In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



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Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp; Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries. Controlling the heart with light The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest. The external controller detects...

Nearly a century ago, some astronomers proposed that we might be seeing only half the story of the universe's expansion. A lesser-known concept, called the “tired light” theory, proposed that photons could lose energy as they travel through space, causing what looks like expanding motion. 



Some experts have speculated that a possible spin of the universe could influence our perception of cosmic movement. However, the majority of experts support the Big Bang model, citing observations of galaxies moving away from us at rapid speeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-perception-of-universe-expansion">Our perception of universe expansion </h2>



Lior Shamir, an associate professor at <a href="https://www.k-state.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kansas State University</a>, has brought this old theory back into focus. His recent work suggests that a fresh look at <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/multimedia/images/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST images</a> might offer a different perspective on what we perceive as the expansion of the universe.



Scientists have noted that JWST observations reveal galaxies that seem older than the universe itself, if based on traditional timelines. This contradicts the idea that everything condensed from a single point 13.8 billion years ago.



“The JWST provided deep images of the very early universe, but instead of showing an infant early universe…it showed large and mature galaxies,” said Professor Shamir.



Big Bang supporters are not all convinced to abandon their view. However, a portion of the astronomy community feels that such data call for a second glance at less conventional models. A few wonder whether our accepted view of cosmic expansion oversimplifies the story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-light-be-tricking-us">Could light be tricking us?</h2>



“The tired light theory was largely neglected, as astronomers adopted the Big Bang theory as the consensus model,” explained Professor Shamir. He has offered fresh <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2571-712X/7/3/41" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> supporting the long-dismissed concept. 



If <a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsphotons" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photons</a> gradually lose energy, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-structure-in-universe-is-1-4-billion-light-years-long-quipu-superstructure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universal</a> timeline we use might be off. That helps explain why galaxies appear so developed at early stages. Light might not always be a perfect gauge of distance if it changes subtly on the way.



Recent <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988CeMec..45...31B/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> shows that almost all galaxies in the early universe displayed by JWST appear to rotate in the same direction. Shamir’s analysis found up to 50% more galaxies swirling one way, a difference that can even be seen by a non-expert scanning the images. 



He suggests this anomaly could mean the universe was “born” spinning or that we might live inside a colossal black hole.



Professor Shamir also noted that this rotational imbalance might be due to the Earth’s own motion. Because of <a href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-physics/chapter/6-1-rotation-angle-and-angular-velocity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rotational velocity</a>, galaxies moving the opposite way relative to the Milky Way may appear brighter, so we see more of them.



Shamir’s team measured redshift in over 30,000 galaxies and found that the gap becomes larger at greater distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-the-universe-spin">Does the universe spin?</h2>



The "axis of evil" in cosmology refers to unexpected alignments in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation, suggesting a preferred direction in the universe. 



This is at odds with the widely accepted cosmological principle, which states that the universe should appear isotropic (the same in all directions) on large scales.



Some researchers speculate that this alignment could be a statistical fluke, an artifact of our observational methods, or even an indication of new physics beyond the standard model of cosmology. Others propose that it might hint at a deeper structure in the universe, challenging the assumption of uniformity.



Another theory entertains the possibility of a <a href="https://research.kuleuven.be/portal/en/project/3E230655" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">holographic universe</a>, pointing out that if the universe does have a giant spin, it is not unlike a black hole’s interior. 



This concept, commonly referred to as black hole cosmology, has circulated in physics circles for years, and Professor Shamir’s research brings it back into focus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distance-measurements-may-shift">Distance measurements may shift</h2>



Shamir’s work also suggests that measurements of galaxies have overlooked the Milky Way’s rotational speed. If galaxies rotating opposite to the Milky Way show stronger brightness due to <a href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/doppler.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Doppler effects</a>, the difference could alter assumptions about how far away they are.



“Because the rotational velocity of the Earth relative to the galaxies is constant, the reason for the difference can be the distance of the galaxies from Earth,” noted Professor Shamir.



If that holds up, we may have to recalibrate large portions of existing data, which could reconcile other mysteries such as the mismatch in expansion rates and sightings of hefty <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-forces-have-made-the-structure-of-the-universe-messier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> in early epochs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaps-in-the-big-bang-theory">Gaps in the Big Bang theory</h2>



Not everyone is ready to rewrite the textbooks, but some scientists see these observations as a nudge to keep an open mind. 



A few have always <a href="https://vernbender.com/key-points-about-criticisms-of-the-big-bang-theory-2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contended</a> that the Big Bang theory left unexplained gaps, suggesting that light from distant galaxies may have simply lost energy over time. Shamir’s study echoes that question.&nbsp;



“If the Big Bang happened as scientists initially believed, these galaxies are older than the universe itself,” said Shamir. 



To him, that’s one more signal that alternative routes in cosmology deserve attention. An increasing number of researchers are questioning whether we made a basic error about universal expansion.



Whether or not the Big Bang needs a full overhaul is up for debate. But the evidence keeps stacking up that current distance yardsticks might be incomplete. 



Ultimately, the research indicates that we may yet discover hidden nuances in redshift data or find that the cosmos has had a built-in spin from the start.



The study is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/538/1/76/8019798" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>.



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Is the universe spinning? Strange galaxy motion suggests that it is

Nearly a century ago, some astronomers proposed that we might...

Dementia is a growing health risk, affecting millions of people and their families. As life expectancy increases, so does the number of dementia cases, making prevention more important than ever.



While genetics and lifestyle choices play a role, researchers are now looking beyond personal factors. The environment we live in can either increase the risk of dementia or help protect brain health.



A recent study from the University of Georgia <a href="https://publichealth.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Public Health</a> sheds light on the impact of surroundings on dementia risk. 



The research team, led by Professor Suhang Song, set out to investigate how the environment affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-of-dementia-is-much-higher-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>. The results show that avoiding pollution and spending more time in green spaces may lower the risk of dementia.



“These numbers show that living in a dementia-friendly environment is important to delay or prevent cognitive decline and the onset of dementia,” said Professor Song.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-environment-affects-dementia-risk">How environment affects dementia risk</h2>



The researchers studied 54 reports on how the environment affects brain health. They closely analyzed 21 of them to measure the impact more accurately.



They found that air pollution and traffic noise increase dementia risk, while green spaces and walkability help prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-activity-may-delay-the-onset-of-dementia-by-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive decline</a>. 



By focusing on objectively measured environmental factors rather than self-reported data, the study provides stronger evidence than previous research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-air-pollution-and-dementia-risk">Air pollution and dementia risk</h2>



Living near major roads increases dementia risk by about 10%. Exposure to fine particulate matter (PMx) raises risk by 9%, and nitrous oxide (NOx) exposure adds another 10%. Noise pollution has also been linked to a 9% increase in risk.



