Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A year‑long investigation following almost 20,000 adults has uncovered a clear link between getting to sleep early at night and doing more physical activity the following day. 



The recent <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2420846122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>, reports that volunteers who habitually nodded off near 9 p.m. accumulated roughly 30 extra minutes of brisk movement each day compared with people who stayed awake until 1 a.m.



<a href="https://lens.monash.edu/@josh-leota" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Josh Leota</a> of <a href="https://lens.monash.edu/@josh-leota" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monash University</a> led the project, working with colleagues across Australia, the United States, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bedtime-matters">Why bedtime matters</h2>



Those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sleep-during-naps-can-spark-insight-and-creativity/">early sleepers</a> also beat the sample average, clocking about 15 more minutes of moderate‑to‑vigorous physical activity <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2021.682233/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(MVPA)</a> than peers who usually fell asleep around 11 p.m.



Public‑health agencies <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/physical-activity-basics/guidelines/adults.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">advise</a> adults to rack up at least 150 minutes of moderate effort each week, or about 30 minutes a day, meaning the extra half hour observed in the early‑to‑bed group can single‑handedly meet the daily target.



Crucially, the data show it is not just what time you fall asleep most nights, but whether you shift that time earlier while still getting your usual amount of shut‑eye. This combination produced the highest next‑day MVPA totals in the sample.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-night-owls-under-pressure">Night owls under pressure</h2>



Your natural preference for early or late sleep, known as your <a href="https://www.sleepfoundation.org/how-sleep-works/chronotypes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronotype</a>, is not merely a quirk of habit. Research using accelerometers has <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-12267-5">linked</a> extreme evening chronotypes to more sedentary time and a higher ten‑year cardiovascular risk score in middle‑aged adults.



Another analysis of college students found that people who experience at least a two‑hour mismatch between work‑day and weekend sleep, known as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39321660/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social jetlag</a>, were less likely to hit either aerobic or strength‑training recommendations.



“Standard 9‑to‑5 routines can clash with the natural sleep preferences of evening types, leading to social jetlag, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-particular-sleep-stage-slow-wave-deep-is-most-important-for-preventing-dementia/">poorer sleep quality</a>, and increased daytime sleepiness, which can all reduce motivation and opportunity for physical activity the next day,” explained Dr. Leota.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-activity-gadgets-that-never-sleep">Activity gadgets that never sleep</h2>



The Monash team relied on a wrist‑worn wearable sensor called <a href="https://www.whoop.com/us/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOOP</a> that logs heart rate, motion, and skin temperature every few seconds.



To confirm their findings, they repeated the analyses with almost 6,000 volunteers whose Fitbits fed data into the <a href="https://allofus.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. All of Us Research Program</a>. The patterns held firm across age, gender, and ethnicity.



Earlier <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4341978/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> has already shown that exercise and sleep travel a two‑way street: better sleep encourages movement, while regular movement deepens sleep quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-work-schedules-make-it-worse">Work schedules make it worse</h2>



Evening‑type workers who are forced into early starts also face higher odds of metabolic trouble. Nurses who self‑identified as night owls had a 72 percent greater risk of developing diabetes than their early‑bird colleagues, although a healthier lifestyle cut that figure dramatically.



Adding vigorous workouts late in the evening can backfire too. An <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wellness/2025/05/10/working-out-night-sleep-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> of 15,000 fitness‑tracker users found that strenuous activity inside the four‑hour window before bedtime delayed sleep onset by up to 80 minutes and severely reduced total sleep.



The <a href="https://www.who.int/initiatives/behealthy/physical-activity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a> notes that exceeding the weekly activity minimum of up to 300 minutes of moderate effort, delivers extra <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fitness-focused-medicine-physical-activity-reduces-chronic-disease-risk/">protection</a> against heart disease, depression, and several cancers. These benefits could be even easier to leverage if early sleep routines lead to increased daily activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-sleep-tweaks-big-gains-in-activity">Small sleep tweaks, big gains in activity</h2>



Participants who advanced their bedtime by even 30 minutes, without shortening their total sleep, recorded noticeable lifts in activity the next morning.



“Our findings are consistent across different populations and show that if you can get to sleep earlier than usual whilst keeping your sleep duration the same, you may be more likely to increase your physical activity the following day,” said <a href="https://research.monash.edu/en/persons/elise-facer-childs">Dr. Elise Facer‑Childs</a>, senior author of the study. 



The pattern held regardless of age or fitness level, suggesting that a modest scheduling change is one lever almost anyone can pull.



If carving out time to exercise feels impossible, consider starting with the bedroom clock. An earlier lights‑out not only guards sleep duration but also builds momentum for next‑day <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-bursts-of-intense-exercise-can-slow-brain-aging/">activity</a>. 



This helps people reach or surpass the 150‑minute‑a‑week benchmark without adding another appointment to an already packed calendar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-earlier-bedtimes-may-help-fight-obesity">How earlier bedtimes may help fight obesity</h2>



Mounting research connects <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3632337/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a> with sleep habits, particularly the timing and quality of rest. People who sleep later are more likely to snack at night and less likely to engage in early‑morning activity, both of which can contribute to long‑term weight gain.



A 2020 <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7154640/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meta‑analysis</a> found that late bedtimes are linked to higher body mass index in both children and adults, even when total sleep time is adequate. Shifting sleep earlier may align eating patterns and activity schedules in a way that helps regulate metabolism and reduce excess fat storage.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2420846122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Early sleep times linked to enhanced activity during the day

A year‑long investigation following almost 20,000 adults has uncovered a...

Tropical greenery once blanketed the supercontinent of Pangea, recycling carbon and regulating climate. Then, 252 million years ago, those forests collapsed - and with them, Earth’s primary brake on rising CO2.



A new study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a> and <a href="https://en.cug.edu.cn/">China University of Geosciences </a>shows that the disappearance of lush low-latitude vegetation after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/">Permian–Triassic Mass Extinction</a>. 



This collapse triggered a climate feedback so powerful that “super-greenhouse” conditions persisted for roughly five million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-loss-fueled-heat">Forest loss fueled heat</h2>



Scientists have long linked the “Great Dying” - in which more than 90 percent of marine species and around 70 percent of land vertebrates vanished - to colossal eruptions in Siberia.



Those outbursts released enough carbon dioxide to roast the planet. However, geologic evidence indicates that temperatures remained punishingly high long after the lava stopped flowing.



The missing piece, say the authors, is what happened to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-climate-change/">tropical forests</a> once temperatures and acid rain soared.



“Critically, this is the only high-temperature event in Earth’s history in which the tropical forest biosphere collapses, which drove our initial hypothesis,” explained Zhen Xu from the University of Leeds, who led the project.



“Now, after years of fieldwork, analysis, and simulations, we finally have the data which supports it.”



Using detailed fossil plant records from dozens of Chinese rock sections - among the most complete archives of the Permian–Triassic transition - Xu and colleagues reconstructed how photosynthetic productivity waxed and waned.



Their analysis dovetailed with climate-carbon cycle models, revealing that once the forests disappeared, natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/">carbon sequestration</a> plunged. Without vegetation to absorb CO2, volcanic emissions lingered, intensifying heat and delaying Earth’s recovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-reveal-sudden-earth-shift">Fossils reveal sudden Earth shift</h2>



China’s rugged outcrops hold a near-continuous record of sediment laid down across the extinction interval. Three generations of Chinese geologists have cataloged that history. 



Since 2016, Xu’s team has added thousands of new plant fossils and geochemical samples from across Earth. They trekked to sites reachable only by boat or horseback.



The resulting dataset captures a sharp, continent-wide shift from luxuriant, fern-rich swamp forests to sparse, shrubby landscapes within a geologic eye-blink.



Those observations fed into computer models developed at Leeds. By tweaking the fraction of global photosynthesis lost, Professor Benjamin Mills and Xu tested whether reduced carbon uptake alone could account for the five-million-year thermal plateau. The numbers lined up.



