tells the story of a year, making December feel like it belongs twelve full months away, right where the calendar says it should be.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-review/article/why-the-days-seem-shorter-as-we-get-older/2CB8EC9B0B30537230C7442B826E42F1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Review</a>.



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Scientists explain why time seems to move faster and 'fly by' as we age

Most of us have heard a parent or grandparent say,...

How did life on Earth begin? People have been asking that for ages. The answers remain scattered across rocks, oceans, and ancient landscapes. One clue hides in an essential ingredient for life - phosphorus.



Phosphorus is everywhere in living things. It holds together DNA and RNA. It forms the framework of cell membranes. No life can grow or function without it. 



Yet, phosphorus mostly stays trapped in rocks. It hides inside phosphate minerals, which barely dissolve in water. That raises an old and puzzling question: how did early Earth get enough phosphorus to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-one-simple-rule-that-explains-all-life-on-earth-bioregions/">spark</a> life?



Yuya Tsukamoto and Takeshi Kakegawa from <a href="https://www.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tohoku University</a> took that question seriously. They decided to look where most people wouldn’t - deep under the sea, in rocks that are billions of years old.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-element-for-life-on-earth">Key element for life on Earth</h2>



The researchers focused on the Pilbara Craton in Western Australia, which holds some of the oldest known seafloor rocks. 



The rocks are an astonishing 3.455 billion years old. The team's discovery wasn’t subtle. It jumped out from the data.



"We analyzed 3.455-billion-year-old basaltic seafloor rocks in drill core samples recovered from the Pilbara Craton, Western Australia, discovering that P was significantly leached from the hydrothermally altered rocks compared to the least altered rocks," explained Tsukamoto.



He noted that further mineralogical analyses indicated that phosphate minerals had undergone dissolution in rocks where P was depleted. 



Simply put, hot fluids moved through these rocks and pulled phosphorus out. That phosphorus didn’t just disappear. It entered the surrounding seawater, turning parts of the ocean into phosphorus-rich zones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-source-of-phosphorus">Tracking the source of phosphorus </h2>



The rocks alone didn’t tell the whole story. The team wanted to understand what made this phosphorus release possible. They uncovered two kinds of hydrothermal fluids that shaped this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/third-state-of-existence-beyond-life-and-death-confirmed-by-scientists/">process</a>.



One type was hot, rich in sulfur, and capable of breaking down minerals quickly. The other was more surprising - mildly acidic to alkaline fluids at lower temperatures. 



These fluids were common in the Archean era because Earth’s atmosphere back then was filled with carbon dioxide. That unique atmosphere made these fluids react in unexpected ways with the rocks.



The result? Massive amounts of dissolved phosphate in the water. The numbers were shocking. These fluids could carry up to 2 millimolar phosphate - nearly 1,000 times higher than what’s found in modern seawater.



Suddenly, early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luca-last-universal-common-ancestor-progenitor-all-life-on-earth/">Earth</a> wasn’t a barren place. Its oceans were filled with phosphorus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-oceans-held-elements-for-life">Earth’s oceans held elements for life</h2>



This wasn’t just a chemistry experiment. The results changed how scientists think about early Earth. The researchers calculated how much phosphorus these underwater systems could release. 



The findings were stunning. The amount of phosphorus released into the oceans by these hydrothermal systems could match, or even exceed, the amount entering modern oceans through rivers and weathering of land rocks.



"Importantly, this study provides direct evidence that submarine hydrothermal activity leached P from seafloor basaltic rocks and quantifies the potential P flux from these hydrothermal systems to the early ocean," adds Tsukamoto.



Imagine ancient oceans filled with nutrients. These phosphorus-rich waters may have supported some of Earth’s earliest microbial life. 



The ancient communities didn’t need a vast, lush <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocks-reveal-the-turning-point-when-oxygen-changed-earth-forever/">planet</a>. It only needed these hidden underwater environments to get started.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hot-springs-and-hidden-worlds-on-land">Hot springs and hidden worlds on land</h2>



The study also pointed to something beyond the oceans - hot springs on land. Hydrothermal systems aren’t just found under the sea. They exist on land too, in places like hot springs.



These environments might have also released phosphorus on early Earth. That means life’s building blocks weren’t limited to deep-sea vents. They could have existed in steaming pools on land.



This opens the door for more discoveries. Scientists now plan to study how phosphate behaves in rocks across different periods of Earth’s history. By tracing phosphorus through time, they hope to unlock new chapters of Earth’s story.



The message is clear: Life’s ingredients may have come from places on Earth we’ve only just begun to explore. Deep beneath the waves, within rocks touched by ancient fluids, the story of life may have quietly begun.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016703725003266?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta</a>.



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Earth may have always held the key ingredients for life

How did life on Earth begin? People have been asking...

Astronomers poring over new data from the James Webb Space Telescope have reported the most compelling hints yet that “dark stars,” cosmic behemoths fed by dark matter, really existed. 