Long-term exposure to traffic pollution is particularly harmful. Tiny air pollution particles called PM2.5 are linked to memory loss and slower thinking. However, the impact is not the same everywhere. In some places, studies found no strong <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preventing-dementia-scientists-say-three-factors-matter-most/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">link</a>.



One possible reason is that people in those areas change their behavior - like staying indoors when pollution levels are high - so they are exposed to less pollution, which may reduce its harmful effects on the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protective-role-of-green-spaces">Protective role of green spaces</h2>



Access to parks, forests, and water bodies lowers dementia risk by about 6%. These environments promote physical activity, reduce stress, and improve air quality. 



Walkable neighborhoods with easy access to food stores, community centers, and healthcare also support cognitive health.



“Based on these findings, we can suggest that people visit parks or forests more often and also live further from the major roads,” said Professor Song. “Also, living in a community where there is more walkability, or being close to local amenities like bookstores, health care centers and more is helpful.”



Cities designed with cognitive health in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stop-googling-start-napping-to-reduce-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mind</a> should prioritize pedestrian-friendly streets, connected pathways, and accessible public spaces. 



Encouraging mixed-use developments, where homes, shops, and essential services are within walking distance, can help create healthier environments for aging populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-urban-planning">Rethinking urban planning</h2>



This study emphasizes the need for urban designs that reduce pollution and increase green space. Cities should prioritize public parks, pedestrian-friendly streets, and better air quality to lower dementia risk.



“The biggest advantage of this paper is to quantify the association between certain factors and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-sizes-are-growing-possibly-lowering-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive health</a>. This analysis can provide evidence for data-driven urban planning and support decision makers," said Professor Song.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-dementia-risk">Future research on dementia risk</h2>



One of the strengths of this study was its focus on objective data. Many past studies relied on subjective reports, which can introduce bias. This research used measurable environmental factors, making the conclusions more reliable.



Future studies should continue using objective methods to investigate the link between surroundings and dementia risk. Understanding the long-term effects of urban design, pollution exposure, and community layouts can help shape policies that improve cognitive health outcomes.



Professor Song hopes this study encourages more research on how the environment affects brain health. Using data-driven solutions, experts can help build communities that reduce dementia risk and support well-being.



A better understanding of these factors could lead to smarter urban planning and healthier living spaces for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1568163724004483?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ageing Research Reviews</a>.



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Living near major roads increases dementia risk

Dementia is a growing health risk, affecting millions of people...

Space is filled with breathtaking sights and hidden processes that shape stars and planets. One of these fascinating places is Lynds 483 (L483), a massive cloud of gas and dust where two young stars are forming.



The twin stars are growing, constantly changing, and shaping their surroundings. NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> has captured an incredibly detailed image of their stellar nursery, giving us a rare chance to witness its evolution.



For thousands of years, the young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> have been throwing out streams of material. These jets collide, spread, and form glowing patterns in space. 



What looks like twin flames in the image are actually energetic bursts from the forming stars, creating a scene that shifts and transforms over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-ejections-of-gas-and-dust">Intense ejections of gas and dust</h2>



Over time, the young stars have periodically expelled gas and dust into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-forming-disks-surrounding-stars-often-last-much-longer-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a>. Some ejections emerge as tight, fast jets, while others spread more slowly. 



When the young stars throw out gas and dust, the new bursts crash into older ones that were already there. Since some areas are thicker and some are thinner, the material spreads in different ways, creating unique patterns in space.



These collisions also cause chemical reactions. The energy from the crashes makes atoms and molecules mix and change. 



This leads to the formation of new substances like carbon monoxide, methanol, and other organic molecules. These chemicals could later help in the formation of planets and other space objects.



After approximately a million years, the stars will complete their formation. The intense ejections will stop, and the luminous gas and dust structures will fade, leaving behind a much clearer scene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thick-dust-hides-the-twin-stars">Thick dust hides the twin stars</h2>



At the heart of the image, a thin, vertical cloud forms an hourglass-like structure. The stars responsible for this dramatic display remain shrouded in an opaque disk of cold gas and dust. 



Surrounding this disk, where the dust is thinner, the stars' light escapes, illuminating the surrounding material in brilliant shades of orange, blue, and purple.



The contrast between illuminated and shadowed areas is striking. Some regions appear empty, but they actually contain dense clouds that block most of the starlight. 



In these areas, Webb's sensitive near-infrared camera has detected distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/messier-82-unlocking-the-mysteries-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> as faint, orange pinpoints shining through the thick dust. Where the dust is less obstructive, stars appear in bright white and shades of blue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stellar-jets-and-star-evolution">Stellar jets and star evolution</h2>



The stars' ejections have created complex and sometimes twisted structures. Toward the top right of the image, a prominent orange arc marks a shock front, where the expelled material has encountered denser gas, slowing its movement. 



Just below this arc, orange and pink regions intertwine, forming a tangled pattern that astronomers are eager to study further.



The lower section of the image appears denser, with thick gas and dust. Tiny purple pillars emerge from this region, pointing toward the central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-images-of-baby-planets-reveal-surprising-growth-spurts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These pillars have resisted the force of stellar winds because their material is dense enough to remain intact. 



Due to the sheer size of L483, the image only captures part of the lower section, with the upper regions fully visible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fate-of-the-twin-stars">The fate of the twin stars</h2>



Astronomers continue to piece together the history of these stellar ejections. By refining their models, they aim to explain the patterns of symmetry and asymmetry observed in the clouds. 



Researchers will also determine how much material the stars have expelled, identify the molecules formed through these collisions, and measure the density of different regions.



In the distant future, these twin stars may each reach a mass similar to our Sun. Their powerful outflows will have dispersed the surrounding material, leaving behind a small disk of gas and dust. This remnant may eventually give rise to planets, shaping the next chapter of this celestial story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-beverly-t-lynds">Honoring Beverly T. Lynds</h2>



L483 bears the name of American astronomer <a href="https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/beverly-turner-lynds-1929-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Beverly T. Lynds</a>, whose meticulous work in the early 1960s mapped dense dust clouds where stars form. 



Her extensive catalogs of dark and bright nebulae provided essential resources for astronomers long before digital imaging and online databases became available.



Such contributions continue to guide modern research, enabling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-formation-reignited-in-the-galaxy-leo-p-after-billions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">discoveries</a> like the stunning imagery captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI



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Webb reveals the fiery birth of twin stars in stunning detail

Space is filled with breathtaking sights and hidden processes that...

Scientists have been investigating how certain common medications might hold back the movement of cancer cells. Many years of observational research has hinted that daily low-dose aspirin use could curb the spread of certain cancers, including breast and prostate tumors, which caught the attention of clinicians.



One question lingered: how exactly does aspirin slow or stop this hidden process that sends <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cancer-cells-collaborate-to-survive-challenging-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a> cells drifting around the body? Experts at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> say they have found a critical clue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-spread-and-immune-defense">Cancer spread and immune defense</h2>



When a tumor stays in one spot, doctors often have a chance to remove or treat it. Trouble emerges when the cancer cells slip into the bloodstream and lodge in other areas, creating <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/types/metastatic-cancer" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metastatic growths</a> that are much harder to manage.