“There is a warning here about the importance of Earth’s present-day tropical forests,” Mills said.



“If rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-may-trigger-rapid-release-of-soil-carbon/">warming</a> causes them to collapse in a similar manner, then we should not expect our climate to cool to pre-industrial levels even if we stop emitting CO2," he said. "Indeed, warming could continue to accelerate in this case even if we reach zero human emissions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-climate-tipping-point"><a></a>A climate tipping point</h2>



Because plants build their tissues out of atmospheric carbon, verdant ecosystems act as vast reservoirs, locking CO2 away in wood and soils. Destroy that biomass - through heat, drought, fire, or acid rain - and the storage vanishes.



The researchers argue the Permian event marks a clear instance of a climate–biosphere <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-tipping-points-how-close-are-we-to-irreversible-change/">tipping point</a>. Falling forest cover triggered carbon feedbacks that locked the planet into a hotter state until vegetation slowly returned.



That idea dovetails with modern concerns. Today’s Amazon and Congo basins absorb billions of tons of CO2 annually, yet warming, deforestation, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-co2-emissions-from-forest-fires-have-surged-by-60-percent/">wildfires</a> are eroding their capacity. The ancient past shows how abruptly the system can flip.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-rocks-new-warnings">Old rocks, new warnings</h2>



The study also illustrates how paleontology is evolving. Analyzing ancient crises now demands chemical tracers, numerical simulations, and high-resolution global mapping - tools far removed from the dusty image of fossil hunting.



“Paleontology needs to embrace new techniques - from numerical modeling to interdisciplinary collaboration - to decode the past and safeguard the future,” said co-author Hongfu Yin, a professor at the China University of Geosciences, who began collecting these Permian fossils decades ago.



“Let’s make sure our work transcends academia: it is a responsibility to all life on Earth, today and beyond. Earth’s story is still being written, and we all have a role in shaping its next chapter,” added co-author Jianxin Yu, a professor at the same university.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-show-earth-s-tipping-point">Fossils show Earth’s tipping point</h2>



While humans are unlikely to unleash Siberian-scale lava floods, we are replicating the CO2 spike in real time. The Great Dying shows how ecosystem failure can prolong climatic damage far beyond the initial trigger.



In the Permian, recovery took millions of years; for modern civilization, even centuries of persistent warming would strain food supplies, economies, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-action-and-biodiversity-striking-the-right-balance/">biodiversity</a>.



“The causes of such extreme warming during this event have been long discussed, as the level of warming is far beyond any other event,” Xu notes.



Her team’s evidence suggests that the planet’s thermostat can jam, and forests are a key component of the mechanism. Preserve them, and they buffer shocks. Lose them, and the heat may keep climbing long after emissions fall.



The ancient fossils of China thus deliver a double message: Earth has crossed tipping points before, and those thresholds hinge on living landscapes. Protecting today’s tropical forests might be the surest way to avoid replaying a five-million-year fever.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-60396-y">Nature Communications</a>.



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Forest fossils from Earth’s largest mass extinction carry a climate warning

Tropical greenery once blanketed the supercontinent of Pangea, recycling carbon...

Cell biology is a world of constant motion and hidden structures. Much of what we know about cells comes from decades of research using microscopes, stains, and models. Yet, even in this well-charted territory, surprises still emerge - enter the "hemifusome."



This previously unknown organelle may help explain how cells sort, recycle, and discard their internal cargo. This function is vital to life and is often disrupted in instances of genetic disease.



The discovery of this organelle, which was made by scientists at the <a href="https://www.virginia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Virginia</a> and the National Institutes of Health (<a href="https://www.nih.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIH</a>), offers a new lens through which to study the inner workings of the cell. 



It also presents a possible turning point for understanding diseases where cellular housekeeping breaks down. Using cutting-edge imaging tools, researchers have caught this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossils-push-back-the-rise-of-complex-life/">organelle</a> in action and outlined its potential impact on health and medicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-introducing-the-hemifusome">Introducing the hemifusome</h2>



The hemifusome is not a static component but a temporary structure that appears and disappears depending on the cell’s needs. 



It consists of two vesicles joined together by a partial membrane connection called a hemifusion diaphragm.



In this configuration, the vesicles do not fully merge but maintain a shared boundary that allows them to interact without blending entirely.



"This is like discovering a new recycling center inside the cell," said researcher Seham Ebrahim, Ph.D., of UVA's Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics. 



"We think the hemifusome helps manage how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/third-state-of-existence-beyond-life-and-death-confirmed-by-scientists/">cells</a> package and process material, and when this goes wrong, it may contribute to diseases that affect many systems in the body."



These hemifused vesicles appear in two configurations. In the direct form, a smaller vesicle is attached to the outer side of a larger one, whereas in the flipped version, the smaller vesicle is embedded on the inner, or luminal, side. 



In both cases, a dense particle called a proteolipid nanodroplet anchors the structure at the junction, possibly guiding its formation and stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-hemifusome-appears">How the hemifusome appears</h2>



To study hemifusomes, researchers turned to cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET). This imaging method freezes cells rapidly, preserving them close to their natural state. 



Unlike traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watching-electrons-move-1-quintillionth-of-second-attoseconds-attomicroscopy/">electron microscopy</a>, which can distort or destroy delicate structures, cryo-ET allows scientists to see cellular architecture as it truly exists.



By scanning the outer edges of four mammalian cell types, COS-7, HeLa, RAT-1, and NIH/3T3, the team identified hundreds of hemifusomes. These organelles made up nearly 10 percent of all membrane-bound vesicles in those regions. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/hemifused-vesicles_cryo-electron-tomography_Nature-Communications_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/hemifused-vesicles_cryo-electron-tomography_Nature-Communications_1s.webp" alt="Cryo-electron tomography observation of hemifused vesicles at the leading edge of cultured cells. Credit: Nature Communications (2025)" class="wp-image-1976051"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Cryo-electron tomography observation of hemifused vesicles at the leading edge of cultured cells. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Nature Communications (2025)</figcaption></figure>



Their consistency across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-millions-of-fungal-species-still-remain-unknown/">cell</a> types suggests they are not rare anomalies but common cellular components.



"You can think of vesicles like little delivery trucks inside the cell," said Ebrahim, of UVA's Center for Membrane and Cell Physiology. "The hemifusome is like a loading dock where they connect and transfer cargo. It's a step in the process we didn't know existed."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-the-hemifusome-unique">What makes the hemifusome unique</h2>



Hemifusomes stand out not just for their shape, but for what’s inside them. The larger vesicle usually contains granular material, similar to what is seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mitochondria-cells-batteries-leaking-causes-inflammation-diseases/">endosomes</a> and ribosome-associated vesicles.



But the smaller vesicle shows a smooth, translucent interior. This likely reflects a protein-free or dilute aqueous solution, setting it apart from other vesicles in the cell.



The hemifusion diaphragm itself is unusually large, about 160 nanometers in diameter, far bigger than the 10 nanometer diaphragms seen in standard vesicle fusion <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gold-eating-fungus-discovery-could-revolutionize-the-search-for-metals-and-minerals-on-earth-asteroids-and-other-planets/">events</a>. These extended diaphragms appear stable, not fleeting, suggesting they may be designed to last. 



In some cases, the diaphragm grows large enough to engulf the entire smaller vesicle into the larger one’s bilayer, creating a lens-like shape known in simulations as dead-end hemifusion. Seeing this in actual cells challenges the idea that such formations are purely theoretical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anchors-and-architects-of-the-organelle">Anchors and architects of the organelle</h2>



One consistent feature at the heart of hemifusomes is the dense proteolipid nanodroplet, or PND. About 42 nanometers in diameter, these droplets are lodged at the rim of the hemifusion site. 



Their content, lipids and proteins, suggests they may help build or stabilize the hemifused structure.



These PNDs have never been observed in such a role before. Some appear free in the cytoplasm, others are embedded in membranes. Researchers propose that PNDs may serve as scaffolds for assembling new vesicles. 