A new <a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/2505.06101" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> of five ultra‑distant objects shows spectra and shapes that match simulations of dark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-star-giant-gas-planet-toi-6894b-breaks-current-planetary-formation-rules/">stars</a> rather than ordinary fusion‑powered suns.



The candidates sit more than 13 billion light‑years away, meaning their light left them when the universe was only a few hundred million years old. 



The dark star <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0705.0521" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">concept</a> was first introduced in 2007 by Katherine Freese and colleagues at the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter-powering-giant-stars">Dark matter powering giant stars</h2>



Dark matter accounts for about 85 percent of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-forming-disks-surrounding-stars-often-last-much-longer-than-expected/">universe</a>’s mass but reveals itself only through gravity. Two decades of underground detectors have yet to capture a single dark‑matter particle, yet its invisible pull sculpts galaxies and galaxy clusters.



Freese proposed that in the first halos of gas, self‑annihilating dark‑matter particles could generate heat faster than the gas could cool, inflating stars that grow to millions of solar masses without ever igniting fusion. 



Once the local dark‑matter reservoir ran out, the stars would collapse, possibly forming black holes hefty enough to seed the earliest quasars.



Webb's infrared vision extends far enough redward to catch such ancient, swollen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-new-super-earth-kepler-725c-found-in-habitable-zone-around-its-star/">stars</a>, and its sensors have already revealed dozens of unexpectedly bright objects in the epoch known as Cosmic Dawn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-spotted-strange-ancient-stars">Webb spotted strange ancient stars</h2>



Freese’s team studied <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/missions/webb/nasas-webb-sees-galaxy-mysteriously-clearing-fog-of-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JADES‑GS‑z11‑0, JADES‑GS‑z13‑0</a> and three even more distant specks, finding that each could be explained by a single dark star rather than a whole infant galaxy.



“If it’s real, then I don’t know how else you’d explain it other than with a dark star,” said Freese. A second clue comes from a tentative absorption dip at rest‑frame <a href="https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Sept15/Johnson/Johnson4.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1,640 Å</a>, the signature of <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1110.6202" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">He II</a>, that appears in one spectrum and is predicted only for dark‑star atmospheres.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-doubt-the-dark-star-idea">Some doubt the dark star idea</h2>



Daniel Whalen of the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a> studies massive stars forming without dark matter. He is not convinced about the existence of dark stars.



"They ignore an entire body of literature on the formation of supermassive primordial stars, some of which could give signatures very similar to the signatures that they show,” said Whalen. 



Whalen argues that rapid gas accretion alone can inflate stars to a million suns, and that Webb’s photometry cannot yet distinguish between such hot leviathans and Freese’s cooler, puffier dark stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-stars-may-explain-early-black-holes">Dark stars may explain early black holes</h2>



The debate matters because JWST and Chandra recently found a black hole in <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/missions/chandra/nasa-telescopes-discover-record-breaking-black-hole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy UHZ‑1</a> whose mass approaches ten billion Suns just 500 million years after the big bang. Traditional growth models struggle to build such giants so fast. 



A dark star collapsing after millions of years would supply a head start that ordinary <a href="https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/*/Population+III" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Population III stars</a> cannot match.



Supermassive primordial stars could also create big seeds, but they rely on rare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-direct-image-cosmic-web-filaments-hidden-highways-universe-framework/">conditions</a> - pristine gas streams and intense ultraviolet fields - that may not occur often enough to explain the abundance of early quasars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-signals-may-prove-dark-stars">Light signals may prove dark stars</h2>



The dark star candidates give off light that’s much cooler and puffier than expected from galaxies or fusion‑based suns, which means their spectral energy distribution should look unique. 



One telltale feature would be an absorption dip caused by <a href="https://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/Handbook/Tables/heliumtable4.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">singly ionized helium</a>, known as He II, at 1,640 Å. If confirmed, this dip could act like a fingerprint. In the Webb spectrum of <a href="https://esawebb.org/images/jades4/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JADES‑GS‑z14‑0</a>, researchers spotted a faint signal that lines up with where the He II dip should appear.



However, the signal‑to‑noise ratio was just 2.4, which is barely above the threshold of what’s considered statistically meaningful. That makes it too early to declare the case closed. 



On top of that, observations from <a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA</a> spotted oxygen nearby, which shouldn't be present in pure dark stars. This could mean the dark star is part of a system with other stars, or something more complex is going on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research">Future research</h2>



One wrinkle is that ALMA detects oxygen in one candidate’s vicinity, implying metal‑rich companions that classic dark‑star theory does not expect. 



Future deep spectra will need to confirm whether the He II feature is genuine and whether metals truly permeate the system.



Webb keeps adding targets, and the <a href="https://roman.gsfc.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman Space Telescope</a> will survey wider areas, potentially catching hundreds of dark‑star‑like objects at redshifts beyond 14. 