Small, lone cancer cells traveling through the body might be more open to immune system attacks than large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-games-could-accelerate-discoveries-in-cancer-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tumors</a>. The Cambridge team tested this idea by looking for the factors that shrink or boost immune defense.



Their work drew attention to thromboxane A2, often called TXA2, which is produced by platelets. The team showed that TXA2 triggers a pathway in <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/t-cell" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T cells</a> involving a protein called ARHGEF1, limiting the ability of these T cells to attack cancer.



Aspirin blocks the enzyme that leads to the creation of TXA2. When TXA2 levels drop, T cells seem to have more energy to find and eliminate microscopic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-lifetime-cancer-risk-may-be-established-before-we-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer threats</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aspirin-boosts-immunity-against-cancer">Aspirin boosts immunity against cancer</h2>



“It was a Eureka moment when we found TXA2 was the molecular signal that activates this suppressive effect on T cells,” said Dr. Jie Yang, a researcher in the Department of Pathology.



The experts found that the protein ARHGEF1 makes T cells weaker, so they don’t fight cancer as well. When they stopped ARHGEF1 from doing this, the T cells stayed strong and attacked cancer more effectively. As a result, fewer cancer cells spread in the mice they tested.



In simple terms, the aspirin pathway stifles TXA2 production, which then allows T cells to keep doing their job without being put to sleep by that clotting factor. 



The researchers suspect that, in many people, this added boost could stand between remission and a devastating cancer comeback.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-target-for-cancer-treatment">New target for cancer treatment </h2>



Rahul Roychoudhuri is a professor of cancer immunology and immunotherapy at the University of Cambridge. 



"Despite advances in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-cancer-cells-have-a-molecular-switch-that-could-be-rewired-to-behave-normally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a> treatment, many patients with early stage cancers receive treatments, such as surgical removal of the tumor, which have the potential to be curative," said Professor Roychoudhuri.



"We hope that therapies that target this window of vulnerability will have tremendous scope in preventing recurrence."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aspirin-s-potential-for-cancer-prevention">Aspirin’s potential for cancer prevention</h2>



Experts warn that aspirin is not without risks. A small portion of people can experience dangerous bleeding or <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/stomach-ulcer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stomach ulcers</a>, so it is vital to speak with a doctor before making any changes to your routine.



On the bright side, the cost of low-dose aspirin is modest compared to many expensive antibody-based cancer drugs. Scientists believe this might mean broader global access if clinical trials confirm the results.



The <a href="https://www.addaspirintrial.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Add-Aspirin</a> clinical trial is investigating whether aspirin might keep some early tumors from returning. Scientists hope these new findings will guide them on how to personalize aspirin use and avoid giving it to people who will not benefit.



New <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41571-018-0134-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anti-metastatic</a> treatments could also be designed to target the TXA2 and ARHGEF1 pathway with more precision. This may ultimately become a useful strategy to reduce side effects and keep T cells motivated for the long run.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-translating-findings-into-patient-care">Translating findings into patient care</h2>



Researchers agree that it is still early in the process, especially for establishing the safest dose or identifying who is likely to gain the most. But the potential payoff could be significant if these steps lead to lower rates of advanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-the-next-frontier-in-cancer-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a> diagnoses.



Everything points to a greater role for the immune system in halting cancers before they get out of hand. Aspirin may enhance this defense, making it a key focus of cancer research.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08626-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Aspirin may prevent cancer from moving to other parts of the body

Scientists have been investigating how certain common medications might hold...

Tropical rainforests help the planet breathe. They store carbon, control temperatures, and shelter wildlife. These tropical forests have survived climate changes for millions of years, but now they face an unprecedented challenge.



Climate change is reshaping ecosystems at an unprecedented pace. Rising temperatures, shifting rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events are placing immense stress on forests across the Americas. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropical-forests-in-a-shifting-climate">Tropical forests in a shifting climate </h2>



A new study reveals that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-lived-in-rainforests-80000-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> are not adapting quickly enough to keep up with environmental changes. This slow response raises concerns about their long-term survival and the cascading effects their decline could have on the global climate system.



Dr. Jesús Aguirre-Gutiérrez from the University of Oxford’s <a href="https://www.eci.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Change Institute</a> led the research with over 100 scientists and local collaborators. 



The team analyzed data from 415 permanent forest plots, covering regions from Mexico to southern Brazil. 



By studying the characteristics of more than 250,000 trees, they examined how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-rainforest-may-be-much-more-stable-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different species</a> are responding to shifting temperatures and rainfall patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-are-adapting-too-slowly">Trees are adapting too slowly</h2>



The experts found that while climate change alters temperature and rainfall, tree communities are not keeping up with the pace.



This slow response threatens the balance of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-thirds-of-temperate-rainforests-could-be-lost-this-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>. Some species thrive, while others struggle. Traits like wood density, leaf thickness, and drought resistance play a crucial role in determining which trees survive.



“Tropical forests are among the most diverse ecosystems on Earth, yet their ability to adapt to climate change is limited. Understanding which traits help trees survive can guide conservation efforts and policy decisions,“ said Dr. Aguirre-Gutiérrez.



“Given the changes in climate we have observed over the last 40 to 50 years, you might think there have also been lots of changes in the tree communities in tropical rainforests. But some of these changes are too small and too slow to actually adapt to the observed changes in climate."



By looking at individual trees from different communities, the team found that some have suffered due to climate shifts, while others have thrived, noted Dr. Aguirre-Gutiérrez.



"We can study the characteristics, also known as ‘tree traits,’ of those that have survived, as well as new individuals joining the communities and those that have died, to understand what makes them react differently to a changing climate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risky-future-for-rainforests">Risky future for rainforests</h2>



Mountainous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> appear to adapt faster than lowland forests. This difference likely results from the greater climate variability at higher altitudes. 



Meanwhile, younger trees exhibit noticeable shifts in traits, yet overall forest composition remains largely unchanged.



By 2100, the region’s temperatures could rise by up to 4°C, with rainfall decreasing by as much as 20%. These changes may push tropical forests further out of balance, making them more vulnerable to extreme climate events. Without intervention, the risk of ecosystem collapse increases.



“If we know what species of trees are doing better or worse, and what set of traits they have, then we know what they can withstand. It will help inform what conservation actions should be encouraged and where funding should be allocated,” said Dr. Aguirre-Gutiérrez.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extensive-collection-of-field-data">Extensive collection of field data</h2>



Professor José Javier Corral Rivas from the Juarez University of the State of Durango (<a href="https://www.ujed.mx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UJED</a>) highlighted the significance of long-term field studies. 



