For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men.



Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. 



The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys and girls start off nearly equal in math. But just four months into formal math instruction, a small gap appears - and it keeps growing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nationwide-study-tracks-the-math-gap">Nationwide study tracks the math gap</h2>



The research draws on a French government testing program that was launched in 2018. This nationwide effort tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reminiscing-can-boost-language-development-in-preschoolers/">language</a> and math skills of young students from first through sixth grade. 



Over five years and across four student cohorts, the program gave researchers an unmatched view of early math development.



At school entry, French girls scored slightly better than boys in language. Math scores, though, were essentially the same. 



"The headline conclusion is that the gender gap emerges when systematic instruction in mathematics begins," Spelke explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-gender-differences">Looking for gender differences </h2>



Spelke had already spent decades studying how young children understand numbers and shapes. Back in 2005, she wrote a major review for American Psychologist. The piece challenged the notion that boys are biologically wired for better math performance than girls.



"My argument was, 'OK, if there really were biological differences, maybe we would see them in the infancy period,'" said Spelke. 



She and her team always tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/">gender</a> in their studies, but they never found infant boys outperforming girls in math, or vice versa. Still, Spelke admitted that something could be happening later in development.



"The fact that there are no differences in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conscious-awareness-when-does-our-sense-of-purpose-emerge/">infants</a> could be because the abilities that show gender effects actually emerge during preschool," she proposed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-instruction-for-boys-and-girls">Math instruction for boys and girls</h2>



In recent years, Spelke has turned her attention to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-better-way-for-kids-to-learn-math/">children learn counting</a> and numbers in real classrooms. 



Spelke partnered with Nobel Prize-winning MIT economist Esther Duflo to advise the Delhi office of the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). The team is helping four Indian states create and test math lessons for children in preschool through first grade.



In France, she works alongside her longtime collaborator, neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene. Together, they serve on the French Ministry of Education's Scientific Council, which helped develop the EvalAide testing program. 



The idea was simple: measure where every child stands in math and language and use that data to guide better teaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-gap-emerges-in-math">Gender gap emerges in math</h2>



For this study, the team analyzed data from four full cohorts of first-graders entering school between 2018 and 2021. 



What they found was consistent: no math gap at the time of school entry, a small but significant gap favoring boys after four months, and a steadily widening gap by second, fourth, and even sixth grade.



"It was even bigger in fourth grade," Spelke said. "And in sixth grade it was bigger still."



Interestingly, the gender gap in language shrank slightly after the first few months of school and stayed relatively stable in later years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruling-out-old-explanations">Ruling out old explanations</h2>



So why does the math gap grow with time in school? The researchers ruled out several familiar theories.



"If there was really a pervasive social bias, and the parents were susceptible to it, we would expect boys to be more oriented toward spatial and numerical tasks when they first got to school," said Spelke.



But that didn’t happen. At school entry, there was no math gap. This points away from both biological and early social bias explanations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-experiment-during-the-pandemic">An experiment during the pandemic </h2>



The EvalAide dataset offered other insights. French first-graders can be nearly a year apart in age, depending on when their birthday falls. 



The team wondered if the older students were skewing results. They weren’t. The widening gender gap aligned more closely with time spent in school than with age.



Then came an unusual variable: COVID-19. The 2019 cohort missed the final 2.5 months of first grade due to lockdowns. That gap year created a natural experiment.



"With less time in school, the amount of the gender gap grew by less than it did in the other years where there wasn't a long school closure," said Spelke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-math-gender-gap">Confirming the math gender gap</h2>



The cohort also began school just after a national education crisis. In early 2019, French students had scored <a href="https://www.polytechnique-insights.com/en/braincamps/society/how-to-improve-the-relationship-between-education-and-employment/maths-an-essential-subject-whose-level-is-falling-in-a-majority-of-countries/#:~:text=In%202003%2C%2015%25%20of%20French,European%20average%20of%20527%20points.">lowest</a> among 23 European countries in math, according to international rankings. 



In response, the French Education Ministry - guided by its Scientific Council - called for more math teaching in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-pandemic-setbacks-reduced-kindergarten-readiness/">kindergarten</a>.