For now, dark stars remain an intriguing, if unproven, explanation for several mysteries in the early universe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/html/2505.06101v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Image Credit: Pierluigi Rinaldi / Rafael Navarro-Carrera / Pablo G. Pérez-González



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Signs of 'dark stars' discovered in the early universe

Astronomers poring over new data from the James Webb Space...

Pregnancy is one of nature’s most intricate achievements. At its core lies a delicate exchange between mother and fetus, where two genetically distinct bodies maintain close contact and constant communication. 



This connection happens at the fetal-maternal interface - the meeting point between a baby’s placenta and the mother’s uterus - and it plays a critical role in allowing pregnancies to last long enough for full fetal development.



A new study by researchers from the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/">University of Vienna</a> explores how this unique interface came to be. 



The research sheds new light on how cellular communication and cooperation evolved over millions of years to support successful pregnancies in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mammals-bulked-up-to-deal-with-drastic-changes/">placental mammals</a>, including humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-mammals-teach-us-about-pregnancy">What mammals teach us about pregnancy</h2>



The team examined single-cell transcriptomes - snapshots of active genes in individual cells - across six mammalian species. 



The species included humans, macaques, mice, guinea pigs, the tenrec (an early placental mammal), and the opossum (a marsupial whose evolutionary path diverged before complex placentas emerged). 



The goal was to understand how the different cells at the fetal-maternal interface evolved and how their communication systems work.



The experts focused on two major players: placenta cells from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-battle-of-the-sexes-begins-in-the-womb/">fetus</a> that invade maternal tissue, and uterine stromal cells from the mother that respond to this invasion. These interactions need to be tightly controlled. 



If the connection is too weak, the fetus may not get the nutrients it needs. But if it's too strong, the mother's immune system might recognize the fetus as foreign and attack it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-genetic-memory-behind-pregnancy">The genetic memory behind pregnancy</h2>



Using powerful molecular tools, the team uncovered genetic signatures tied to specific cell types and their unique functions. 



One striking discovery was a shared genetic signature linked to the invasive behavior of fetal placenta cells - and this signature has remained in place for over 100 million years.



This challenges the long-held idea that these invasive cells are unique to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-development-has-a-pause-button/">humans</a>. Instead, they appear to be a deeply rooted feature of mammalian biology. 



Meanwhile, maternal cells weren’t standing still either. In placental mammals (but not in marsupials), new forms of hormone production emerged. 



These hormonal innovations likely played a key role in extending pregnancy durations, giving developing babies more time in the womb. It also suggests that the evolution of pregnancy might have been shaped by a give-and-take between mother and fetus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-or-conflict">Cooperation or conflict?</h2>



To understand the tug-of-war - or possible teamwork - between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moms-pass-a-unique-set-of-breast-milk-antibodies-to-her-baby/">mother</a> and fetus, the researchers tested two evolutionary theories.



The first theory, called the “disambiguation hypothesis,” proposes that over time, certain hormonal signals became clearly assigned to either the mother or the fetus. This helps prevent confusion or manipulation between the two. 



The results backed this theory up: hormones like WNT proteins, immune signals, and steroid hormones could be clearly traced to one source or the other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coordination-between-mother-and-fetus">Coordination between mother and fetus</h2>



The second theory, known as the “escalation hypothesis,” sees pregnancy as an arms race. Here, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-stress-may-have-lasting-effects-on-fetal-development/">fetus</a> might ramp up growth signals while the mother tries to keep them in check.



Some evidence supported this theory, especially with genes like IGF2 that control growth. But overall, the data pointed more toward cooperation than conflict.



“These findings suggest that evolution may have favored more coordination between mother and fetus than previously assumed,” said Daniel J. Stadtmauer, lead author of the study. 



“The so-called mother-fetus power struggle appears to be limited to specific genetic regions. Rather than asking whether pregnancy as a whole is conflict or cooperation, a more useful question may be: where is the conflict?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-origins-of-pregnancy">Understanding the origins of pregnancy</h2>



The real breakthrough came from combining two techniques: single-cell transcriptomics and evolutionary modeling. 



This allowed the team to compare gene activity in different<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-struggles-of-pregnant-humpback-whales/"> species</a> and even make predictions about what those interactions looked like in long-extinct ancestors.



“Our approach opens a new window into the evolution of complex biological systems - from individual cells to entire tissues,” said Silvia Basanta, co–first author of the study. 



The research not only offers insights into how pregnancy evolved, but it could also help us better understand - and perhaps one day improve - how we treat complications during pregnancy.



By zooming in on the cellular scale, the team has given us a clearer picture of the deep evolutionary roots of one of life's most remarkable biological collaborations.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02748-x">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Ancient secrets of a modern miracle: How pregnancy evolved

Pregnancy is one of nature’s most intricate achievements. At its...

Drones deliver packages, inspect bridges, and shoot video, but their high‑pitched whine still irritates neighbors and wildlife. Engineers want rotor shapes that hush the noise without draining batteries.



One possible design comes from a 15th‑century notebook by <a href="https://www.leonardodavinci.net/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leonardo da Vinci,</a> a continuous spiral rotor he called an “aerial screw." New simulations suggest that it can lift a modern drone while saving power.