“It is thanks to the extensive collection of field data over the past decades, largely supported by Latin American institutions and international collaborations, that we are able to make discoveries like this one, particularly in highly biodiverse regions such as the tropical forests of the Americas.”



Professor Oliver Phillips from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a> emphasized the importance of human effort in this research. 



“What is remarkable is that we discovered this not with satellites or artificial intelligence, but by the efforts of botanists, foresters and hundreds of other skilled partners,” noted Professor Phillips. "These undervalued colleagues provide a great service to the world.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-response-of-tropical-forests">Climate response of tropical forests </h2>



The researchers found that functional traits among trees are shifting but at a pace far too slow to match climate change. Deciduous species are becoming more common in some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainforest-emissions-shape-the-climate-and-cloud-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>, and leaf thickness is decreasing.



However, the rate of change is only a fraction of what is needed for trees to maintain equilibrium with the changing environment.



Lowland forests, which are experiencing higher temperature increases and greater drought stress, are showing stronger changes than montane forests. While some species are adapting, others are dying at increasing rates. 



The experts found that tree recruitment, where young trees replace older ones, is the most responsive to climate shifts. However, these recruits still track climate change at only about 22% of the expected rate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-rainforests-for-future-generations">Protecting rainforests for future generations</h2>



“Measuring forests carefully tree-by-tree, species-by-species and year-after-year, teaches us about the health of trees and the risks they face,“ noted Professor Beatriz Marimon from the <a href="https://unemat.br" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">State University of Mato Grosso</a>, Brazil.



“In some of our Amazon plots the forest is facing a deadly combination of fire, heat and drought. Understanding which tree species can survive these threats is critical to creating a liveable future for all of us.”



This study highlights the urgent need for research and conservation efforts to help tropical forests withstand climate challenges. Without immediate action, these ecosystems may struggle to survive the coming decades.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/epdf/10.1126/science.adl5414" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Tropical forests are struggling to keep pace with climate change

Tropical rainforests help the planet breathe. They store carbon, control...

We don't give much thought to what happens to our eyes when we sleep. Our eyelids close, and the world around us recedes into darkness. But below those closed lids, a lot more is happening than you might think.



Researchers have found that the size of our pupils changes constantly while we sleep - sometimes expanding, sometimes contracting, and sometimes switching back and forth in a matter of seconds.



Researchers at <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a> have been investigating these changes, and their research undermines a widely accepted assumption regarding sleep.



“These dynamics reflect the state of arousal, or the level of brain activation in regions that are responsible for sleep-wake regulation. These observations contradict the previous assumption that, essentially, the level of arousal during sleep is low," said Caroline Lustenberger, one of the researchers involved in the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-pupil-size">Significance of pupil size </h2>



Many assume that sleep is a low-energy state, but this study challenges that notion. The researchers found that even in resting states, our brains fluctuate between different levels of activation.



This is similar to what other studies have found in rodents, which also show slow shifts in activation levels while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-brains-can-subconsciously-respond-to-verbal-communication-while-sleeping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asleep</a>.



To measure these changes, the scientists developed a new method for observing pupil movements in sleeping individuals. 



Since the brain regions that regulate activation levels are deep within the brainstem, they have been difficult to measure directly. 



Pupil size is known to reflect activation levels when we’re awake, so it serves as a useful marker for activity in these deep brain areas during different states of consciousness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pupil-size-and-brain-activity">Pupil size and brain activity</h2>



Measuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pupil-size-during-sleep-decides-if-new-or-old-memories-are-replayed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pupil</a> movement in sleeping people is tricky - after all, our eyes naturally close when we drift off.



To address this, the researchers devised an unusual approach. They used a special adhesive technique with a transparent plaster to keep the test subjects’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eyes-serve-as-an-early-warning-system-for-stroke-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eyes</a> open for several hours while they slept.



“Our main concern was that the test subjects would be unable to sleep with their eyes open. But in a dark room, most people forget that their eyes are still open and they are able to sleep,” explained study lead author Manuel Carro Domínguez.



The data collected from these experiments showed a strong connection between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pupil-size-reveals-hidden-cognitive-fatigue/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pupil size</a> and different sleep stages. 



The researchers found that changes in pupil size corresponded with specific patterns of brain activity, such as sleep spindles and deep sleep waves - both of which play key roles in memory consolidation and sleep stability.



Interestingly, they also discovered that the brain’s response to sounds varies in intensity depending on the level of activation reflected in the pupil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pupil-changes-and-brain-activity">Pupil changes and brain activity</h2>



One of the brain regions believed to regulate these changes is the locus coeruleus, a tiny area in the brainstem. In animals, this structure is known to help control <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-reboots-the-brain-making-room-for-new-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep stages</a> and wakefulness.



While the researchers could not directly prove that the locus coeruleus is responsible for the pupil changes they observed, they suspect it plays a role.



“We are simply observing pupil changes that are related to the level of brain activation and heart activity,” said Lustenberger.



To investigate this further, the team plans to conduct follow-up studies using medication to influence the activity of the locus coeruleus. 



This will help them determine whether it directly controls pupil dynamics during sleep and how these shifts in activation impact sleep quality and function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pupils-and-sleep-disorders">Pupils and sleep disorders</h2>



Beyond basic research, understanding how pupils change during sleep could have practical applications.



The researchers believe these findings could help in diagnosing and treating sleep disorders and other conditions linked to brain arousal dysfunctions.



The experts are particularly interested in whether pupil changes during sleep might indicate disorders such as insomnia, post-traumatic stress disorder, or even Alzheimer’s disease.



“These are just hypotheses that we want to investigate in the future,” said Lustenberger.



Another potential application is in hospital settings, where this method could be used to monitor wakefulness in coma patients or to improve the accuracy of sleep disorder diagnoses. 



By using the pupil as a “window” into brain activity, this approach could open new doors in sleep medicine and neuroscience.



The study highlights an important truth: sleep is far from a passive state. Even as we rest, our brains are busy regulating activity levels - something we can now see reflected in the ever-changing size of our pupils.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57289-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Pupils reveal how active the brain is - even during sleep

We don't give much thought to what happens to our...

The Arctic is changing fast. Ancient ice is melting, glaciers are shrinking, and seasons are shifting. Below the surface, vast kelp forests sway along rocky coasts, hidden from sight.



These marine giants are more than plants. They are the architects of entire ecosystems, offering shelter, food, and stability to countless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-help-kelp-forests-recover-but-theres-more-to-the-story/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine species</a>. But as the Arctic transforms, so its kelp forests change too.



A recent study shows that melting glaciers and permafrost are changing kelp ecosystems by increasing freshwater run-off. The research was conducted by scientists from EU projects FACE-IT, ECOTIP, and SEA-Quester.



What the experts found is both startling and deeply revealing: shifts in water chemistry, microbial communities in flux, and an unexpected entanglement with heavy metals.