As the PND integrates into a membrane, it may kickstart the formation of the smaller vesicle seen in hemifusomes.



This process, described as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/vasculogenesis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">de novo vesiculogenesis</a>, stands apart from classical vesicle fusion. The presence of a unique, translucent vesicle and the absence of known docking steps indicate the hemifusome may follow its own assembly path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-hemifusomes-related-to-endosomes">Are hemifusomes related to endosomes?</h2>



Given their location and size, hemifusomes resemble some endosomal structures. To investigate this further, the researchers traced the journey of gold nanoparticles, common markers used to map endocytic activity. 



The particles entered known endosomes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tricking-cells-into-thinking-they-ate-less-food-can-slow-aging-process/">lysosomes</a> but never appeared inside hemifusomes. This absence suggests that hemifusomes do not belong to the classical endocytic pathway.



Instead, they may represent a separate system operating independently of the cargo sorting carried out by proteins like ESCRT. This distinction may have wide implications for how we understand vesicle traffic inside cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multivesicular-bodies-and-disease">Multivesicular bodies and disease</h2>



Some hemifusomes evolve into more complex structures. The study observed compound hemifusomes that contained multiple vesicles, all partially fused. 



These could be early versions of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/multivesicular-body" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multivesicular bodies</a> (MVBs), which cells use to break down and recycle internal material.



In the canonical model, ESCRT proteins form inward buds that eventually pinch off inside a larger vesicle. But in hemifusomes, vesicles grow inward through hemifusion and expand with the help of PNDs. 



This alternative route might explain how MVBs form in ways not covered by traditional theories.



One such condition affected by these pathways is Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome. It is a genetic disorder marked by defects in pigmentation, lung function, vision, and bleeding. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/damaged-mitochondria-recycled/">Cellular recycling</a> issues are central to the disease.



Understanding the hemifusome may help explain these disruptions and lead to future treatments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-model-for-vesicle-formation">A new model for vesicle formation</h2>



The study proposes a full model where PNDs trigger the formation of translucent vesicles that partially fuse with larger ones, forming hemifusomes. 



These structures may then bud inward, transforming into flipped hemifusomes. Over time, they could scission off as free vesicles inside MVBs.



In contrast to the ESCRT system, which requires tight protein coordination, this mechanism relies on structural and biophysical cues. 



It also sidesteps the need for large lipid donations from other organelles, solving a long-standing puzzle in vesicle formation research.



"This is just the beginning," Ebrahim said. "Now that we know hemifusomes exist, we can start asking how they behave in healthy cells and what happens when things go wrong. That could lead us to new strategies for treating complex genetic diseases."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next</h2>



The implications of this discovery stretch far beyond cell biology. By offering a new pathway for how cells build and manage internal compartments, the hemifusome challenges decades of assumptions. 



It also invites new thinking about disease, especially conditions where cells fail to manage their waste.



Future research will focus on identifying what proteins guide hemifusome formation and how PNDs are created. 



Scientists also want to know if these structures exist in other parts of the cell, not just at the periphery. Advanced imaging tools and genetic models will be key to answering these questions.



In a field where many believed the major organelles were already mapped, the hemifusome serves as a reminder. The cell still holds secrets. And some of them could lead to cures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59887-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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New structure found inside human cells could radically change health and medicine

Cell biology is a world of constant motion and hidden...

From bright planets to a mythological bird soaring among the stars, July 2025 has an exciting show lined up in the night sky.&nbsp;



NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/skywatching/whats-up/">JPL</a>) has shared its skywatching highlights - revealing what to be on the lookout for this month, from sunset to sunrise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planets-in-motion">Planets in motion</h2>



Venus reigns in the morning sky all month, shining brightly in the east during the hours before sunrise. Look for it near the Pleiades star cluster and two brilliant stars - Aldebaran and Capella.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-lost-most-of-its-water-but-where-did-it-go/">Mars</a> is visible in the western sky shortly after sunset, glowing about 20 degrees above the horizon before it sets a couple of hours later. On July 28, it forms a striking pair with the crescent Moon.



Jupiter begins to climb into the morning sky after mid-month. Initially low on the eastern horizon, it rises higher each day, heading toward a dramatic August conjunction with Venus.



Mercury is visible only briefly - watch for it in the west during the first week of July, beginning about 30 to 45 minutes after sunset. It stays close to the horizon and sets quickly, so timing and a clear view are key.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-energy-imbalance-discovered-on-saturn/">Saturn</a> makes its entrance around midnight and climbs high in the southern sky by dawn - offering a glimpse of the planet for early risers.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/SQu8utmfOQk?si=IG-nb7ithbJF3vQD
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">What are some skywatching highlights in July 2025? Look for Mars in the evening, Venus and Jupiter in the morning, and find the eagle constellation, Aquila, soaring overhead.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-first-successful-mars-mission">The first successful Mars mission</h2>



July 2025 marks the 60th anniversary of NASA’s Mariner 4 mission, which performed the first successful Mars flyby in 1965. 



The spacecraft sent back the first close-up images of the Martian surface and revealed that the planet’s atmosphere was thin, cold, and not as Earth-like as once imagined.&nbsp;



Before Mariner 4, many scientists and the public still held out hope that Mars might resemble a second Earth - perhaps even supporting vegetation or signs of life.&nbsp;



However, the grainy black-and-white images, showing a cratered, barren landscape, were a sobering reality check that reshaped our understanding of the Red Planet.



Despite dashing earlier hopes, Mariner 4 paved the way for decades of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-collapse-why-did-mars-become-a-desert/">Mars</a> exploration. It was the first time humans had seen another planet up close. The mission proved that long-distance robotic exploration was not only possible, but essential.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spotting-aquila-in-the-july-sky">Spotting Aquila in the July sky</h2>



July is also the ideal time to view Aquila, the Eagle constellation, in the eastern sky during the first half of the night. Its brightest star, Altair, is easy to spot and forms part of the Summer Triangle, along with Vega and Deneb.



Aquila represents the eagle of Zeus in Greek mythology - a powerful messenger and symbol of divine strength. 



Altair marks the eagle’s heart, with its wings stretching wide across the night sky. To find it, look for the triangle-shaped pattern and note that Altair sits at the southern point.



While Aquila’s other stars aren’t as bright, they’re easier to trace under dark skies. The second half of July is especially good for observing this constellation, as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-earth-get-its-moon-a-new-theory-has-emerged/">Moon</a> rises later and leaves the early night sky darker.



For those in the Northern Hemisphere, Aquila is a summer favorite. Once you’ve located Altair, try to follow the eagle’s full wingspan across the sky. It appears to fly northward with its wings outstretched.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-dates-for-july-skywatching-nbsp">Key dates for July skywatching&nbsp;</h2>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>July 1–7: Mercury is bright and easy to spot in the west after sunset - if you catch it in time. It vanishes within an hour of sundown.</li>



<li>July 21–22: Look east before sunrise to see Venus and Jupiter joined by a crescent Moon, along with several bright stars.</li>



<li>July 28: In the evening sky, the Moon passes close to Mars, offering a beautiful pairing.</li>
</ul>



Whether you’re watching Mars fade into the west or spotting Venus and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-past-how-the-young-gas-giant-shaped-our-solar-system/">Jupiter</a> at dawn, July will be a rewarding month to keep an eye on the sky.&nbsp;



NASA’s monthly “What’s Up” guide helps us stay connected to the ever-changing night sky. To explore more about NASA’s space missions and skywatching tools, visit <a href="https://science.nasa.gov">science.nasa.gov</a>.



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July 2025 skywatching: Bright planets and a summer constellation 

From bright planets to a mythological bird soaring among the...

Farming in ways that support nature can pay off - not just for the environment, but for crops too. That’s the takeaway from a new study that tested how different methods of agroecological farming perform on real working farms in England. 