Rajat Mittal of <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> led a study that puts the Renaissance sketch to the test.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-da-vinci-s-drone-idea">Da Vinci’s drone idea</h2>



Leonardo da Vinci pursued flight long before airplanes - sketching wings, parachutes, and the spiral screw that inspired the helicopter dream. His notebooks show careful airflow doodles even though the science of lift would not be formalized for centuries.



The spiral looks like an overgrown <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/Archimedes-screw" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archimedes' screw</a>, a water‑lifting helix from ancient Greece, except it twists upward to push air downward. Historians note that da Vinci often borrowed proven mechanical ideas for new purposes.



Human muscle could never spin the heavy canvas screw fast enough, so the contraption stayed on paper. Lightweight electric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthcares-first-year-surprising-climate-clues-unveiled-from-space/">motors</a> and carbon‑fiber skins finally give the old idea a chance to rise. 



A small <a href="https://vfs.umd.edu/assets/downloads/2020_elico.pdf">prototype</a> built at the University of Maryland in 2020 confirmed the screw can generate lift, though efficiency data were thin. The new work attacks that gap with supercomputer fidelity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-spiral-rotor">Testing the spiral rotor</h2>



Mittal’s team rebuilt the rotor in code and ran direct numerical simulations. The model tracked every swirl of air around the spiral as it hovered. 



The exercise probed aerodynamics and aeroacoustics at several Reynolds number values - a parameter that links size, speed, and viscosity. Matching those numbers to typical small drones let the results translate to real rotors.



“We were surprised,” said Mittal. The screw needed roughly 20 percent less mechanical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cloud-engineering-can-temporarily-cool-our-planet/">power</a> than a two‑blade prop to hold the same weight. 



Because the spiral presents more surface but turns slower, the simulation predicted a weaker pressure pulse and therefore a quieter signature. Earlier modeling of large‑area insect‑inspired rotors hinted at the same trend.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-rotors-can-reduce-drone-noise">Spiral rotors can reduce drone noise</h2>



Community annoyance rises sharply when drone flights repeat every few minutes, a NASA laboratory <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20240001863/downloads/Vaughn_2024_03_ATWG_05_ASA_v3.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> found last year. People rated even modest noise harsher when it came in clusters. 



Complaints back that up; the <a href="https://www.faa.gov/noise/inquiries/noise-complaint-inquiry-policy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal Aviation Administration</a> logged 8,746 aircraft noise reports in the first quarter of 2025, with just 60 residents submitting 72 percent of them. Drones are included in the totals for many cities.



“It doesn’t have to be the da Vinci design to achieve this, but it is nice that da Vinci’s does,” said <a href="https://www.bu.edu/eng/profile/sheryl-grace-ph-d/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sheryl Grace</a> of Boston University. 



A rotor that spins 1,500 revolutions per minute slower cuts broadband noise roughly in half, according to the new simulation. That drop matters more than raw loudness because the whine often falls in the most sensitive range of human hearing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-da-vinci-s-design-for-drone-deliveries">Da Vinci’s design for drone deliveries</h2>



Drone couriers face strict <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-consciousness-is-a-quantum-process-connecting-us-all-to-the-entire-universe/">noise</a> limits near hospitals, schools, and wildlife preserves. A built‑in silencer would lighten regulatory burdens without adding extra shrouds or foam. 



The spiral also trims energy burn, extending range or freeing capacity for heavier batteries. Efficiency gains remain welcome while lithium prices climb.



Challenges persist: forward flight introduces side loads the screw has not yet faced, and the spiral adds mass compared with thin blades. Structural tests will need to prove the membrane can survive sudden gusts. 



Even so, quieter fleets could reduce the buffer zones that push drone depots to industrial parks and away from customers, shrinking the road miles trucks must still cover.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-plans-for-spiral-rotors">Future plans for spiral rotors</h2>



Mittal’s group plans to tweak pitch, taper, and turn count to squeeze more lift per square inch while keeping the low hum. The same code that vetted the classic shape can rank new variants in days instead of months. 



Lab prototypes will follow, spun by off‑the‑shelf hobby motors to compare thrust and decibels against standard props. Microphones will map the sound field in three‑dimensional space.



If the results stay promising, an industry partner could bolt a spiral onto a quadcopter for outdoor trials under current <a href="https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/chapter-I/subchapter-F/part-107" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Part 107 rules</a>. City officials watching Amazon’s recent delivery setbacks know neighbors care more about noise than novelty. 



Leonardo da Vinci never flew, yet his spiral might help future drones coexist with people and birds in crowded skies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/html/2506.10223v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



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Leonardo da Vinci design solves modern drone noise problems

Drones deliver packages, inspect bridges, and shoot video, but their...

Greenland sharks cruise the North Atlantic at a pace slower than most people walk, yet some were already adults when the United States was founded. 