Sure enough, a tiny math gender gap appeared in fall 2019 among new first-graders. That gap hadn’t shown up in 2018 but was still present in 2020 and 2021.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problems-in-early-math-instruction">Problems in early math instruction </h2>



The study doesn't pinpoint a single cause, but its message is clear: differences in math achievement between boys and girls seem to grow as a result of what happens in early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schools-are-in-a-battle-with-cell-phones-to-keep-students-engaged/">school</a> instruction.



"We still don't know what that is exactly," Spelke said. "But now we have a chance to find out by randomized evaluations of changes to the curriculum."



The findings put pressure on education systems to ask hard questions about how math is taught in the early years - and what needs to change to make it fair for everyone.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09126-4">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Early math instruction may unintentionally favor boys

For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men. Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from Harvard University and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys...

Although we are familiar with the association between smoking and lung cancer, a new study that investigates the effect of smoking on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-is-an-underestimated-threat-to-heart-health/">heart</a> structure and function is to be presented at the <a href="https://www.escardio.org/Congresses-&amp;-Events/ESC-Congress">European Society of Cardiology Congress 2022</a>. The Congress takes place between 26 and 29 August, 2022, in Barcelona, Spain. The study finds that smokers have weaker hearts than non-smokers, and that the more a person smokes, the worse his or her heart function becomes.&nbsp;



“It is well known that smoking causes blocked arteries, leading to coronary heart disease and stroke,” said study author Dr. Eva Holt of Herlev and Gentofte Hospital. “Our study shows that smoking also leads to thicker, weaker hearts. It means that smokers have a smaller volume of blood in the left heart chamber and less power to pump it out to the rest of the body. The more you smoke, the worse your heart function becomes. The heart can recuperate to some degree with smoking cessation, so it is never too late to quit.”



Tobacco kills more than eight million people each year, according to the World Health Organization. Cigarettes are responsible for 50 percent of all avoidable deaths in smokers, with half of these due to atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack and stroke.&nbsp;



Studies have also shown that smoking is associated with a higher risk of heart failure, and that this is often caused by a weakened heart muscle that does not pump blood around the body adequately. Where a weakened heart does not pump as much blood as it should, the cells of the body will not receive the oxygen, glucose or other nutrients they need in order to function. However, the link between smoking and heart structure and function has not yet been fully examined.



In the current study, the researchers explored whether smoking was related to changes in the structure and function of the heart in people without cardiovascular disease, as well as investigating the effect of changing smoking habits. Data from the 5th Copenhagen City Heart Study was used; this study investigated cardiovascular risk factors and diseases in the general population. A total of 3,874 participants who had no heart disease were enrolled in the study and they were categorized as current smokers, former smokers or never smokers.&nbsp;



The participants, who were aged between 20 and 99 years, were required to complete a self-administered questionnaire that asked for details of smoking history, and to estimate their pack-years, which is a measure of the number of cigarettes smoked throughout life. One pack-year is defined as 20 cigarettes smoked every day for one year.



Participants also underwent an ultrasound examination of the heart, called echocardiography, which gave information about its structure and how well it was working. The researchers compared the echocardiography measures of current smokers to those who had never smoked, while taking into account the participants’ age, gender, body mass index, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, diabetes status and lung function.



The average age of participants was 56 years and 43 percent of them were women. Nearly one in five participants (18.6 percent) currently smoked, while 40.9 percent were former smokers and 40.5 percent had never smoked. Compared to never smokers, current smokers had thicker, weaker and heavier hearts. In addition, less blood was pumped by the hearts of people who had high values for pack-years.



“We found that current smoking and accumulated pack-years were associated with worsening of the structure and function of the left heart chamber – the most important part of the heart," explained Dr. Holt.&nbsp;



"Furthermore, we found that over a 10-year period, those who continued smoking developed thicker, heavier and weaker hearts that were less able to pump blood, compared to never smokers and those who quit during that time.”



"Our study indicates that smoking not only damages the blood vessels but also directly harms the heart. The good news is that some of the damage is reversible by giving up.”



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Smokers have weaker hearts that pump less blood

Although we are familiar with the association between smoking and...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wsb.1343">Wildlife Society</a> has called attention to a small number of grizzly bears in southeastern British Columbia who are missing toes on their front paws due to accidental amputations caused by body-gripping traps used to catch a variety of smaller animals such as martens or weasels. While the number of bears with missing toes is not large, it is sufficient to raise concerns and call for changes in fur trapping practices.