The study showed that adding simple nature-friendly features like wildflower margins and organic matter improved biodiversity and led to stronger crop performance.



But there’s a catch: to make these methods financially viable on a large scale, many farmers may need more government support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-farms-real-results">Real farms, real results</h2>



The research team, based at the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/">UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology</a> and Rothamsted Research, ran a four-year study across 17 commercial farms in southern England. This was the first time anyone tested both the ecological and financial impacts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-farming-is-good-for-farmers-well-being/">agroecological</a> practices at this scale in the UK.



The researchers didn’t just run lab trials. The researchers partnered directly with farmers to design and carry out real-world experiments, testing three types of farming systems side by side.



The first was a business-as-usual approach, using standard intensive methods without any nature-friendly additions. 



The second, called the enhanced ecological system, introduced wildflower field margins to support pollinators and other beneficial insects, along with overwinter cover crops to protect and enrich the soil. 



The third was the maximized ecological system, which built on the enhanced version by adding wildflower strips within the fields - essentially creating insect “runways” - and using farmyard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beer-byproducts-and-manure-used-to-increase-crop-yields/">manure</a> to improve soil health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-bugs-better-soil-higher-yields">More bugs, better soil, higher yields</h2>



The results were clear. The farms that adopted enhanced or maximized ecological methods saw an increase in beneficial species. 



Earthworms, bees, hoverflies, ladybirds, spiders, and lacewings were all more abundant. These helped reduce crop pests like aphids and snails.



That’s not all. The flowering crops - like oilseed rape - produced more seeds thanks to better pollination. The soils held more carbon. And overall, the yields went up.



Even with a little land taken out of production to make room for habitats, the gains in crop health and pollination made a difference. The enhanced ecological system was just as profitable as conventional farming - but only because of current government subsidies.



The maximized system delivered even stronger environmental and yield benefits. But it was more expensive to implement. 



Without more support, most farms would not find it financially competitive. Some farms, especially mixed ones that already have manure on hand, might fare better. But others would struggle without extra help.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-profit-meets-sustainability">Profit meets sustainability</h2>



Dr. Ben Woodcock, one of the study’s lead scientists from the UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology, elaborated on the research.



“Without the introduction of new financial incentives, many farmers will be deterred from adopting agroecological farming practices and systems. This could leave them locked into high input, intensive farming systems and more exposed to the impacts of pesticide resistance, declining soil health and climate change."



According to Dr. Woodcock, while farmers run businesses that need to be profitable, there is an increasing awareness that more sustainable systems can help "future-proof" their farms in terms of soil health, less reliance on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-attack-bees-in-multiple-ways-throughout-the-body/">pesticides</a> and climate change.



“Agroecological methods are good for biodiversity, food security, and, in the long-term, provide more secure farm incomes but habitats can take several years to establish, so agri-environment subsidies are essential to helping farmers transition to these more sustainable systems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-support-for-greener-farming">Support for greener farming</h2>



The researchers believe that showcasing these successful results could help convince more farmers to make the switch. It’s about breaking the cycle of intensive practices that keep farms dependent on chemical inputs and vulnerable to environmental changes.



Professor Jonathan Storkey, an ecologist at Rothamsted Research, said the study confirmed that managing land on farms for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farming-for-wildlife-how-traditional-practices-can-protect-nature/">wildlife</a> is not in direct conflict with food security but can support sustainable production by increasing yields and reducing pest pressure. 



"These ‘ecosystem services’ could potentially substitute for chemical fertilizers and pesticides which negatively impact the environment," said Professor Storkey. 



“However, our analysis has shown that realizing these benefits will require additional support for farm businesses that currently operate on very narrow profit margins. As input costs increase, however, these agroecological approaches may become more attractive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-training-makes-a-difference">Training makes a difference</h2>



The quality of nature-friendly measures also depends on how well they’re implemented, and training helps.



Earlier research from the UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology showed that when farmers receive proper guidance on creating and managing wildlife habitats, those habitats do a much better job of supporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-pollinators-boost-the-nutritional-value-of-crops/">pollinators</a> and pest-controlling insects.



Field margins and wildflower strips may seem like simple changes, but getting them right requires different thinking than managing crops. The better these habitats are planned and maintained, the more they deliver.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-green-nationwide">Growing green, nationwide</h2>



Nature-friendly farming isn’t just about doing good for the environment - it can also help farms thrive. But making the switch isn’t free, and for many farmers, the numbers have to work. 



That’s where targeted subsidies and support come in. The research shows what’s possible. Now, the question is how to make it doable for more farms across the country.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.70079">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



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Eco-friendly farms can succeed - but they need support

Farming in ways that support nature can pay off -...

Music can make a sleepy train ride feel romantic or turn a routine workout into an emotional burst of energy. 



Scientists have long wondered how a string of notes pushes the brain from one emotional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-doesnt-just-hear-music-it-becomes-the-rhythm/">feeling</a> to the next, and why the experience changes when the previous feeling was different. <a href="https://psychology.columbia.edu/content/matthew-sachs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matthew Sachs</a> of Columbia University and colleagues set out to <a href="https://www.eneuro.org/content/early/2025/06/19/ENEURO.0184-24.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">answer</a> that puzzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wordless-path-to-emotion">A wordless path to emotion</h2>



Music reliably raises specific <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32898679/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotions</a> across cultures, making it a useful tool for lab work. Because melodies lack words, researchers can study pure feeling without the baggage of stories or language.



In recent <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1910704117" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surveys</a>, listeners reported at least thirteen distinct emotional colors from songs, ranging from awe to tenderness. Those varied reactions let scientists choreograph controlled “emotional journeys” by arranging passages that lean happy, tense, calm, or sad.



The brain also treats music as a social signal, recruiting regions tied to empathy and perspective‑taking. That overlap makes findings with music relevant to understanding everyday interactions. 



Music’s precise timing helps investigators lock brain activity to exact seconds in a tune. Such temporal precision is important when studying transitions, which can unfold in a blink.



Finally, unlike pictures or movies, songs can be replayed in multiple orders without breaking logic. That flexibility allowed the team to test how a given passage feels when it follows joy versus when it follows anxiety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-changes-emotion-fast">Music changes emotion fast</h2>



Sachs’s group asked professional composers to craft two fifteen‑minute pieces split into thirty‑two “emotion events,” each one lasting about 30‑70 seconds. The passages covered calm, joy, sadness, anxiety, and a mixed nostalgic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/live-music-connects-people-emotionally-and-physically/">feeling</a>.



Two versions of each piece shuffled the same events so that a joyful segment might follow calm in one version but chase sadness in the other. 



This context swap let the researchers isolate the effect of prior mood. Thirty‑nine volunteers lay in an <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/25034-functional-mri-fmri" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fMRI scanner</a>, a technique that tracks blood flow as a stand‑in for neural activity. The scanner’s pulses were timed to the beat so listeners heard smooth audio through special headphones.



After scanning, the volunteers replayed short clips of music online and rated how strongly each clip made them feel the target emotion. Those ratings confirmed that the music hit its emotional marks at the intended moments.



To align brains that never look identical, the team used a <a href="https://web.stanford.edu/~jurafsky/slp3/A.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hidden Markov model</a>, a statistical tool that spots stable patterns and the moments they shift. The model does not assume equal event lengths, matching how real feelings vary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-mapped-onto-brain-activity">Music mapped onto brain activity</h2>



Activity patterns in auditory cortex and the adjoining superior temporal gyrus stayed steady within an event but flipped sharply at composer‑defined boundaries. Those flips still appeared after factoring out pitch, volume, and harmony, meaning the brain was tracking emotion rather than mere <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-and-repeated-sounds-reorganize-your-brain-networks-in-real-time/">acoustics</a>.



The same temporal‑parietal strip has been linked to social meaning in speech and laughter. Current <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627317305937" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">findings</a> add music‑evoked emotion dynamics to its résumé. 