Their astonishing lifespan has turned this elusive fish into a living time capsule, capturing the imagination of biologists and longevity researchers alike.



Julius Nielsen of the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> leads many of the modern expeditions that tag, scan, and sometimes briefly corral these giants in the icy dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-greenland-sharks-live-so-long">Why Greenland sharks live so long</h2>



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf1703" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eye‑lens radiocarbon dating</a> shows females can live at least 272 years, with one specimen estimated at 392 ± 120 years. The method pinpoints birth dates because the lens proteins stop exchanging carbon after a shark pup forms in utero.



“This is the longest living vertebrate that we know of,” said Nielsen, who helped age the record fish. He and colleagues calculate that females do not reach sexual maturity until roughly 150 years, a timetable unheard of in other sharks.



Slow annual growth, barely half an inch, means injuries heal gradually but bones and organs escape the cumulative cellular wear seen in faster‑growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-skeletons-could-lead-to-technological-innovations/">animals</a>. 



Researchers suspect a combination of frigid water, low oxygen demand, and genes that police DNA damage all contribute, yet no single “silver bullet” for longevity has appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-sharks-have-slow-heartbeats">Greenland sharks have slow heartbeats</h2>



Greenland sharks have resting <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/221/19/jeb186957/33812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart rates</a> of about 10 beats per minute and unusually low blood pressure. That’s much lower than what you’d find in other large sharks, and it may help protect their blood vessels from long-term damage like heart attacks or strokes.



Even with such a slow heartbeat, each pump moves a lot of blood, keeping their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/different-shark-species-seen-scavenge-feeding-together-in-rare-event/">bodies</a> fueled during slow swimming under Arctic ice. 



Doctors are paying attention, hoping this natural “strong pump, gentle pressure” system could offer ideas for treating high blood pressure in people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-bodies-save-energy">Slow bodies save energy</h2>



These sharks burn energy very slowly. In fact, their oxygen use is among the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-76371-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lowest ever recorded</a> for a fish their size. That kind of slow metabolism may reduce cell damage over time and help them survive long gaps between meals. 



A 280-pound shark might get through the day on fewer calories than a cheeseburger, making a single big meal last for months.



Because the deep Arctic is so cold, they digest food slowly too. Instead of burning energy for speed or growth, they stretch it out for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/">survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-they-are-toxic-top-predators">Why they are toxic top predators</h2>



Greenland shark meat is laced with <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5127123/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trimethylamine N‑oxide</a>, a compound that stabilizes proteins under high pressure yet renders the raw flesh neurotoxic to mammals.



Icelanders neutralize it through months of fermentation to create the ceremonial dish kæstur hákarl, but few tourists finish more than a nibble.



The species ranks as an apex predator; evidence shows adults seizing fish, squid, and the occasional sleeping seal. 



Sightings in the Gulf of Mexico and off Spain reveal a wider range than once believed, hinting at deep‑water corridors that connect polar and temperate seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-sharks-are-at-risk">Greenland sharks are at risk</h2>



Commercial trawlers unintentionally haul up about 3,500 Greenland <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/melissacristinamarquez/2022/11/07/greenland-shark-finally-gets-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> each year as bycatch. Because breeding may not begin for a century and a half, losing even sub‑adults chips away at population recovery.



The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/60213/3112909" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> lists the species as “Vulnerable,” citing low fecundity and expanding deep‑sea fisheries. 



Simple changes, switching to LED‑lit nets that deter sharks, banning deep set gill nets in nursery zones, and funding release‑training for crews, can cut mortality without shrinking catches of cod or halibut.



Scientists also urge Arctic nations to establish no‑take refuges around known mating aggregations once those secret sites are found. Protecting a fish that may still be swimming in 2425 demands policies that look far beyond typical political horizons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-hidden-nursery-grounds">The search for hidden nursery grounds</h2>



No one has ever observed Greenland sharks mating or giving birth in the wild. Only one pregnant female has been studied, and her embryos suggest the species may be <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/sharpen-your-shark-facts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aplacental viviparous</a>, meaning the young develop inside eggs that hatch within the mother’s body.



Females seem to carry up to 10 pups at a time, but the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/five-wild-facts-about-shark-reproduction" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gestation period</a> could last several years. Without regular breeding or nursery sightings, it's hard to estimate how often they reproduce or whether their range shifts during these vulnerable periods.



This gap in knowledge makes population modeling difficult. Without better data, scientists can't say how quickly these sharks could recover if current bycatch trends continue. 



Tagging mature females may help reveal mating routes or hidden nursery grounds. Learning how and where they reproduce could play a key role in designing effective marine protected areas.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf1703" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



Image Credit: Julius Nielsen



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Longest-living vertebrates on Earth survive for centuries in icy waters

Greenland sharks cruise the North Atlantic at a pace slower...

DNA from a man buried in a hillside tomb in Egypt nearly five millennia ago is now rewriting part of ancient history. 



No one knew his name. His body was placed inside a ceramic pot and laid to rest long before mummification became standard. For thousands of years, the man's story sat in silence - until now.