Losing their front paw toes can cause significant problems for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-grizzly-bears-endangered/">grizzlies</a>, making it harder to dig for food or defend themselves. By discussing the issue with trappers, Indigenous communities, conservation officers, wildlife managers, and scientists, as well as comparing data from other areas close to British Columbia, the researchers identified a pattern to bear toe loss and even confirmed reports of grizzly bears that were killed with small mammal body-gripping traps still on their feet.



To test their theory, they set up four traps – rigged so they could trigger but not fully close – and monitored them with remote cameras for two weeks. The observations revealed that grizzly bears visited all four traps, and sprung two of them. 



“Even with the small sample, it was clear that baited traps attracted bears and that bears set off the traps to get the food. We have pictures and videos showing the bears investigating the traps and manipulating the boxes with their paws,” said study lead author Clayton Lamb, a wildlife scientist at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a>.&nbsp;



According to the scientists, it is not the initial snap of the trap that causes bears to lose their toes, but the prolonged duration of the trap stuck on their foot, which leads to infection and ultimately necrosis.



To avoid as much as possible such incidents, Dr. Lamb and his colleagues suggest an official delay of the beginning of the marten and weasel trapping season from November to December to buy the bears time to fully hibernate. 



“Shifting the start of most trapping that coincides with the active bear season would eliminate the overlap, and trappers should generally be able to avoid accidentally catching bears,” Lamb explained. “This not only reduces the risk to the bears, but also prevents the traps from being destroyed by the bears.”



“The most viable solution to the amputated toe issue requires that bears’ feet do not enter these traps at all,” he added. “The solutions we present have various pros and cons, and we hope this work can help policy-makers choose a solution that will resolve the amputated toe issue while ensuring trappers continue to have the important opportunity to trap furbearers.”



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Changes in fur trapping needed to protect grizzly bears

A new study published in the journal Wildlife Society has...

While ultra-processed foods are convenient, low cost, and ready-to-eat, these processed substances (oils, fats, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodpeckers-and-other-birds-can-taste-sugar-but-how/">sugars</a>, starch, protein isolates) contain little or no whole food. The products are a result of extensive "physical, biological, and chemical processes" that include flavorings, colorings, emulsifiers and other cosmetic additives.



A team of researchers at <a href="https://www.fau.edu/">Florida Atlantic University</a>’s <a href="http://med.fau.edu/">Schmidt College of Medicine</a> set out to investigate whether individuals who consume high amounts of ultra-processed foods experience adverse mental health symptoms including depression, anxious days, and mentally unhealthy days. The team measured the frequency of these symptoms in 10,359 adults who participated in the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.



The experts used the NOVA food classification system, which was recently adopted by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. NOVA considers the nature, extent and purpose of food processing in order to categorize foods and beverages into four groups: unprocessed or minimally processed foods, processed culinary ingredients, processed foods and ultra-processed foods.



The results showed that individuals who consumed the most ultra-processed foods had statistically significant increases in adverse mental health symptoms associated with depression. These individuals also experienced more “mentally unhealthy" and “anxious” days.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, these findings can be applied to the entire United States, as well as to other Western countries with similar ultra-processed food intakes.



“The ultra-processing of food depletes its nutritional value and also increases the number of calories, as ultra-processed foods tend to be high in added sugar, saturated fat and salt, while low in protein, fiber, vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals,” said study co-author Dr. Eric Hecht.



“More than 70 percent of prepresent about 60 percent of all calories consumed by Americans. Given the magnitude of packaged foods in the U.S. are classified as ultra-processed food and exposure to and effects of ultra-processed food consumption, our study has significant clinical and public health implications.”



According to the <a href="https://www.nimh.nih.gov/">National Institute of Mental Health</a>, nearly one in five adults live with a mental illness. Mental illnesses, including depression and anxiety, are leading causes of morbidity, disability and mortality.



This research was funded in part by the Bertarelli Foundation. It is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition">Public Health Nutrition</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ultra-processed foods can make you feel mentally unwell

While ultra-processed foods are convenient, low cost, and ready-to-eat, these...