The story of Arctic kelp is not just an ecological tale - it is an economic and social one, reaching far beyond the cold northern seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-warming-arctic-a-changing-coastline">A warming Arctic, a changing coastline</h2>



The Arctic is heating up - faster than anywhere else on the planet. This isn’t a slow, creeping shift; it’s a rapid and relentless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-kelp-forests-existed-32-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transformation</a>.



With glaciers melting and permafrost thawing, vast amounts of freshwater are flooding into coastal seas. It’s a deluge that doesn’t just mix and disappear. The chemistry of the water shifts, salinity drops and light struggles to penetrate as suspended sediments cloud the once-clear depths.



For kelp, these changes aren’t trivial. They depend on stable conditions that include sunlight, salt, and predictable nutrient flows.



But with sediments thickening the water, photosynthesis becomes a challenge. Light barely reaches their fronds, stalling their growth. And the run-off doesn’t just bring fresh water; it carries something far more sinister - metals, both essential and toxic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heavy-metals-in-the-water">Heavy metals in the water</h2>



What happens when <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/kelp-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kelp</a> absorbs the very waters that nourish them? The answer lies in their elemental makeup. 



The research team studied kelps from various locations - some in areas with heavy runoff and others in clearer waters. Their findings were striking. Kelps from high-run-off areas contained significantly elevated levels of metals like cadmium, lead, and mercury.



Mercury in these kelps was 72% higher than in cleaner areas. That’s a serious warning. Kelp supports Arctic marine life, but when it absorbs metals, the pollution spreads through the ecosystem.



Small marine creatures graze on kelp, larger predators consume them, and over time, toxic elements creep their way up the food chain. Eventually, they land on the plates of Arctic communities that rely on seafood. 



What begins in a hidden kelp forest could have consequences that reach dinner tables far from the icy shores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-world-living-on-kelp">Microbial world living on kelp</h2>



A blade of kelp is covered in bacteria, fungi, and other life forms. These microbes play many important roles. They shape kelp health, aid in nutrient cycling, and offer a first line of defense against pathogens. But just like the kelp itself, they are sensitive to change.



The researchers found that run-off is rewriting the microbial landscape. The balance of bacteria living on kelp is shifting, and with it, the very functions that keep these marine plants thriving.



Some microbes that help break down organic matter are disappearing, while metal-tolerant ones are growing. This shift could disrupt kelp, the animals that rely on it, and the entire marine ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-arctic-kelp-cultivation">Potential of Arctic kelp cultivation</h2>



But there’s another side to this story. While heavy metal accumulation spells trouble for marine life, it also points to an unexpected opportunity. Kelp is a natural sponge, pulling metals from the water with remarkable efficiency. Could this ability be harnessed?



Scientists are looking into something called phytomining - using plants and algae to pull valuable metals from the environment. Arctic waters hold rare earth metals, crucial for tech like wind turbines. Could kelp be the answer? Maybe.



If managed correctly, kelp cultivation could offer a sustainable way to harvest these elements, reducing reliance on traditional mining, which scars landscapes and pollutes ecosystems.



At the same time, kelp could serve as a living sensor, a way to track pollution levels in Arctic waters. By monitoring changes in its elemental composition, researchers might be able to map contamination hotspots and predict where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental threats</a> are most severe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-arctic-kelp">The future of Arctic kelp</h2>



The future of Arctic kelp remains uncertain. With the Arctic warming, run-off levels will only increase. 



The delicate balance that has sustained these underwater forests for millennia is shifting in ways scientists are only beginning to grasp.



Will kelp adapt, or will these forests shrink, taking with them the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-have-protected-california-kelp-forests-for-a-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> they support?



One thing is clear: kelp is at a crossroads. It is both a victim and a potential solution - threatened by climate change yet offering a key to understanding and mitigating its impacts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-82287-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Arctic kelp is absorbing toxic metals from melting glaciers

The Arctic is changing fast. Ancient ice is melting, glaciers...

Earth has faced many climate challenges, but none compare to the catastrophe that unfolded 250 million years ago. The End-Permian Event (EPE) stands as the most severe extinction in history, wiping out more than 80% of marine species and devastating life on land. 



Scientists have extensively studied its effects on ocean ecosystems, but the impact of mass extinction on forests remains less clear.



A team of researchers from University College Cork (<a href="https://www.ucc.ie/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCC</a>), the <a href="https://uconn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Connecticut</a>, and the <a href="https://www.nhm-wien.ac.at" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a> of Vienna has uncovered how plants responded to this crisis. 



Their findings reveal that ecosystem recovery was slow, complex, and shaped by extreme climate swings. 



By studying fossilized plants and rocks from the Sydney Basin in Australia, the team reconstructed a multi-million-year journey of forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-climate-solutions-mixed-forests-store-more-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>, extinction, and eventual regrowth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worst-mass-extinction-in-history">Worst mass extinction in history</h2>



The End-Permian Event, which occurred around 252.3 to 251.9 million years ago, caused the collapse of gymnosperm-supported ecosystems. 



Over 80% of ocean species vanished, making it the most severe mass extinction ever recorded. While its effects on marine life are well documented, its impact on land <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-play-an-overlooked-role-in-the-climate-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> has remained unclear.



Researchers examined fossilized plants and rocks from eastern Australia’s Sydney Basin, a region that was once located near the South Pole (∼70°S). 



Using sedimentology, biostratigraphy, and stable carbon isotope analysis, they traced the timing and sequence of gymnosperm reestablishment across different latitudes. 



The results of the analysis highlight the staggered nature of recovery, rather than a smooth, uninterrupted process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooler-temperatures-helped-forests-recover">Cooler temperatures helped forests recover</h2>



After the End-Permian Event, the first plants to return were peltasperm seed ferns. They managed to build stable ecosystems, holding on for about 200,000 years. 



But <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a> didn’t stand still. Over time, voltzialean conifers took over, spreading across the land and thriving for an impressive 1.5 million years.



Then, disaster struck again. Around 250.3 to 249.6 million years ago, global temperatures soared during the "Late Smithian Thermal Maximum."



The heat was too much for the conifer forests, and they collapsed. Their disappearance left space for a new kind of survivor - pleuromeian lycophytes. These plants were tough. They didn’t need much to grow, making them perfect for harsh conditions.



For 800,000 years, these small, shrubby plants dominated the land. But nothing lasts forever. 



As temperatures finally began to drop during the "Smithian-Spathian Event" around 249.6 to 249.2 million years ago, the environment shifted once again, opening the door for a new wave of plant life to reshape the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-recover-but-extinction-is-forever">Forests recover, but extinction is forever</h2>



The SSE brought much-needed relief to struggling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>. 



As the climate cooled, a new kind of plant took over - umkomasialean seed ferns. These plants thrived and spread across the high-latitude forests of Gondwana, shaping the landscapes of the Middle and Late Triassic. They helped stabilize ecosystems that had been in chaos for millions of years.