Researchers have extracted and sequenced his DNA, making it the oldest known Egyptian genome ever decoded. He lived between 4,500 and 4,800 years ago, during a time of massive cultural and political change - the early days of pyramid construction.



The study, led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.crick.ac.uk/">Francis Crick Institute</a> and Liverpool John Moores University, is the first to successfully sequence a complete genome from ancient Egypt. 



The findings open a window into human movement and ancestry during the early dynastic period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-confirms-cross-regional-mixing">DNA confirms cross-regional mixing</h2>



At the time this man lived, Egypt had emerging trade links with parts of West Asia, particularly the Fertile Crescent - a region that includes today’s Iraq, Iran, and Jordan. 



Archaeologists have found artifacts and symbols suggesting cultural exchanges. But until now, genetic proof of these human connections was missing.



The team analyzed the man’s DNA, extracted from a tooth, and discovered that while most of his ancestry traces back to ancient North Africa, about 20% comes from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bread-wheat-gave-rise-to-civilization/">Fertile Crescent</a> - specifically Mesopotamia. That’s modern-day Iraq.



This supports the idea that people from West Asia weren’t just sending goods. They were moving to Egypt and mixing with local communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-story-preserved-in-bone-and-clay">A story preserved in bone and clay</h2>



The remains came from a burial site in Nuwayrat, a village 265 kilometers south of Cairo. The skeleton had been excavated in 1902 and eventually housed at World Museum Liverpool. 



The man's tomb had survived war and time - even the bombings of World War II that destroyed most of the museum’s human remains.



He was buried between the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods - on the edge of one era becoming another. His body was placed inside a clay pot and buried before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mummification-processes-in-europe-are-older-than-expected/">mummification</a> became common. That likely helped preserve his DNA.



Clues from his bones and teeth painted a more personal picture. Chemical signals showed he had grown up in Egypt. The shape and wear of his skeleton suggested the kind of physical work he likely performed.



Study co-author Joel Irish is a professor of anthropology and archaeology at Liverpool John Moores University.



“The markings on the skeleton are clues to the individual’s life and lifestyle - his seat bones are expanded in size, his arms showed evidence of extensive movement back and forth, and there’s substantial arthritis in just the right foot," noted Irish. 



He explained that the clues point towards pottery, including use of a pottery wheel, which arrived in Egypt around the same time. 



"That said, his higher-class burial is not expected for a potter, who would not normally receive such treatment. Perhaps he was exceptionally skilled or successful to advance his <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moving-up-social-status-can-lower-dementia-risk/">social status</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-years-of-dna-extraction-failures">Years of DNA extraction failures</h2>



This breakthrough builds on decades of failed attempts to retrieve usable DNA from ancient Egyptian remains. Heat and humidity usually destroy DNA over time, making preservation in Egypt extremely rare. 



Study co-senior author Pontus Skoglund is the group leader of the Ancient Genomics Laboratory at the Crick.



Skoglund noted that 40 years have passed since the early pioneering attempts to retrieve DNA from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocaine-use-detected-in-the-brains-of-17th-century-mummies/">mummies</a> without successful sequencing of an ancient Egyptian genome.



"Ancient Egypt is a place of extraordinary written history and archaeology, but challenging DNA preservation has meant that no genomic record of ancestry in early Egypt has been available for comparison," Skoglund said. 



"Building on this past research, new and powerful genetic techniques have allowed us to cross these technical boundaries and rule out contaminating DNA, providing the first genetic evidence for potential movements of people in Egypt at this time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-bones-and-genes">More than bones and genes</h2>



This was more than just a genetic scan. The scientists used every available clue - from isotopes in the man’s teeth to the shape of his bones - to reconstruct a picture of who he was and where he came from.



“Piecing together all the clues from this individual’s DNA, bones and teeth have allowed us to build a comprehensive picture," said study first author Adeline Morez Jacobs. 



"We hope that future DNA samples from ancient Egypt can expand on when precisely this movement from West Asia started."



The researchers aim to collaborate further with Egyptian scientists to collect more ancient samples. Each one could add another piece to the puzzle of how people moved, lived, and changed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-eclipse-may-have-changed-the-architecture-of-ancient-egypt-forever/">Egypt</a> during one of its most iconic eras.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09195-5">Nature</a>.



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Ancient Egypt’s oldest genome reveals surprising ancestry mix

DNA from a man buried in a hillside tomb in...

Bumble bees, like humans, sometimes eat the wrong things. A new study shows they may pick foods that don’t meet their nutritional needs - and those choices might actually harm their health.



In research conducted at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State University</a>, scientists found that when bumble bees were offered diets enriched with varying levels of protein, fat, and carbohydrates, their eating habits didn’t lead to better health. 