It was previously thought that beavers living an amphibious life first evolved in Eurasia. A new discovery in Montana refutes this idea, suggesting a North American origin. The research also shows that amphibious beavers date back much further than what was previously thought.&nbsp;



In a recent study, <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State</a> evolutionary biologist Jonathan Calede described the ankle bone of a 30 million-year-old beaver he named Microtheriomys articulaquaticus. This makes this aquatic beaver seven million years older than the previous oldest from France.&nbsp;



Calede explained that a lot can be learned about mammal evolution from rodents. “Look at the diversity of life around us today, and you see gliding rodents like flying squirrels, rodents that hop like the kangaroo rat, aquatic species like muskrats, and burrowing animals like pocket gophers. There is an incredible diversity of shapes and ecologies. When that diversity arose is an important question."



“Rodents are the most diverse group of mammals on Earth, and about 4 in 10 species of mammals are rodents. If we want to understand how we get incredible biodiversity, rodents are a great system to study," said Calede.



It was immediately apparent when the scientists uncovered the bones that they were from a beaver. The ankle bone was key to determining the animal’s lifestyle, and 15 measurements were taken of the bone.&nbsp;



The measurements were compared to those of 343 modern specimens from burrowing, gliding, swimming, and jumping mammals as well as other ancient beavers.



After running computer analyses, Calede determined that beavers evolved their aquatic lifestyle through exaptation, which means co-opting one structure for a new purpose.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“In this case, the adaptations to burrowing were co-opted to transition to a semi-aquatic locomotion,” said Calede. “The ancestor of all beavers that have ever existed was most likely a burrower, and the semi-aquatic behavior of modern beavers evolved from a burrowing ecology. Beavers went from digging burrows to swimming in water.”



Analysis of the beaver lineage shows that the animals in the lineage increased in size, to the point that a beaver the size of a black bear lived 12,000 years ago. Now what was once a diverse group of rodents is reduced to two species - one in North America and one in Eurasia.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earliest amphibious beaver lived 30 million years ago

It was previously thought that beavers living an amphibious life...

As dogs age, their brains undergo decline, just as happens with humans. This can lead to the condition known as canine cognitive dysfunction (CCD), which is characterized by changes in awareness and behaviour, and a gradual loss in the ability to remember or learn new things. It is a common disorder among senior dogs, with around one out of every three dogs over the age of 11 showing at least one clinical sign of the condition. By the age of 16, almost all dogs suffer from aspects of this doggy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watching-tv-increases-risk-of-dementia-in-seniors/">dementia</a>.



Sadly, a great number of owners fail to discuss behavior changes in their geriatric dog with a veterinarian because they assume that these problems are a natural and untreatable aspect of aging. However, the neurodegenerative changes that occur in an older dog’s brain are progressive in nature, meaning that the sooner they are detected, the more effectively they can be corrected or, at least, slowed down.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Sarah Yarborough from the University of Washington, and colleagues, have now conducted new research into the prevalence of CCD in a large sample of companion dogs. The owners were all participants in the Dog Aging Project, a longitudinal study of aging in pet dogs in the USA. A total of 15,019 dogs were included in the sample and they were categorized according to their positions along their lifespans. A total of 20 percent of the dogs were in the last quartile of their life, 24 percent were in the third quartile, and 27 and 29 percent were in the second and first quartiles respectively.



Between December 2019 and 2020, the pet owners completed two surveys called the Health and Life Experience Survey (with information about health status and physical activity), and the Canine Social and Learned Behavior survey, which included questions to test for the presence of CCD symptoms, such as whether the dog failed to recognize familiar people or showed loss of memory. The data from these surveys indicated that 1.4 percent of dogs were classified as having CCD.



Published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, the study revealed that when considering age alone, the&nbsp;odds of a dog being diagnosed with CCD increase by 68 percent for each additional year they live beyond the age of ten. When other factors such as health problems, sterilization, activity levels, and breed type were taken into account, the odds of developing CCD increased by 52 percent for each additional year of life over the age of ten.



The researchers also noted that for dogs of the same breed, age, and health and sterilization status, the odds of CCD were 6.5 times higher in dogs that were reported by their owners as being inactive, in comparison with dogs that were reported to be active. However, the experts caution that their study does not show a causal relationship between inactivity and CCD due to its cross-sectional nature, and cognitive decline may be the factor leading to reduced activity.&nbsp;



The researchers suggest that lifespan estimates could help inform veterinarians whether to screen dogs for CCD when they are brought in for other health checks. They also conclude that further research is needed to understand CCD better.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dementia will affect most dogs if they live long enough

As dogs age, their brains undergo decline, just as happens...