But recovery didn’t happen the same way everywhere. In many parts of the world, pleuromeian lycophytes - a type of tough, shrubby plant - quickly spread after the End-Permian Event. However, in the polar south, this process was much slower.



It took around 1.7 million years for these plants to finally establish themselves. This delay reveals that recovery from mass extinction wasn’t simple or predictable. Some places rebounded faster than others, while some struggled for much longer.



Even though forests eventually grew dense again, they were not the same. The plants that filled these new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> were completely different from those that had dominated before the extinction. Nature rebuilt itself, but in a way no one could have expected.



“The term ‘recovery’ can be misleading. Forests recover eventually, but extinction is forever," said Dr. Chris Mays, leader of the Mass Extinction Group at University College Cork.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-ancient-forest-extinction">Lessons from ancient forest extinction</h2>



Studying how ancient ecosystems recovered from extreme climate shifts gives us clues about what might happen to plants today. The way they adapted back then can help scientists predict how modern plant life will respond to environmental changes.



Plants do much more than just grow. They form the foundation of nature’s balance, providing food for animals and humans alike. 



They also help regulate the Earth's climate by absorbing carbon dioxide and producing oxygen. When plants thrive, ecosystems stay stable. When they struggle, the entire planet feels the impact.



“This research highlights how crucial plants are, not just as the base of land food chains, but also as natural carbon sinks that stabilize Earth’s climate,” explained UCC researcher Marcos Amores, the study’s lead author.



“The disruption of these systems can have impacts lasting hundreds of thousands of years, so protecting today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-face-rising-damage-risks-as-their-diversity-dwindles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> is more important than ever.”



Earth’s past reveals a clear lesson: nature can recover, but it takes time. The resilience of plant life has shaped the world we know today, making conservation efforts essential for the future of our ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-abstract/doi/10.1130/B38017.1/652555/Age-controlled-south-polar-floral-trends-show-a?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geological Society of America Bulletin</a>.



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How forests rose again after the planet’s most extreme extinction

Earth has faced many climate challenges, but none compare to...

Smokers and e-cigarette advocates often believe that vaping helps people to quit the use of tobacco. However, new research provides strong evidence contradicting this belief, challenging the widely held assumption.



The research was conducted by a team of scientists at the Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health and Human Longevity Science, and at Moores Cancer Center at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, San Diego</a>.



Their significant results have recently been published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vaping-vs-smoking">Vaping vs. smoking</h2>



“Most smokers think vaping will help you quit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quitting-smoking-at-any-age-brings-big-and-immediate-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoking</a>,” stated John P. Pierce, Ph.D., Distinguished Professor in the Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health (<a href="https://hwsph.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HWSPH</a>), and one of the study's co-authors.



“However, this belief is not supported by science to date. While some researchers have suggested that smokers who switch to daily vaping will be more successful in quitting smoking, we studied quitting success among both daily and non-daily vapers and came up with a quite definitive answer.”



More than 6,000 U.S. smokers took part in the study, of which 943 were also smokers who vaped.



One striking finding from this study was that quitting smoking was less successful among vapers than among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smokers-have-weaker-hearts-that-pump-less-blood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smokers</a> who didn't vape. 



Daily vape users were 4.1% less successful at quitting smoking, and occasional vape users were 5.3% less successful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misleading-perception-of-vaping">Misleading perception of vaping</h2>



The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) states that close to one out of every five Americans consumes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-bans-could-help-prevent-1-2-million-lung-cancer-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tobacco</a> products. 



Most tobacco consumers are cigarette smokers although, in recent times, there has been a shift towards vaping, mostly because people feel that it is safer than smoking cigarettes.



This perception of safety reinforces the illusion that vaping can aid a smoker to get weaned off <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smoking-cigarettes-accelerates-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cigarettes</a>.



Interestingly, researchers took note of the potential dangers of vaping, and asserted that e-cigarettes are not benign.



“The adverse health effects of cigarette smoking become obvious after people have smoked for 20 years. While vapes generally don’t contain the same harmful chemicals as cigarette smoke, they have other risks, and we just don’t yet know what the health consequences of vaping over 20 to 30 years will be,” shared Pierce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoking-and-vaping-definitive-study">Smoking and vaping - definitive study</h2>



One particular strength of the research is its capacity to adjust for a large number of variables that are understood to impact the cessation of smoking.



The scientists carefully controlled for variables such as smoking frequency, levels of interest in quitting, having a smoke-free household, and socioeconomic status.



This way, they were able to ensure that what they found wasn't confounded by outside factors, and therefore the conclusions drawn would be stronger.



“For example, if a smoker is already very interested in quitting, has a smoke-free home, and does not smoke daily, they are much more likely to successfully quit, regardless of whether they vape or not,” said senior author Karen Messer, Ph.D., professor of biostatistics at the Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health.



“We matched each smoker/vaper on such characteristics. You have to make very sure you’re comparing like with like, and that’s why this analysis is so definitive.”



According to the researchers, previous studies that failed to account for these confounding factors have contributed to the persistent misconception that vaping aids smoking cessation. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-informing-public-health-policy">Informing public health policy</h2>



The findings also have significant implications for public health policy, particularly in connection with the marketing of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/e-cigarettes-linked-to-increased-risk-of-heart-failure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">e-cigarettes</a>.



Young people are often the target of marketing campaigns and may find themselves using e-cigarettes as a stepping stone to nicotine addiction.



“There’s still a lot we don’t know about the impact of vaping on people,” commented Natalie Quach, &nbsp;a third-year&nbsp;biostatistics Ph.D.&nbsp;student at the Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health, and the study’s first author.



“But what we do know is that the idea that vaping helps people quit isn’t actually true. It is more likely that it keeps them addicted to nicotine.”



Messer emphasized the importance of rigorous research in shaping public health strategies. 



“As the public health community continues to grapple with the complexities of tobacco control, it is essential that we rely on rigorous scientific evidence to inform our policies and interventions,” she stated.



“Our research shows that misleading associations between vaping and smoking cessation routinely occur unless confounding characteristics are carefully accounted for.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-study-matters">Why this study matters</h2>



These findings highlight the importance of evidence-based policymaking, particularly as e-cigarette use continues to increase.



Without careful consideration of the full range of influences on smoking behavior, the public may continue to be misled about the role of vaping in tobacco cessation.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2831011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA</a>.



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Does vaping help people stop smoking cigarettes? New study has answers

Smokers and e-cigarette advocates often believe that vaping helps people...

Meandering,Bends,Of,The,Lower,Padma,River.,The,Lower,Portion

Rivers, lava, and ice carve through landscapes in twisting, meandering channels. At first glance, their bends appear similar. 



However, a recent study from researchers at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Texas</a> at Austin reveals that rivers form curves differently than lava or ice channels.



The exact forces shaping these channels remain unclear. However, past research suggests that the interaction between the fluid and the surrounding terrain plays a crucial role. 