Elsewhere, frontal regions associated with self‑reflection lit up when feelings changed. That response supports prior work showing prefrontal roles in labeling and regulating emotion.



Importantly, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2768874/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">subcortical reward hubs</a> showed general arousal but did not map fine‑grained transitions. Those areas may mark intensity rather than shifts in category. 



Together the data sketch a layered system: auditory regions sense change, temporal‑parietal regions label the new state, and frontal areas integrate the experience. That hierarchy resembles proposed models for narrative comprehension.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-emotions-change-how-you-hear-music">Past emotions change how you hear music</h2>



When a happy passage followed another positive passage, listeners’ brains switched to the new state about six seconds sooner than when the same passage followed a tense one. The volunteers also pressed the “happy” button nine seconds earlier in the same‑valence condition.



Context even changed the spatial pattern of activity during an event. Pairs of participants who heard a clip in the same order showed more similar neural signatures than pairs who heard it in opposite orders.



Such carry‑over echoes psychological <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31628982/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">findings</a> that earlier feelings bias how we perceive later stimuli. The study quantifies that bias down to single‑second resolution. 



Researchers call the stickiness of mood <a href="https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/10.1027/0269-8803.23.1.7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">valence</a> persistence, and extreme persistence can tip into emotional rigidity. Depression is often marked by this rigidity, trapping individuals in negative states.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treating-emotion-with-playlists">Treating emotion with playlists</h2>



“We know that people who suffer from mood disorders or depression often demonstrate emotional rigidity, where they basically get stuck in an emotional state" said Sachs. 



"Maybe we could take someone with depression, for instance, and use the approach we developed to identify neural markers for the emotional rigidity that keeps them in a very negative state.”



His comment matches growing interest in music‑based interventions. Unlike medications, playlists can be tailored rapidly and have few side effects. 



If clinicians can spot delayed transition signatures in vulnerable patients, they might train quicker shifts through neurofeedback. Past <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19646532/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> shows that people can learn to nudge targeted brain regions with real‑time feedback.



Therapists already use mood‑tracking apps; adding objective brain markers could improve accuracy. Personalized “emotion workouts” might teach flexible switching, similar to cognitive training for attention.



 Beyond clinics, the findings could improve soundtracks in virtual reality or adaptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-games-can-rewind-the-clock-on-cognitive-performance/">games</a>. Systems might adjust musical cues to help users linger in, or exit from, certain feelings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-science-hasn-t-tested-yet">What science hasn’t tested yet</h2>



The study focused on adults in a scanner; children, musicians, or people with disorders may show different timelines. Future projects could compare those groups directly.&nbsp;



Only five emotion labels were used. Real life holds many blended states such as awe or envy that might map differently. Subcortical areas did not show clear transition patterns here, but that may reflect scanner noise or event length.&nbsp;



Higher‑resolution recordings could reveal subtler dynamics. Music is just one trigger; spoken stories, movement, or smell might drive other networks. 



Combining modalities could pinpoint common versus unique pathways. Finally, the team manipulated valence but not arousal. Experiments that cross calm‑excited levels might tease apart the role of energy versus positivity.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.eneuro.org/content/early/2025/06/19/ENEURO.0184-24.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eNeuro</a>.



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Music rewires the brain to quickly navigate emotion

Music can make a sleepy train ride feel romantic or...

Far below the ocean’s surface, the Great Barrier Reef hums with life. It is not just about colorful fish or vibrant corals. Something else is happening that we cannot see.



Tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/">coral</a> larvae drift in the currents, carried away from their parents. Some travel far and some barely move at all. Where these larvae end up can decide the fate of entire reefs.



Now, scientists from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> have unlocked a key mystery. Their new study shows how far these baby corals can go. The research also reveals why this matters more than we ever realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-coral-babies-survive">Why some coral babies survive</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-temperature-swings-boost-coral-reef-resilience/">Corals</a> are under pressure. Heatwaves damage them. Storms cause destruction. Oceans keep getting more acidic. Each year, the risk becomes worse. But not all corals are affected equally. PhD candidate Zoe Meziere explained why some reefs survive better than others.



“Quantifying genetic connectivity can predict the fate of populations as more isolated reefs with lower levels of genetic variation are likely more vulnerable,” said Meziere.



When coral species spread their larvae far, they swap genetic material with distant reefs. This boosts their ability to adapt and recover. Corals that keep their offspring close face greater risks. They may struggle to bounce back after disasters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-species-take-different-paths">Coral species take different paths</h2>



Meziere and her team searched for answers. They focused on two coral species found across the Great Barrier Reef, Stylophora pistillata and Pocillopora verrucosa.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-reveal-how-humans-completely-changed-caribbean-reef-ecosystems/">species</a> live near each other, but their ways of reproducing could not be more different. Stylophora pistillata plays it safe. It fertilizes its eggs internally. Its larvae do not venture far. Most settle nearby, just meters from their parent colony.



Pocillopora verrucosa does the opposite. It releases eggs and sperm into the sea. Currents carry its larvae far from home.



The results surprised the researchers. Stylophora pistillata larvae traveled only 23 to 102 meters. Pocillopora verrucosa larvae journeyed as far as 52 kilometers.



Professor Cynthia Riginos noted that this is the first study to quantify how connected different coral populations are across the seascape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-journey-of-baby-corals-matters">Why the journey of baby corals matters</h2>



The story does not stop with distance. These differences shape the future of coral populations.



Stylophora pistillata stays close to home. It forms small, tight populations. Over time, these groups grow isolated. They lose genetic diversity. That leaves them vulnerable. Pocillopora verrucosa travels widely. It links distant populations. This mixing keeps its populations strong and diverse.



“Over time, these differences have profound evolutionary impacts with S. pistillata populations being more genetically distinctive with much lower genetic diversity and smaller population sizes than the more widely dispersing P. verrucosa,” explained Professor Riginos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-baby-corals-travel">Where baby corals travel</h2>



The research team did not stop after measuring dispersal. They looked deeper into the genetic maps.



Stylophora pistillata stayed loyal to its local area. Its genetic patterns showed clear boundaries between reefs. Neighboring reefs looked genetically distinct. 



Pocillopora verrucosa showed no such boundaries. Its populations mixed freely throughout the reef. From one end to another, its genetics stayed consistent.



S. pistillata’s world spanned just a few hundred meters, while P. verrucosa’s world stretched across tens of kilometers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-survival-and-recovery">Coral survival and recovery</h2>



Distance is only part of the story. Gene flow also plays a big role. S. pistillata had weak gene flow. Its reefs relied mostly on themselves. This isolation put them at risk. One disaster could wipe out an entire population with no outside help.



P. verrucosa showed strong gene flow, as distant reefs shared genes often. This flow allowed for faster recovery after disasters.



This means that Pocillopora verrucosa can bounce back after bleaching far more quickly than Stylophora pistillata.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-coral-babies-stay-stronger">Some coral babies stay stronger</h2>



Genetic diversity matters for survival. The researchers found striking differences here too.



Stylophora pistillata had low genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-coral-collapse-may-help-save-the-great-barrier-reef/">diversity</a>. Its diversity also varied wildly between reefs. The lowest levels appeared in southern parts of the Great Barrier Reef.



Pocillopora verrucosa held onto high diversity. Its genetic richness stayed stable across all reefs. S. pistillata lives in a fragile world, and P. verrucosa thrives in a far more connected one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-conservation-for-corals">Smarter conservation for corals</h2>



The research offers a clear message for coral conservation efforts. Stylophora pistillata needs focused, local protection. Efforts must center on preserving nearby populations. Without these, this species faces collapse.



Pocillopora verrucosa calls for a broader approach. Large-scale conservation networks can help maintain its natural strength.



"Dispersal and connectivity are important drivers of coral adaptation, and being able to adapt is key to having healthy coral reefs in the future,” said Meziere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approach-to-reef-restoration">New approach to reef restoration</h2>



Coral restoration should not follow a one-size-fits-all model. Stylophora pistillata may benefit from assisted migration. Moving larvae or adult corals from healthy reefs to damaged ones could restore genetic diversity. 