Recently, record-breaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-waves-set-to-explode-in-south-asia/">heat waves</a> have occurred in many parts of the world, from Delhi to the Pacific Northwest. To estimate the frequency and severity of such extreme events in the near future, a team of experts from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> (UW) and <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> has analyzed a range of possible heat impacts worldwide by the end of this century, depending on future greenhouse gas emissions.&nbsp;



“The record-breaking heat events of recent summers will become much more common in places like North America and Europe,” reported study lead author&nbsp;Lucas Vargas Zeppetello, who conducted the research as a doctoral student at the&nbsp;UW&nbsp;and is currently a postdoctoral researcher in Atmospheric Sciences at Harvard.&nbsp;



“For many places close to the equator, by 2100 more than half the year will be a challenge to work outside, even if we begin to curb emissions. Our study shows a broad range of possible scenarios for 2100. This shows that the emissions choices we make now still matter for creating a habitable future.”



Instead of using the four future emission pathways elaborated by the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/emissions-scenarios/">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC), the scientists employed a probability-based method to calculate the range of possible future climate conditions. Their statistical approach combined historical data with population projections, economic growth, and carbon intensity (the amount of carbon emitted for each dollar of economic activity) to predict the future possible emissions. After translating the future CO2 levels in a range of global temperature increases, they examined how that would affect monthly weather patterns.



“The number of days with dangerous levels of heat in the mid-latitudes — including the southeastern and central U.S. — will more than double by 2050,” said study co-author&nbsp;David Battisti, a professor of Atmospheric Sciences at the UW. “Even for the very low-end estimates of carbon emissions and climate response, by 2100 much of the tropics will experience ‘dangerous’ levels of heat stress for nearly half the year.”



In the worst-case scenario in which emissions continue unchecked, “extremely dangerous conditions,” in which people would not be able to spend any time outdoors, could become common in regions close to the equator, such as India or Sub-Saharan Africa.



“It’s extremely frightening to think what would happen if 30 to&nbsp;40 days&nbsp;a year were exceeding the extremely dangerous threshold. These are frightening scenarios that we still have the capacity to prevent. This study shows you the abyss, but it also shows you that we have some agency to prevent these scenarios from happening,” Dr. Vargas Zeppetello concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00524-4">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Dangerous heat will become more common this century

Recently, record-breaking heat waves have occurred in many parts of...

During the 2019–2020 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-impacts-of-bushfires-on-urban-microclimates/">bushfire</a> season in Australia, an estimated 14.3 million hectares (143,000 square kilometers) of bush was destroyed by the hundreds of fires that raged, mostly in the southeast of the country. At least 3,000 buildings were razed and 34 people lost their lives. An estimated three&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,000,000,000">billion</a>&nbsp;terrestrial vertebrates&nbsp;were affected and some endangered species were probably driven to extinction



At the peak of the fires, air quality dropped to hazardous levels in all southern and eastern states and the pall of smoke moved thousands of kilometers across the South Pacific Ocean to Chile and Argentina. Satellite data also revealed that millions of tons of smoke aerosols were released into the atmosphere above Australia, where they reached as high as the lower stratosphere, which starts at around 15km above Earth’s surface. Abnormally high temperatures (the highest since 1992–1993) were also observed in the lower stratosphere for several months around this time.&nbsp;



Lilly Damany-Pearce from the University of Exeter, and colleagues, were interested in whether the smoke aerosols emitted from the Australian bushfires led to these increased stratospheric temperatures. They used data from the CALIPSO and Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership satellites to monitor aerosol levels in the stratosphere in the southern hemisphere between December 2019 and 2020.&nbsp;



As a comparison, they also investigated aerosol levels recorded by the same satellites between June 2012 and December 2018. The authors report an initial plume of smoke that reached altitudes of 16km on 31 December 2019, and a similar plume on 12 January 2020. The smoke aerosols eventually reached altitudes of between 25 and 35km, well into the stratospheric layer, and were detected throughout 2020.