The study raises new questions about how bees choose what to eat - and whether those choices are good for them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bumble-bees-don-t-choose-healthy-options">Bumble bees don't choose healthy options</h2>



The researchers designed a controlled study where bumble bees were split into groups and given specific diets. Some groups received <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-survival-depends-on-more-than-just-pollen-abundance/">pollen</a> with added protein or fat. Others got nectar-like sugar solutions with different sugar levels. 



A control group was allowed to eat a standard diet of wild pollen and a 60% sugar solution. All the bees were the same age and housed in small groups to keep testing conditions consistent. 



What happened next surprised the researchers. The bumble bees didn't go for the food options that were healthy. 



The bees ate more when protein levels in pollen were higher, less when fat levels were higher, and they over-consumed sugar when the nectar was watered down. 



None of the eating patterns benefited the physical health of the bumble bees. Egg-laying declined. Body weight stayed the same or dropped. Nothing the bees chose to eat led to better outcomes than the control group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bumble-bees-make-bad-food-choices">Bumble bees make bad food choices</h2>



The results challenge the long-standing assumption that bees instinctively know what to eat to stay healthy.



Etya Amsalem is an associate professor of entomology in the College of Agricultural Sciences and lead author of the study. She noted that bee preferences are unlikely to reflect true needs and more likely result from evolutionary constraints.



“For instance, bees may under-consume lipids not because high-lipid diets are harmful, but because their physiology is not well-suited for digesting or storing large amounts of lipids," said Professor Amsalem.



“Bees may over-consume proteins because they have evolved to seek them out whenever they’re available, even though excess protein can be detrimental because it affects how efficiently bees can eliminate nitrogen from their bodies."



This mismatch - between what bees eat and what actually helps them - may be putting more strain on already vulnerable bee populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-bee-survival">Why this matters for bee survival</h2>



Bumble bees are under serious stress worldwide. Habitat loss, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-attack-bees-in-multiple-ways-throughout-the-body/">pesticide</a> exposure, climate change, and industrial farming have drastically reduced the variety and quality of flowers bees depend on. 



In many areas, rich, diverse meadows have been replaced by monocultures or urban development. That leaves bees with fewer options - and often with subpar food sources.



This drop in floral diversity doesn’t just mean less food overall - it means less nutritionally balanced food. Even when bees find enough to eat, the quality of that food may not support key functions like reproduction, colony growth, or immune strength.



Nutrition plays a big role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-and-flower-strips-improve-honey-bee-health/">bee health</a>. But if bees can’t always tell what’s good for them, that complicates conservation efforts.



“It’s an odd assumption when you think about it - my toddler prefers chocolate over broccoli, but I wouldn’t conclude from that that chocolate is healthier for her,” said Professor Amsalem. 



“So, why do we assume bees are different? Understanding potential mismatches between consumption and fitness outcomes is important, as most conservation and management strategies assume bees can self-regulate their diets for optimal health.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-bumble-bee-health">Rethinking bumble bee health</h2>



The results suggest that preference alone isn’t a reliable guide for diet planning - not for bees, and likely not for conservation strategies either. 



Instead of assuming bees will naturally eat what’s best for them, the researchers say we need a deeper understanding of how diet affects their health at a physiological level. According to Professor Amsalem, future research needs to dig deeper.



“Future research could investigate why bees fail to optimize diet - for example, metabolic limitations, gustatory biases or ecological tradeoffs - and may explore nonmacronutrient components like vitamins and minerals that may explain fitness discrepancies,” she said.



For conservation groups, farmers, and scientists trying to support healthy bee populations, this study is a clear reminder: what bees choose to eat may not be what’s best for them. And that makes understanding their real nutritional needs more urgent than ever.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022191025000769">Journal of Insect Physiology</a>.



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How bumble bees are sabotaging their own health

Bumble bees, like humans, sometimes eat the wrong things. A...

The Arctic has always seemed like the perfect place to hide secrets. Thick ice, biting winds, and months of darkness. For years, people believed that during the coldest ice ages, the Arctic Ocean vanished beneath an enormous ice shelf, one as thick as a skyscraper is tall.



That idea has stuck around for decades. A slab of ice, nearly a kilometer deep, covering the entire Arctic? It sounded dramatic. But not every dramatic story survives forever. A new study now shatters this icy myth.



In a study published in the journal Science Advances, scientists explain why this old theory no longer holds up. Their findings suggest something else happened during the last 750,000 years. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-climate-will-permanently-change-by-2050-scientists-warn/">Arctic</a>, even in its most brutal days, wasn’t entirely sealed under thick ice. Instead, it had patches of open water. Life kept going. The sea ice came and went with the seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-mud-shows-open-arctic-seas">Ancient mud shows open Arctic seas</h2>



The researchers dug deep. They drilled into the seafloor of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-peatlands-are-spreading-as-temperatures-rise/">Arctic</a>-Atlantic gateway and the Nordic Seas. There, buried in the mud, they found tiny fingerprints left by algae.



Some of these algae bloom only in open waters. Others live under seasonal sea ice, the kind that melts and freezes every year. These ancient traces told a clear story.