However, such moves must be done carefully. Forcing new genes into a delicate reef might cause new problems.



Pocillopora verrucosa already benefits from strong natural connections. Protecting these migration routes may be enough.



Each coral species has its own needs. These needs are not the same. Conservation efforts should focus on these differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-for-coral-conservation">New insights for coral conservation </h2>



Coral reefs have an uncertain future. Their survival depends on how well we understand and protect the hidden connections between them.



The study, funded by the Australian Government’s Reef Trust and the Great Barrier Reef Foundation, brings new insights to reef science.



The research makes one thing clear: not all corals are the same. Some need protection close to home, while others depend on far-reaching connections. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt2066" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Reef survival may depend on how far baby corals travel

Far below the ocean’s surface, the Great Barrier Reef hums...

Plants turn air into leaves, roots, and fruit, yet every molecule of the carbon they store has to squeeze through microscopic pores first. These pores, called stomata, dot the surface of nearly every leaf and set the pace for both growth and water loss.



The latest study from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> shows that each new stoma is the product of a lively conversation among neighboring cells and a hard look in the mirror. 



Dominique Bergmann and her team traced those talks in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/35048692" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis</a> (Arabidopsis thaliana), the small mustard plant whose genome was first decoded in 2000.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-form-and-adjust-pores">How plants form and adjust pores</h2>



Stomata behave like adjustable valves, opening when light and water are plentiful and closing when drought or darkness loom. Their numbers are not fixed; plants can make more or fewer during development, tweaking their gas exchange to match the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/">environment</a>.



For that plasticity to work, precursor cells must decide whether to divide again or settle down as part of the pavement around a stoma. 



The new research focuses on these larger daughters, called stomatal lineage ground cells, which had been thought to be passive passengers in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-sugar-in-ways-we-never-imagined/">leaf</a> development.



The Stanford team captured day‑long movies of living leaves and tracked every fate choice. They discovered that the future of each cell depends on its own size and on the crowd of neighbors encircling it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-use-nearby-cells-to-control-pores">Plants use nearby cells to control pores</h2>



Signals drift through the leaf in the form of tiny peptides such as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20010603/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epidermal patterning factor 1</a> (EPF1) and its sibling EPF2, which tell nearby cells to slow down or stop forming new stomata. 



Because these messages travel only a short distance, the number of stomatal precursors touching a cell sets the strength of the “slow down” order.



Cells bordered by two or more precursors received a louder signal and dismantled an internal protein called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982218302392" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SPEECHLESS</a> before it could trigger another split. Those with just one signaling neighbor heard only a whisper and often went on to divide again.



The researchers measured how fast SPEECHLESS disappeared and found that the rate jumped with every extra neighbor. By evening, many well‑connected cells had emptied their nuclei of the division‑promoting factor and settled into a quiet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">life</a> as pavement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-cell-size">The role of cell size </h2>



Size turned out to be the second half of the script. When two sister cells emerged from a split, one was noticeably larger and carried a larger nucleus.



Bigger nuclei diluted the amount of SPEECHLESS even before degradation kicked in, pushing the concentration below the threshold needed to spark another round of division. Smaller sisters packed the protein more tightly and were free to keep the lineage going.



To confirm the link, the team boosted SPEECHLESS levels across the board. Large cells that normally would have retired instead re‑entered the cell cycle, proving that concentration, not mere presence, calls the shots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-use-internal-guides-to-shape-pores">Plants use internal guides to shape pores</h2>



“Compasses have dual roles,” said Bergmann. The study builds on earlier work showing that internal “compasses” guide each split so that one daughter remains small and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">stem</a>‑like while the other grows large.&nbsp;



Bergmann explained that the same molecular north arrow orients the division plane and then reorganizes the contents of the newborn cells to cement their different futures. 



Computational models confirmed that size, neighbor count, and SPEECHLESS levels together predict a cell’s fate better than any factor alone.



Warm nights add another twist: higher temperatures activate a photoreceptor called PIF4 that limits SPEECHLESS production, cutting back the formation of new stomata. 



The Stanford data suggest that heat might tilt the balance further by shrinking protein levels just enough to keep big cells out of the cell cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-crops-and-farming">Improving crops and farming</h2>



Why should anyone without a microscope care how many times a leaf cell divides? Because every stoma trades water for carbon, the final stomatal count shapes a crop’s thirst and yield.



Breeders are already lowering <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37923396/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stomatal density</a> in wheat, barley, and rice to save water without hurting photosynthesis. Knowing that cell size and neighbor signals tune those numbers could make such tweaks more precise and less likely to backfire.



The work also hints at strategies for future‑proofing plants against heat waves. If larger precursor cells naturally avoid dividing under high temperature, selecting varieties with slightly bigger epidermal cells could be a subtle way to reduce water loss.



There is an evolutionary angle as well. Fossil leaves show that ancient plants reduced their stomatal density when atmospheric CO₂ climbed, mirroring the choices Bergmann’s cells make on a microscopic scale.



Understanding the cell‑level logic may help scientists read the rock record more accurately and model how modern forests will respond to rising greenhouse gases. It could even inform designs for synthetic leaves or bio‑inspired materials that need self‑regulating pores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-on-plants-and-their-pores">Research on plants and their pores</h2>



The Bergmann lab now wants to trace the still‑mysterious signals that link cell size to peptide output. They suspect a size‑sensing pathway unrelated to SPEECHLESS that may give big cells an extra nudge toward differentiation.



If that circuit can be mapped, it might be possible to rewire it, allowing crops to adjust their stomata on demand without penalties in growth. Such control would be a powerful tool in regions where water scarcity and heat routinely threaten harvests.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57730-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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How plants decide where to put their breathing pores

Plants turn air into leaves, roots, and fruit, yet every...

Everyday life is filled with conveniences that many people take for granted. Stain-resistant fabrics, non-stick cookware, and water-repellent items are all around. These products owe their useful properties to a group of synthetic chemicals called per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, known as PFAS.



While these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-that-eat-forever-chemicals-discovered-in-contaminated-soil/">chemicals</a> make modern life easier, they carry a hidden cost. PFAS are often called “forever chemicals” because they do not break down naturally in the environment. 



Once released, they linger in soil, water, and living organisms. Scientists have been studying their effects on human health for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemicals-and-the-male-brain">Chemicals and the male brain</h2>



One particular chemical, perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), has recently gained attention. Many believed PFHxA, due to its shorter chemical chain, was safer than other PFAS. 



However, new research from the Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience at the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/?gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=22012609168&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw1JjDBhDjARIsABlM2StGMBIvmL07X0Z3q-t_9jIUIEPpx5WqGCxapBXIVnzuDwbDzEdilhUaAiDXEALw_wcB">University of Rochester</a> presents a different story.



In the latest study, scientists uncovered that early life <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-offer-new-hope-against-forever-chemicals/">exposure</a> to PFHxA may trigger anxiety-related behaviors and memory issues in male mice.



“Although these effects were mild, finding behavioral effects only in males was reminiscent of the many neurodevelopmental disorders that are male-biased,” said Ania Majewska, PhD, professor of Neuroscience and senior author of the study.



The researchers noted that males are more frequently diagnosed with disorders such as autism and ADHD. “This finding suggests that the male brain might be more vulnerable to environmental insults during neurodevelopment,” Majewska added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-exposure-and-brain-development">Chemical exposure and brain development </h2>



The research team exposed pregnant and nursing mice to PFHxA through mealworm treats. The chemical affected their offspring, particularly the brains of male mice.



The male offspring who received higher doses showed several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-threaten-arctic-wildlife-and-human-health/">changes</a>. These included reduced activity, increased anxiety-like behavior, and memory problems. Interestingly, female mice exposed similarly showed no such changes.