The researchers used these findings in the United Kingdom Earth System Model, version 1 (UKESM1), to investigate the impact of these plumes on lower stratospheric temperatures. They modelled the effects of smoke aerosols, the changes to the ozone layer, and a combination of both factors, on stratospheric temperatures, and then compared these to control simulations of present-day climate.&nbsp;



In the smoke aerosol and ozone simulation, the model predicted significantly increased temperatures in the lower stratosphere throughout January to June 2020, compared to the present-day climate. There was a modelled temperature increase of around 0.65 degrees Celsius from November 2019 to March 2020, which is similar to the observed temperature spike of 0.7 degrees Celsius during this period.&nbsp;



According to the study authors, this suggests that the increased stratospheric temperatures predicted by the model were due to the presence of bushfire smoke aerosols. They said that the modeled temperature spike is the largest since the eruption of the volcano Pinatubo in 1991 that released sulfate smoke aerosols into the stratosphere.



The researchers conclude that, as the frequency and intensity of future wildfires is likely to increase with climate change, this may in turn increase the probability of more events of stratospheric warming and ozone depletion from smoke aerosols.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-15794-3">Scientific Reports</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bushfires linked to temperature spikes in the stratosphere

During the 2019–2020 bushfire season in Australia, an estimated 14.3...

Cannabis is one of the most commonly used illegal drugs in the United States. Nevertheless, in the past few years, more and more states have begun to legalize recreational cannabis. As a result, more than 141 million Americans now live in a state where they are able to use the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-do-it-better-self-pollinating-plants-lose-genetic-diversity/">plant</a> legally.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Although some people claim that they can use marijuana recreationally with no ill effects, it is still an addictive substance that can lead to physical and mental distress. Consequently, there was some curiosity among addiction researchers about the effects of legalization on the frequency of drug use.



A paper recently published by the <a href="https://www.addiction-ssa.org/">Society for the Study of Addiction</a> found that the legalization of recreational cannabis has increased usage by an average of 20 percent.



Among the study participants, 1,425 live in a state where recreational use is legal, while 1,997 reside in a state where cannabis use is still illegal. What's notable about the study is that the research participants included 111 identical twin pairs that lived in states with opposing drug policies.&nbsp;



There is a great deal of value in twin studies because each twin provides a control for the other, which means a more precise estimate of the causal effect of legalization.



When analyzing all the study participants, the researchers discovered a 24 percent increase in average cannabis use frequency that they could attribute to legalization.



When analyzing twin data, they found that the twin who lived in a "legal" state used cannabis recreationally 20 percent more frequently than their sibling living in an "illegal" state. Both of these findings imply that recreational legalization is causing more cannabis use.



This research was funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, the National Institute of Mental Health, and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism of the National Institutes of Health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/add.16016">Addiction</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cannabis use is up by 20 percent in states where it's legal

Cannabis is one of the most commonly used illegal drugs...

Becoming bipedal is considered to be a decisive step in the evolution of humans. However, for decades, there was no scientific consensus of the time period when this crucial adaptation emerged. Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/">French National Center for Scientific Research</a> (CNRS) and the <a href="https://www.univ-poitiers.fr/en/">University of Poitiers</a> has examined three limb bones from the oldest representative of early humans currently identified - Sahelanthropus tchadensis - and found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bipedalism-human-skull-evolution/">bipedalism</a> was most probably acquired very early in our history, in a period still associated with the ability to move on four limbs in trees.



Dating back seven million years old,&nbsp;Sahelanthropus tchadensis&nbsp;is considered to be the oldest representative species of humanity. This hominin was first described in 2001, when the <a href="http://palevoprim.labo.univ-poitiers.fr/language/en/2019/02/28/mpft-depuis-1999/">Franco-Chadian Paleoanthropological Mission</a> (MPFT) discovered the fossils of several individuals at Toros-Menalla in the Djurab Desert in Chad. The fossils included a well-preserved cranium which, together with the orientation and anterior position of the occipital foramen where the vertebral column is inserted, indicates that this ancestor was capable of bipedalism.



Now, experts discovered also two ulnae (forearm bones) and a femur (tight bone) that most likely belonged to Sahelanthropus. Data collected from a series of measurements and analyses of these bones – concerning both their external morphology and internal structures – was compared to already existing data of a large sample of extant and fossil apes, including chimpanzees, orangutans, gorillas, Miocene apes, as well as members of the human group, such as Orrorin,&nbsp;Ardipithecus, australopithecines, ancient&nbsp;Homo,&nbsp;and Homo sapiens.