“Our sediment cores show that marine life was active even during the coldest times,” said Jochen Knies, lead author of the study from <a href="https://en.uit.no" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UiT The Arctic University of Norway</a>, Tromsø. 



“That tells us there must have been light and open water at the surface. You wouldn’t see that if the entire Arctic was locked under a kilometre-thick slab of ice.”



That’s not all they found. A molecule called IP25 showed up again and again in the sediments. This molecule comes from algae that thrive in seasonal sea ice. Its steady presence revealed a world where sea ice wasn’t permanent. It came. It melted. It returned again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-life-survived-through-ice-ages">Arctic life survived through ice ages</h2>



Sea ice wasn’t the only thing that moved with the seasons. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-grazers-secretly-shape-plant-growth-and-survival/">ocean</a> itself stayed alive. Phytoplankton, the tiny floating plants of the sea, kept growing, even when the cold hit hard.



Biomarkers of phytoplankton like epi brassicasterol and dinosterol showed up consistently in the sediment cores. These tiny clues pointed to a surprising fact. Life did not vanish during glaciations. It slowed down, but it never stopped.



Even during the Last Glacial Maximum, around 21,000 years ago, the sea ice still followed a seasonal rhythm. The same thing happened about 140,000 years ago during an even colder spell.



The Arctic breathed. It froze in winter. It opened in summer. And where light could sneak through, life flourished.



Some giant icebergs also roamed the seas during these cold spells. They were like wandering giants, breaking free from Greenland and the Canadian Arctic. 



The icebergs sometimes got stuck on shallow shelves, leaving deep marks on the seafloor. Yet, these icebergs were visitors, not rulers. They never formed a permanent lid over the entire ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-ice-was-not-permanent">Arctic ice was not permanent</h2>



To double-check their findings, the scientists turned to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-meltdown-is-accelerating-global-warming-already-changing-earth-in-unimaginable-ways/">climate</a> models. They used the AWI Earth System Model, a detailed computer simulation of ancient climates.



These simulations showed the same thing the sediments revealed. Even during extreme cold, warm Atlantic waters kept sneaking into the Arctic. This flow of water stopped the ocean from freezing solid.



“The models support what we found in the sediments,” said Knies. “Even during these extreme glaciations, warm Atlantic water still flowed into the Arctic gateway. This helped keep some parts of the ocean from freezing over completely.”



The models also captured the restless movement of sea ice. It spread in winter. It melted back in summer. It drifted along powerful ocean currents like the Transpolar Drift and the Beaufort Gyre.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-of-the-arctic-at-its-coldest">A glimpse of the Arctic at its coldest</h2>



There was one chapter in this icy story that stood out. It happened during Marine Isotope Stage 16, about 650,000 years ago. That’s when the biomarkers nearly vanished.



It looked as if the Arctic locked itself down for a brief time. No sign of open water. No hint of seasonal ice. Just endless cold.



This period lines up with the coldest known stretch of the Quaternary period. Carbon dioxide levels dropped to their lowest point, around 180 parts per million. Everything about this time screams extreme cold.



“There may have been short-lived ice shelves in some parts of the Arctic during especially severe cold phases,” said Knies. “But we don’t see any sign of a single, massive ice shelf that covered everything for thousands of years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-ice-shelf-theory-now-disproved">Giant ice shelf theory now disproved</h2>



For years, scientists pointed to strange patterns on the seafloor as proof of an ancient Arctic ice shelf. Deep scours, ridges, and grooves looked like evidence of ice pressing down on the ocean floor.



But this study offers a new explanation. Those marks may have come from huge icebergs drifting through the Arctic. These giants could easily gouge the seafloor during their journeys.



The researchers also stress a crucial difference. Sea ice is not the same as ice shelves. Sea ice forms and melts every year. Ice shelves are thick, massive slabs of ice that grow from glaciers on land.



If the Arctic ever had an ice shelf, it likely existed long ago - perhaps during the Mid Pleistocene transition between 950,000 and 790,000 years ago. Since then, the Arctic has danced between ice and water, never staying frozen solid for long.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-s-past-shows-it-may-survive-future">Arctic’s past shows it may survive future</h2>



This isn’t just a story about ancient ice. It’s also a warning for today. The Arctic is changing fast. The more we understand its past, the better we can predict its future.



“These past patterns help us understand what’s possible in future scenarios,” said Knies. “We need to know how the Arctic behaves under stress and what tipping points to watch for as the Arctic responds to a warming world.”



The Arctic has shown time and again that it doesn’t like to sit still. Even at its coldest, it found ways to stay partly open. It allowed life to hold on.



Today, the Arctic faces a new kind of challenge. Warming is accelerating faster than anything in the past. But this study reminds us that the Arctic has always been more dynamic than we thought. It has never been just a frozen wasteland.



Its icy history tells a story of change, survival, and resilience. The future may still surprise us, just like its hidden past has done.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu7681" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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-----

Arctic Ocean stayed partly open during harsh ice ages

The Arctic has always seemed like the perfect place to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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