“Finding that developmental exposure to PFHxA has long-term behavioral consequences in a mammalian model is concerning when considering short-chain PFAS are thought to be safer alternatives to the legacy PFAS that have been phased-out of production,” said Elizabeth Plunk, first author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-effects-of-pfhxa-exposure">Long-term effects of PFHxA exposure</h2>



The team monitored the mice into adulthood. They discovered that male mice exposed to PFHxA retained behavioral changes well beyond their early life stages.



“This work points to the need for more research in short-chain PFAS. To our knowledge, PFHxA has not been evaluated for developmental neurobehavioral toxicity in a rodent model,” said Majewska.



“Future studies should evaluate the cellular and molecular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-strain-identified-that-can-eat-forever-chemicals/">effects</a> of PFHxA, including cell-type specific effects, in regions associated with motor, emotional/fear, and memory domains to elucidate mechanistic underpinnings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regulatory-actions-and-concerns">Regulatory actions and concerns</h2>



PFHxA’s shorter chain did not prevent it from persisting in water. The European Union restricted its use in 2024, following earlier restrictions on longer chain PFAS. 



Scientists remain concerned because PFHxA can easily spread through water systems, posing a threat to ecosystems and drinking water supplies.



In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency recently set a national drinking water standard for PFAS. This action aims to reduce exposure for millions of people and prevent potential long-term health risks.



PFAS chemicals are found in food, water, animals, and humans. They resist stains, oil, and water but are linked to various health issues, including developmental problems in babies, certain cancers, immune system disruption, and hormonal imbalances. 



The ability of forever chemicals to build up in the body makes their health effects difficult to avoid over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



The findings highlight the importance of examining chemicals considered “safe.” They reveal that even short-chain PFAS like PFHxA may pose hidden risks, especially to the developing brain.



According to the study authors, further research is needed. "These preliminary findings indicate that PFHxA exposure may cause long-lasting changes in many behavioral domains in a mammalian model, and more research is needed to expand these evaluations to other cognitive domains," they wrote.



The research received funding from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institutes of Health</a>, the&nbsp;University of Rochester I<a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/del-monte-neuroscience/idd-research-center" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ntellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center</a>, and the&nbsp;University of Rochester <a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/environmental-health-sciences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Health Sciences Center</a>.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ejn.70174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Journal of Neuroscience</a>. 



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'Safe' forever chemicals may impair brain development

Everyday life is filled with conveniences that many people take...

A new executive order aimed at deregulating the U.S. seafood industry is raising red flags among scientists and policy experts. While the order claims to boost competitiveness and cut red tape, critics warn it could do more harm than good - weakening the very systems that protect seafood sustainability.



Scientists from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> and the University of Washington outlined their concerns in a recent paper. They argue that the executive order misses the mark, prioritizing short-term gains over long-term stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-seafood-deregulation-order">Inside the seafood deregulation order</h2>



Signed in April 2025, the order - titled “Restoring American Seafood Competitiveness” - claims that U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-seafood-industry-has-been-hit-hard-by-the-covid-19-pandemic/">seafood markets</a> are held back by overregulation and unfair trade practices. It calls for reducing regulatory burdens, eliminating unsafe imports, and strengthening the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafood-spoilage-hidden-dangers-in-the-cold-chain/">seafood supply chain</a>.



However, the researchers say the plan is moving too fast and with too little support. They describe it as a policy that risks unraveling decades of scientific progress.



“(It’s) a significant escalation in undoing federal regulatory frameworks, weakening scientific authority and deemphasizing aquaculture development,” said Halley Froehlich of UC Santa Barbara and Jessica Gephart of the University of Washington.



“Instead of reform, it’s dismantling regulations in a very short amount of time,” added Froehlich, the paper’s lead author.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-noaa-s-role-under-threat">NOAA’s role under threat</h2>



The scientists point to cuts to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) as a major concern. NOAA oversees roughly 500 commercial fishery stocks in the U.S. It plays a key role in managing, monitoring, and protecting marine resources.



Under the new directive, NOAA faces budget cuts, staff reductions, and tighter controls on communication. That’s a serious blow to its ability to coordinate sustainable fishing, especially across regions where fish migrate between countries.



“It’s quite problematic because NOAA is so central to how we manage our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/">fisheries</a>,” Froehlich said. “Data collection, monitoring, oversight, you name it, NOAA is part of that, and a really important part.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-plan-ignores-the-ocean-s-limits">The plan ignores the ocean’s limits</h2>



The executive order is supposed to help boost domestic seafood production. But the researchers argue that the ocean has limits - and we’re already close to reaching them.



“We are not going to get more out of the ocean,” Froehlich said. “We’re already near ‘peak fish,’ meaning maintenance and recovery of our stocks.”



Wild fisheries - both in the U.S. and globally - are already producing at or near their maximum sustainable levels. That leaves <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aquaculture-now-produces-more-food-than-wild-fishing/">aquaculture</a> as the only real path for growth. 



However, the new order gives little attention to farmed seafood and offers even less support to the agencies that regulate it. The scientists call it a mismatch between promises and practical outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cutting-data-cutting-capacity">Cutting data, cutting capacity</h2>



One of the most troubling issues is the potential loss of data. The researchers warn that NOAA’s online databases, climate research, and monitoring tools may be defunded or decommissioned.



Without this data, managing fisheries becomes guesswork. It also makes it harder to prepare for climate-driven shifts in marine ecosystems.



“Without the data, expertise and capacity to study and understand these systems we run the risk of fishery collapses becoming more common and long-lasting,” the authors wrote.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trade-conflicts-and-mismatched-markets">Trade conflicts and mismatched markets</h2>



The executive order also makes assumptions about seafood markets that don’t align with reality. 



Much of the seafood farmed in the U.S. isn’t what consumers demand most. And a large portion of seafood caught in U.S. waters is processed overseas before being sold back into the domestic market.



If tariffs are imposed on imported or foreign-processed seafood, prices for high-demand products like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-crisis-alarming-virus-threatens-global-seafood-supplies/">shrimp</a> could rise sharply. Right now, only about 10% of shrimp eaten in the U.S. comes from domestic sources.



“In disrupting the market dynamics we do have, especially with trade wars with our trading partners, it’s likely that we’re going to have the opposite effect of creating opportunity long-term,” Froehlich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-alternative-to-seafood-deregulation">An alternative to seafood deregulation </h2>



The paper was submitted as evidence in a recent hearing by the House Natural Resources Committee’s Water, Wildlife and Fisheries Subcommittee. The scientists hope their findings will influence how Congress approaches <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafood-will-help-feed-earths-future-population-of-10-billion/">seafood policy</a> moving forward.



“When it comes to any shifts in production, these high levels of uncertainty are not a beneficial thing to happen for the sector,” Froehlich said.



While deregulation may sound appealing to some, the authors argue that a stable, well-regulated system - backed by science and data - is what actually keeps seafood both sustainable and competitive. In their view, cutting corners now could cost the industry far more in the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X25002106">Marine Policy</a>.



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Why seafood deregulation may hurt more than help

A new executive order aimed at deregulating the U.S. seafood...

Most people assume they know what to expect from alcohol: drink enough, and your judgment gets fuzzy. But what if alcohol doesn’t affect everyone the same way?



A recent study from The University of Texas at El Paso (<a href="https://www.utep.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UTEP</a>) suggests that gender shapes how alcohol steers choices.



A research team led by Dr. Alexander Friedman set out to answer a simple but deep question. Does <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cure-for-alcohol-addiction-was-discovered-by-accident/">alcohol</a> sway decision making differently in males and females? Turns out, it does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-and-drink-selection">Alcohol and drink selection</h2>



Rats may not attend cocktail parties. Still, they make decisions just like humans do. Especially when rewards are involved.



Friedman’s team designed a clever experiment. They built the REward COst in Rodent Decision making system (RECORD). It is a special arena where rats pick drinks. 



At first, no alcohol was involved. The rats simply chose between drinks with different levels of sweetness. The researchers recorded their sober preferences.