The structure of the femur suggests that Sahelanthropus was bipedal on ground, and possibly also sometimes in trees. The analysis of the ulnae indicates that, in arboreal environments, this bipedalism coincided with a form of quadrupedalism characterized by arboreal clambering enabled by firm hand grips. These discoveries reinforce the idea of a very early emergence of bipedal locomotion in human history, even if at that stage other modes of locomotion were also employed.



“Taken together, these findings suggest that hominins were already bipeds at around seven million years ago, but also suggest that arboreal clambering was probably a significant part of their locomotor repertoire,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04901-z">Nature</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Earliest humans were bipedal, and could swing through trees

Becoming bipedal is considered to be a decisive step in...

An international team of experts led by the <a href="https://www.umontreal.ca/">University of Montreal</a> has recently announced the discovery of TOI-1452 b - an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-discover-366-new-exoplanets/">exoplanet</a> orbiting one of two small stars in a binary system located in the Draco constellation, approximately 100 light-years from the Earth. The observations and subsequent analyses revealed that this planet is slightly greater in size than the Earth and is located at a distance from its star where its temperature could allow for liquid water to exist on its surface, leading scientists to suspect that it could be an “ocean planet” covered completely by a thick layer of water, just like some of Jupiter’s and Saturn’s moons.



The researchers discovered this planet with the help of NASA’s space telescope <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/tess-transiting-exoplanet-survey-satellite">TESS</a> and follow-up ground observations with the high-resolution <a href="http://www.exoplanetes.umontreal.ca/1232-2/?lang=en">PESTO</a> camera. The host star TOI-1452 is much smaller than our Sun and is one of two similarly-sized stars in the binary system where the new planet was discovered. Although the TESS telescope sees the two stars as a single point of light (due to the small distance separating them), PESTO’s resolution was high enough to distinguish the two objects, and confirm that the exoplanet is orbiting TOI-1452.



In order to determine the planet’s mass, the astronomers then observed the system for over 50 hours with <a href="https://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Instruments/SPIRou/">SPIRou</a>, an instrument installed on the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope in Hawai’i, and estimated that the planet has a mass nearly five times larger than that of the Earth. While this exoplanet is most likely rocky, like the Earth, its radius, mass, and density suggest that it may be largely covered by water, which makes up to 30 percent of its mass (compared to the less than one percent of water making up the mass of the Earth).



“TOI-1452 b is one of the best candidates for an ocean planet that we have found to date,” explained study lead author Charles Cadieux, a doctoral student in Astrophysics at the University of Montreal. “Its radius and mass suggest a much lower density than what one would expect for a planet that is basically made up of metal and rock, like Earth.”



In the near future, the scientists aim to use the newly constructed <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/launch-of-the-james-webb-space-telescope/">James Webb Space Telescope</a> – the most performant telescope to date – in order to clarify the nature and features of this fascinating planet. “Our observations with the Webb Telescope will be essential to better understanding TOI-1452 b,” said co-author René Doyon, an expert in exoplanets at the University of Montreal. “As soon as we can, we will book time on Webb to observe this strange and wonderful world.”&nbsp;



A detailed description of this planet was published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/ac7cea">Astronomical Journal</a>.



Image Credit: Benoit Gougeon, Université de Montréal



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Scientists: probable 'ocean planet' discovered in the Draco constellation

An international team of experts led by the University of...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/">University of Bath</a>, researchers are describing a giant sea lizard that lived at the end of the Cretaceous period 66 million years ago. At this time, when dinosaurs were thriving on land, giant marine reptiles called mosasaurs dominated the ocean. Mosasaurs could grow up to 12 meters, or 40 feet, in length. They were distant relatives of modern iguanas.



The remains of the new mosasaur, named Thalassotitan atrox, were uncovered in Morocco about an hour outside Casablanca. According to the researchers, Thalassotitan had massive jaws and teeth like those of killer whales and hunted all other marine reptiles as an apex predator - at the very top of the food chain.