This study builds on those ideas by analyzing thousands of bends formed by different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shanay-timpishka-river-amazon-rainforest-is-so-hot-that-it-literally-boils-destroying-nearby-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural processes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-river-bends">Science behind the river bends</h2>



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-amount-of-water-do-earths-rivers-hold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a>, centrifugal force plays a major role. Water moves faster along the outer edges of a curve and slows down along the inner edges. 



This causes erosion on the outer banks while depositing sediment on the inner banks, which gradually intensifies the bends.



Volcanic and ice channels, however, behave differently. These channels erode through melting rather than by carrying and depositing sediments. 



Because of this, erosion occurs mainly on the outer edge of a bend, resulting in smaller curves when compared to rivers.



“This distinction sets up a great natural experiment for us to see if the shape, or size, of bends in rivers is distinct from those in volcanic or ice channels,” said Tim Goudge, a co-author on the study and an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.jsg.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jackson School of Geosciences</a>, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-beyond-earth">Implications beyond Earth</h2>



This research could help scientists analyze sinuous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atmospheric-rivers-are-shifting-with-global-climate-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a> on other planets and moons, where the origin of fluids remains uncertain. Without direct access to these channels, their shapes may provide clues about their formation.



The study, published in Geology, was led by Juan Vazquez, who completed his undergraduate degree at the Jackson School in 2024. 



He worked alongside Goudge to analyze thousands of bends in rivers on Earth, volcanic channels on the Moon, and ice channels on glaciers.



Vazquez initially believed he had made an error when analyzing the data. However, he soon realized that river bends were significantly more extreme than those of lava and ice.



“It wasn’t until the parameters for the code we had set for the volcanic channels on the Moon kept failing for the rivers on Earth that we realized, ‘Oh, that’s not a fault of the code. It’s an intrinsically different amplitude,’” Vazquez related.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-channel-origins">Identifying channel origins</h2>



The study also found that volcanic and ice channels tend to have a higher proportion of downstream-accentuated bends compared to rivers. 



This pattern could help distinguish different types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planning-for-an-uncertain-future-in-the-colorado-river-basin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a> on planetary bodies like Titan, Saturn’s largest moon.



On Earth, scientists can observe the fluids or study geological evidence to determine a channel’s origin. 



However, on Titan, liquid ethane and methane carve through ice, making it difficult to determine whether channels form like rivers or through melting and dissolution.



Mars presents a similar challenge. Several billion years ago, the planet had flowing rivers and active volcanoes. 



Today, sinuous channels appear on the sides of Martian volcanoes. Some scientists believe these formed from lava, while others argue that melting snow created them.



“There are these sinuous channels on the sides of Martian volcanos. Some people have interpreted them as volcanic channels, and some people have interpreted them as rivers that formed when maybe snowpack on the top of the volcano melted,” said Goudge. 



“We’re saying that because volcanic channel bends are so distinct, you can measure those channels to find out.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-river-bend-patterns">Future research on river bend patterns</h2>



Goudge cautions that this research should not be seen as a strict rule for identifying the origin of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-action-for-rivers-lifelines-of-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a>. 



Natural channels, whether formed by rivers, lava, or ice, can vary widely due to different environmental conditions. Because of this variability, the method may not always provide clear answers.



Before scientists can confidently use these findings to determine whether a channel was created by water, lava, or ice, more data needs to be collected. 



Further studies and analysis of additional channels are necessary to confirm the reliability of this approach.



By refining this research, scientists may unlock a new way to study planetary surfaces, helping them to decode the histories of distant worlds.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/doi/10.1130/G52706.1/652506/Upstream-bend-skewing-in-alluvial-meandering?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>.



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Discovery about Earth's rivers could help us find water on other planets

Rivers, lava, and ice carve through landscapes in twisting, meandering...

The Kuiper belt, a distant region of icy bodies beyond Neptune, is home to many celestial wonders. Among them, one particular trio of space rocks has recently caught the attention of scientists.



Cosmic systems involving three orbiting bodies have always challenged astronomers as it is difficult to predict the paths of the three gravitationally bound objects. 



Interactions between the gravitational fields of the three bodies tend to lead to chaotic dynamics, which has given rise to the "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-order-in-the-chaos-of-the-three-body-problem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three-body problem</a>."



The discovery that a previously identified binary system in the Kuiper belt may actually involve three bodies could reshape our understanding of how objects in the Kuiper belt form and evolve.



The research team that have identified the system claim to have found a stable group of three bodies, which is highly unusual but not entirely unheard of. This would marking a significant breakthrough in planetary science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-astronomers-found">What astronomers found</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.byu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brigham Young University</a> in Provo, Utah, believe they've uncovered the second trio of space rocks ever identified in the Kuiper belt. 



If verified, this suggest that there may be other three body systems present. It adds credence to a unique theory on the history of our solar system and the formation of Kuiper belt objects (KBOs).



"The universe is filled with a range of three-body systems, including the closest stars to Earth, the Alpha Centauri star system, and we're finding that the Kuiper belt may be no exception," says the study's lead author, Maia Nelsen, a physics and astronomy graduate of BYU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-kuiper-belt-objects">What are Kuiper Belt objects?</h2>



Catalogued in 1992, KBOs are primordial icy remains from the very beginnings of our solar system. The belt where these objects are found lies well beyond Neptune's orbit.



To date, scientists have recorded over 3,000 KBOs and predict a possible number in the hundreds of thousands if they include those bigger than 10 miles (16 kilometers) in diameter.



Dwarf planet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pluto-may-not-be-real-planet-but-has-real-big-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pluto</a> ranks as the biggest KBO.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-kuiper-belt-objects">Formation of Kuiper belt objects</h2>



The new Hubble breakthrough offers key insights into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-snowman-arrokoth-celestial-objects-become-ice-bombs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KBO formation</a> theory in which the three small, rocky bodies would not have formed as the result of collision in the busy Kuiper belt, but rather from the gravitational collapse of matter in the disk of material surrounding the newly formed Sun.



This likely happened around 4.5 billion years ago.



By comparison, stars are known to form by the gravitational collapse of gas, often in pairs or triples. 



The notion that celestial bodies in the Kuiper belt form similarly is a fascinating concept that is currently under review.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-the-altjira-system">Insights into the Altjira system</h2>



Located in the outer realms of our solar system, some 44 times the distance between Earth and the Sun, the Altjira System is the subject of this compelling research. 



Though two KBOs were seen in Hubble images of this system, scientists now believe the inner object is, in fact, a pair of bodies that appears as one due to their close proximity and their great distance from observers on Earth. 



The scientists explain that differentiating the two tiny bodies at such a great distance requires non-imaging methods. 



The team monitored the Altjira system over a 17-year period, observing the unique co-orbital movement of the outer object. Over time, they noticed subtle shift in orbit that was not expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multiple-hypotheses-for-the-altjira-system">Multiple hypotheses for the Altjira system</h2>



In analyzing the Hubble footage, the team found that the strongest evidence supported the idea of a triple system.