But then came the twist. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-americans-now-link-alcohol-consumption-to-cancer/">Alcohol</a> entered the mix. The drinks now had different alcohol levels. They mimicked sweet cocktails people often enjoy.



Suddenly, male rats started to act differently. They chased stronger alcohol drinks. This happened even though they had earlier preferred sweeter options. Some males kept chasing those strong drinks for up to two months after the experiment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-females-stayed-the-course">Females stayed the course </h2>



Females, however, did not flinch. Despite drinking more alcohol per body weight, female rats stuck with their original choices. They were not tempted by the stronger stuff.



“Our findings demonstrate that acute alcohol consumption profoundly affects male rats’ decision making, suggesting a gender specific vulnerability to alcohol’s effects,” said Friedman. 



“In particular, this study is interesting because it helps us understand the neuronal underpinnings of decision making and how an alcohol induced state can bias our choices.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-affects-our-decisions">Alcohol affects our decisions</h2>



This study is not just about rats moving through a lab arena. Friedman believes these findings go far beyond laboratory walls. He thinks humans might show similar behavior patterns.



Alcohol plays a big part in many situations where decisions matter. People <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-alcohol-in-moderation-does-not-prolong-life/">drink</a> at business meetings. They drink during family gatherings, and also drink at social events where important choices often happen. 



This research brings up a serious question. Could alcohol push men and women toward different decisions after drinking?



Friedman pointed out that alcohol at work events or social gatherings might cause men to act differently. He believes men could make choices under the influence that they would likely avoid if they were sober. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-nudge-toward-new-solutions">A nudge toward new solutions</h2>



Dr. Robert Kirken, dean of UTEP’s College of Science, feels happy about this work. “We’re incredibly proud of Dr. Friedman and his team for advancing our understanding of how alcohol impacts decision making,” said Kirken.



“This work has the potential to inform more targeted approaches to addressing substance use and its consequences, and it exemplifies the kind of meaningful, translational science we strive to support.”



The study might lead to better treatments for alcohol related problems. Friedman thinks knowing these gender based effects could change how experts treat alcohol <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-small-amounts-of-alcohol-increase-cancer-risk/">misuse</a>. Treatments could get smarter and more personalized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-alcohol-and-decision-making">Understanding alcohol and decision-making</h2>



The research opens the door to a completely new way of thinking about alcohol and its effects on decision making. 



The results suggest that alcohol does not simply blur choices in the same way for everyone. Instead, its impact appears to depend on deeper factors such as gender and brain biology.



Now, with this foundation in place, scientists have a chance to explore this subject even further. They can study the links between alcohol, brain circuits, and gender-specific behaviors in more detail. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-effects-of-alcohol">The hidden effects of alcohol</h2>



The findings might reveal surprising connections that could change how we understand alcohol’s role in human behavior. Looking ahead, there is hope that doctors and health professionals will one day use this knowledge to help people navigate alcohol’s hidden effects. 



Treatments and advice could become more personal, focusing on how alcohol affects different individuals instead of applying a one-size-fits-all approach. 



For now, one fact stands out clearly. Alcohol does not guide every person down the same path.



The project received strong backing from major institutions, including the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/alcalc/article-abstract/60/3/agaf017/8113315?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alcohol and Alcoholism</a>.



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Drunk decisions: Alcohol affects men and women differently

Most people assume they know what to expect from alcohol:...

Some of the biggest questions in planetary science are written across the dusty surface of Mars. Why did a planet that once had flowing rivers and lakes end up as a frozen desert? How did Mars lose its grip on liquid water - and what does that say about a planet’s ability to stay habitable? 



A new study may bring us closer to an answer. Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en">University of Chicago</a> have proposed a new model that explains why Mars couldn’t hold on to its early climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-mars-climate">The mystery of Mars' climate</h2>



The team suggests that Mars had short bursts of warmth triggered by gradual changes in sunlight. But each time conditions improved, the planet pushed itself right back into a deep freeze. That’s very different from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-has-a-stabilizing-mechanism-that-keeps-it-habitable/">Earth</a>, which has stayed habitable for billions of years.



“For years, we’ve had this huge unanswered question for why Earth has managed to keep its habitability while Mars lost it,” said Edwin Kite, a participating scientist on NASA’s Curiosity rover and associate professor at the University of Chicago. 



“Our models suggest that periods of habitability on Mars have been the exception, rather than the rule, and that Mars generally self-regulates as a desert planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-case-of-the-missing-carbon">The case of the missing carbon</h2>



Curiosity’s recent discovery of carbonate-rich rocks on Mars helped make this new theory possible. These minerals were the missing link in a puzzle scientists have been trying to solve for years. 



If Mars once had a thick, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-mars-missing-atmosphere-hiding-in-plain-sight/">carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere</a> - enough to warm the planet and allow water to flow - where did all that carbon go? “People have been looking for a tomb for the atmosphere for years,” Kite said.



Scientists had suspected that, like Earth, Mars might lock away carbon dioxide in its rocks through chemical reactions with water. But early tests by Mars rovers failed to find those carbonate deposits. 



That changed when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-finds-sulfur-crystals-martian-rock-hints-at-possible-life/">Curiosity</a> reached higher elevations on Mt. Sharp and finally hit the carbonate-rich layers they’d been hoping to find.



“It really is something you cannot know until you have a rover on the surface,” said study co-author Benjamin Tutolo, a professor at the University of Calgary. 



“The chemistry and mineralogy measurements they provide really are essential in our continuing quest to understand how and why planets stay habitable, in order to search for other hospitable worlds out in the universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-climate-cycle-worked-against-life">Mars' climate cycle worked against life</h2>



Mars and Earth started out with a lot in common. Both are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-planets-a-new-target-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/">rocky planets</a>. Both have water and carbon. Both are at a decent distance from the Sun. Yet only one has remained friendly to life.



The new study explains how small differences added up over time. Earth has a built-in thermostat: carbon cycles from the atmosphere into rocks and back again through volcanic activity. 



When Earth heats up, reactions pull carbon dioxide out of the air, cooling things down. Then volcanoes push it back out again, preventing a deep freeze. On Mars, that cycle doesn’t work the same way.



“In contrast to Earth, where there are always some volcanoes erupting, Mars right now is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-volcano-arsia-mons-captured-with-its-head-above-the-clouds-in-sunrise-photo/">volcanically dormant</a>, and the average rate of volcanic outgassing on Mars is slow,” Kite said. 



“So in that situation, you don't really have a balance between carbon dioxide in and carbon dioxide out, because if you have even a little bit of liquid water, you're going to draw down carbon dioxide through carbonate formation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-carbon-in-mars-climate">The role of carbon in Mars' climate </h2>



The carbon imbalance means any brief warming on Mars - such as from a slowly brightening sun - triggers its own undoing. Water reappears. It helps form carbonates. That pulls carbon out of the air. Then the greenhouse effect fades, and Mars cools off again.



The models show Mars could have had warm, wet periods lasting a few million years, followed by dry spells that lasted 100 million years or more. That kind of stop-start habitability, with massive gaps in between, isn’t great for sustaining life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traces-of-environmental-catastrophe">Traces of environmental catastrophe </h2>



Between Curiosity, Perseverance, and the fleet of orbiters circling the planet, we’re finally piecing together a real history of what happened to Mars' climate.



“Fortunately, Mars preserves a trace of that environmental catastrophe in the rocks on its surface,” said Kite. “And today we're in a golden age of Mars science, with two plutonium-powered rovers on the surface and an international fleet of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-insight-mro-spacecraft-teamed-up-with-ai-to-find-a-fresh-impact-crater/">spacecraft</a> in orbit that allow us to deeply explore the planet for these traces.”



The more we understand about how Mars lost its atmosphere, the more we can learn about what keeps a planet stable - and what makes it fragile.



The full study was published in the journal Nature.



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Climate collapse: Why did Mars become a desert?

Some of the biggest questions in planetary science are written...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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