The huge skull of Thalassotitan measured five feet long, while its body grew to nearly 30 feet long, the size of a killer whale, noted the researchers.&nbsp;



Unlike most mosasaurs which had slender teeth, Thalassotitan had conical teeth to rip apart huge prey. These experts report that possible remains of Thalassotitan’s victims have been discovered.&nbsp;



These fossilized animals, including at least three different mosasaur species, were found with peculiar damage which suggests they were digested in Thalassotitan’s stomach before their bones were spit out.



“It’s circumstantial evidence,” said study lead author Dr. Nick Longrich. “We can’t say for certain which species of animal ate all these other mosasaurs. But we have the bones of marine reptiles killed and eaten by a large predator.



“And in the same location, we find Thalassotitan, a species that fits the profile of the killer – it’s a mosasaur specialized to prey on other marine reptiles. That’s probably not a coincidence.”



“Thalassotitan was an amazing, terrifying animal,” said Dr. Nick Longrich, who led the study. “Imagine a Komodo Dragon crossed with a great white shark crossed with a T. rex crossed with a killer whale.”



According to study co-author Professor Nour-Eddine Jalil, the phosphate fossils of Morocco "offer an unparalleled window on the paleobiodiversity at the end of Cretaceous."



“They tell us how life was rich and diversified just before the end of the ‘dinosaur era’, where animals had to specialise to have a place in their ecosystems. Thalassotitan completes the picture by taking on the role of the megapredator at the top of the food chain.”



Dr. Longrich has written a blog about the research here: <a href="https://www.nicklongrich.com/blog/thalassotitan-the-killer-mosasaur">https://www.nicklongrich.com/blog/thalassotitan-the-killer-mosasaur</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195667122001793?via%3Dihub">Cretaceous Research</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Terrifying mosasaur dominated the ocean 66 million years ago

In a new study from the University of Bath, researchers...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a first-of-its-kind app, enables users to identify all types of Earth's plant and animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unchecked-emissions-could-kill-90-percent-of-marine-species/">species</a> via a mobile phone camera, encouraging users to learn about and document the natural world around them.&nbsp;



EarthSnap is citizen science in action: When users upload photos of plants or animals to EarthSnap, the app utilizes a custom-built, patent-pending AI machine learning solution to identify the subject and share details like habitat, global population distribution and known history on Earth.&nbsp;



The uploaded photos also contribute to EarthSnap's ever-growing database - applications of which include recording animal migration habits, shifting habitats and animal behavior. This information will be open-source and shared with citizens and the scientific community - it will not be sold or privatized.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, by Earth.com, exemplifies global community education at the nexus of nature and tech. The EarthSnap ethos is rooted in fostering a better understanding of the planet we call home.



"My goal has always been to bring people back to nature, to help them realize that humanity is a part of nature, not 'apart' from nature," says Eric Ralls, Founder and CEO of EarthSnap.&nbsp;



"Homosapiens are only one species out of over 8 million species of life with whom we share this planet. Yet humanity treats the earth like it is ours alone to do with as we please, even though we've only been here for a few hundred thousand years out of the 3.5 billion years that this beautiful blue marble has been zipping through the universe."



EarthSnap is an app for intentional engagement with the world around us bolstered by community-based learning and sharing.&nbsp;



"Many people with phones spend their free moments engaged with that phone rather than with nature, never stopping to 'smell the flowers'," says Ralls. "Rather than trying to get people away from their phones and into the world, EarthSnap brings nature into their phones and gives users the best of both worlds."&nbsp;



Modern science points to time in nature as a stress reducing, immune fortifying and mood boosting activity that more people should incorporate into their everyday lives, whether they live in cities or suburbs, rural tropical oasis or bustling metropolitan areas. Nature is all around us everywhere we go; EarthSnap is here to help humans remember that we are just one species within the immense biodiversity of life on planet earth.



EarthSnap features a social community: Earthchat. It connects users with other Earth-minded people from all corners of the globe and enables users to promote their organizations and earth-friendly causes to the global EarthSnap community via mobile-friendly forums and feeds. EarthChat features hundreds of lively online communities focusing on earth, environment and nature-related topics.



EarthSnap is a tool to educate the user about the living world around them. Free to download from AppleStore and Google Playstore. Subscription tier and premium features available.



Website: <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/</a>



Credit: EarthSnap, Inc.

EarthSnap launches revolutionary app to identify plants and animals

EarthSnap, a first-of-its-kind app, enables users to identify all types...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



-----

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

News coming your way