They also considered that the inner object could be a contact binary (two separate bodies so close that they touch each other) or an irregularly flat object reminiscent of a pancake.



Currently, the researchers estimate there are around 40 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mors-somnus-provides-clues-neptune-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">binary objects</a> in the Kuiper belt.



With the discovery of a potential second triple system, it is possible that these systems are not single eccentricities but rather examples of an entire population of three-body systems formed under similar conditions.



Historically, the only KBOs studied in detail are Pluto and the smaller object Arrokoth, which were explored by NASA's New Horizons missions in 2015 and 2019, respectively.



Arrokoth is a contact binary, a pair of objects that have moved ever closer to each other and assumed a peanut shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The team describes Altjira as a close relative of Arrokoth, as it hails from the same Kuiper belt group.



They estimate Altjira to be approximately ten times larger though, with a diameter of 124 miles (200 kilometers).



Even though there's no planned mission to see Altjira as closely as Arrokoth was observed, the researchers gleefully await an upcoming opportunity for further study. 



Over the next decade, they will get the chance to observe the outer body passing in front of the central body, which will give them a chance to learn more about this intriguing system and other aspects of the <a href="http://arth.com/news/webb-telescope-confirms-hubble-constant-our-understanding-of-universe-expansion-very-wrong/">universe</a>



In addition, NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope will join the study in its upcoming Cycle 3 observations, and it will add new evidence about these three frosted cosmic bodies.



The study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ad864d">The Planetary Science Journal</a>.



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'Streaming instability' hypothesis: What is it and how is Hubble involved?

The Kuiper belt, a distant region of icy bodies beyond...

For centuries, Mars has captivated human curiosity, from early astronomers to modern scientists. The Red Planet remains a source of mystery, and with the possibility of human exploration on the horizon, understanding its environment is more crucial than ever.



While its mountains and valleys get much attention, the atmosphere of Mars is just as interesting and complex.



Recent research, including contributions from the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a>, has shed new light on how Mars' atmosphere behaves. Scientists have discovered that atmospheric gravity waves play a crucial role in shaping latitudinal air currents, particularly in the middle and upper layers of the planet’s atmosphere.



This discovery helps us understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-seeks-a-faster-way-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>' weather better and may also improve climate predictions on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-of-mars-atmosphere">Behavior of Mars' atmosphere </h2>



To grasp the significance of these findings, it is important to understand how Mars' atmosphere differs from our own. 



Earth has a thick atmosphere full of nitrogen and oxygen, making it suitable for life. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/detecting-life-on-mars-a-breakthrough-in-space-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>, on the other hand, has very thin air, mostly made of carbon dioxide. This major difference causes Mars' atmosphere to behave in unique ways.



Even though they are different, both planets have air movements caused by their rotation and heat from the Sun. 



"On Earth, large-scale atmospheric waves caused by the planet’s rotation, known as Rossby waves, are the primary influence on the way air circulates in the stratosphere, or the lower part of the middle atmosphere," said Professor Kaoru Sato from the Department of Earth and Planetary Science. 



"But our study shows that on Mars, gravity waves (GWs) have a dominant effect at the mid and high latitudes of the middle atmosphere."



“Rossby waves are large-scale atmospheric waves, or resolved waves, whereas GWs are unresolved waves, meaning they are too fine to be directly measured or modeled and must be estimated by more indirect means.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-gravity-waves">What are gravity waves?</h2>



Gravity waves are a type of movement in the air. They happen when air moves up and down like waves in the ocean because of differences in air pressure and buoyancy. These waves are different from gravitational waves, which come from space events like black hole collisions.



Since gravity waves are small and hard to see directly, scientists have struggled to measure their effects in Mars' atmosphere. 



To solve this problem, Professor Sato and her team used a special dataset called the Ensemble Mars Atmosphere Reanalysis System (<a href="https://www.datacommons.psu.edu/download/meteorology/greybush/emars-1p0/a_landing_page.html#:~:text=EMARS%20uses%20the%20Local%20Ensemble,Sounder%20(MCS)%20temperature%20retrievals." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EMARS</a>). This dataset combines information collected from spacecraft over many years, helping researchers study how these waves influence Mars’ weather and climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-mars-atmosphere">New perspective on Mars' atmosphere</h2>



The study revealed that gravity waves transport angular momentum rapidly, affecting north-south circulation patterns in Mars’ middle atmosphere.



"We found something interesting, that GWs facilitate the rapid vertical transfer of angular momentum, significantly influencing the meridional, or north-south, in the middle atmosphere circulations on Mars," said graduate student Anzu Asumi. 



"It’s interesting because it more closely resembles the behavior seen in Earth’s mesosphere rather than in our stratosphere. This suggests existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-collects-26th-rock-sample-on-mars-plans-to-bring-them-all-to-earth-for-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> atmospheric circulation models may need to be refined to better incorporate these wave effects, potentially improving future climate and weather simulations."



This discovery challenges previous assumptions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’ atmospheric circulation and highlights the need for updated models. If researchers can refine simulations based on these findings, future climate predictions for Mars will be more accurate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-weather-predictions-on-earth">Improving weather predictions on Earth</h2>



Studying Mars helps scientists learn more about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-year-on-mars-avalanches-icy-explosions-and-the-arrival-of-spring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> works on different planets. 



Mars and Earth have some similarities, like how fast they spin and how they tilt as they orbit the Sun. These similarities make Mars a useful place to study how atmospheres behave.



However, Mars is also very different. Its air is much thinner than Earth's and mostly made of carbon dioxide. It also has extreme seasons that change the planet’s weather in unusual ways. These differences give scientists a chance to see how various factors shape a planet’s climate.



By comparing Mars and Earth, researchers can improve their understanding of how atmospheres work in general. This knowledge might even help improve weather predictions and climate models for Earth. 



As scientists develop better ways to study planetary weather, their findings could be useful for both space exploration and life on our own planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-role-of-dust-storms">Exploring the role of dust storms</h2>



“Looking ahead, we plan to investigate the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-mars-once-host-life-we-finally-know-where-to-look/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> dust storms on atmospheric circulation. So far, our analysis has focused on years without major dust storms,” said Sato. 



“However, these storms dramatically alter atmospheric conditions, and we suspect they may intensify the role of GWs in circulation. Our research lays the groundwork for forecasting Martian weather, which will be essential for ensuring the success of future Mars missions."



Future studies will examine how these storms on Mars reshape global atmospheric patterns. If scientists can predict these changes with precision, mission planners will be able to prepare astronauts for the planet’s extreme weather. 



With each new breakthrough, the dream of reliable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-spectacular-glowing-clouds-at-sunset/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> weather forecasting moves closer to reality.



The study is published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JE008137" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research Planets</a>.



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Secrets of Mars' atmosphere may improve weather predictions

For centuries, Mars has captivated human curiosity, from early astronomers...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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