Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Aging female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-monkeys-with-strong-friendships-survive-longer/">monkeys</a> cut down on socializing to prioritize their closest relationships, according to an international study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. The experts found that female monkeys “actively reduce” their social networks as they get older to focus on family and close friends.&nbsp;



"In humans, aging individuals have been shown to become more selective in partner choice as they age and to proactively focus on meaningful relationships, such as close friends and relatives. Intriguingly, social selectivity in older individuals may not be limited to humans. Several species of nonhuman primates have been suggested to show patterns of social aging that might indicate greater selectivity in social partners in later life," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Evidence for social selectivity in some of our closest living relatives could hint at deep evolutionary origins behind this phenomenon and may suggest that selectivity is an adaptive strategy that individuals use to cope with the physical and physiological limitations they face as they age."



The research was focused on female macaques on an island off the coast of Puerto Rico known as Monkey Island, or Cayo Santiago. The experts analyzed eight years of data on more than 200 macaques to observe how the social lives of each individual changed. The results of the study confirmed that female macaques become increasingly selective as they age.&nbsp;



"Females spent similar amounts of time socializing as they aged, suggesting that network shrinkage does not result from lack of motivation or ability to engage, nor was this narrowing driven by the deaths of social partners. Furthermore, females remained attractive companions and were not isolated by withdrawal of social partners," wrote the researchers.



Professor Lauren Brent said this pattern of narrowing social networks with age is common in humans. “Our study offers the most conclusive evidence to date that social selectivity is not unique to humans, and therefore might have deeper evolutionary underpinnings.”



According to Dr. Erin Siracusa, there are many possible reasons why macaques become more socially selective with age. “For example, the benefits of social interactions might change with time. Young macaques might benefit from a wide social group that can help them explore and find potential mates."



“For older macaques, it might be easier and safer - in terms of everything from conflict to disease transmission - to stick with family and existing friends. New relationships also require more mental effort, so while we see no decline in time spent socializing, older macaques might save mental energy by shrinking their network.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2209180119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Aging monkeys focus more on meaningful relationships

Aging female monkeys cut down on socializing to prioritize their...

While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-earth-data/">artificial intelligence</a> (AI) traditionally stems from human brain dynamics, brain learning is known to be restricted in several significant aspects compared to deep learning (DL). For instance, efficient DL wiring structures consist of tens of consecutive, or “feedforward” layers, while brain dynamics consists of only a few of them. Moreover, deep learning architectures also have many consecutive filter layers, which are crucial for identifying input classes.&nbsp;



If the input is a car, for example, the first filter identifies its wheels, the second one its doors, the third one its lights, and so on, until it becomes clear what the input is. By contrast, brain dynamics contain just a single filter close to the retina. Finally, the mathematical complexity underlying DL training is clearly far beyond biological realization.



Nevertheless, the human brain remains much better than deep learning structures at performing a wide variety of tasks. Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.biu.ac.il/en">Bar-Ilan University</a> in Israel has investigated why this is the case, and proposed new methods of building AI systems inspired by brain dynamics.



“We’ve shown that efficient learning on an artificial&nbsp;tree&nbsp;architecture, where each weight has a single route to an output unit, can achieve better classification success rates than previously achieved by DL architectures consisting of more layers and filters. This finding paves the way for efficient, biologically-inspired new AI hardware and algorithms,” explained study senior author Ido Kanter, an expert in Physics and Computer Science at Bar-Ilan.



“Highly pruned tree architectures represent a step toward a plausible biological realization of efficient <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-10466-8">dendritic tree learning</a> by a single or several neurons, with reduced complexity and energy consumption, and biological realization of backpropagation mechanisms, which is currently the central technique in AI,” added lead author Yuval Meir, a PhD student at the same university.



The efficient implementation of these ideas requires a new type of hardware that is different from current and emerging GPUs, which are better fitted to current DL approaches. Further research is needed to clarify how to build and program such machines.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-27986-6">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Does the human brain outperform artificial intelligence?

While artificial intelligence (AI) traditionally stems from human brain dynamics,...

Have you ever watched an ant wandering around in search of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swans-sacrifice-rest-to-defend-their-foraging-areas/">food</a> and wondered whether there is method in its movements? Probably not. But this is exactly what Stefan Popp and Anna Dornhaus, both from the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a>, did when trying to understand how ants search their environments efficiently.&nbsp;



Most people assume that when ants need to find food that is in an unknown location, their best option would be to search in a random manner. Ants spend much of their lives searching for resources, but they must also stay close to their nest or colony, in case they need to return quickly. If they search randomly, they will be relatively efficient at locating resources, but will run the risk of returning to areas they have already searched. Alternatively, if they search in a non-random pattern, like a spiral or a left-to-right meander, they will not cross their path again but will be thrown by obstacles that obstruct their pathway and may end up deviating in a manner that takes them over territory they have already searched.&nbsp;



In order to find out which patterns rock ants (Temnothorax rugatulus) use when searching for food, the researchers transplanted five entire colonies into the lab, where they could track all ants automatically and under constant conditions. They gave the ants a large (2 x 3 m), empty arena and left them to search around for food for 5 hours. After video recording almost 5 km of ant tracks, which was equivalent to 1,384 individual tracks, they used statistical means to compare the ants’ movements with computer-generated random walk patterns.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We wanted to make sure that we are not just seeing patterns where there are none,” Popp said. “We then used a&nbsp;simple&nbsp;statistical method of detecting regularity in movement tracks to get a&nbsp;simple&nbsp;answer.”



The results, published in the online journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.105916">iScience</a>, showed that the ants used a mixture of distinctly systematic movements, along with random elements. A total of 78 percent of the ants systematically turned the direction of their search roughly every 10 mm. This means that a turn in one direction was usually followed by a turn in the opposite direction after roughly three ant body lengths. The researchers termed this regular movement “meandering.”&nbsp;



“Previously, researchers in the field assumed that ants move in a pure random walk when searching for targets of which they don't know their location,” said Popp. “We found that rock ants, show a striking, regular meandering pattern when exploring the area around their nests. This means that the ants smoothly alternate left and right turns on a relatively regular length scale of roughly three body lengths.”



The regular meandering movements are also interspersed with random elements. The researchers state that the ant tracks 1) cross themselves less often than random walks would, and 2) sometimes disperse more than random walks. This means that ants cover the search area more efficiently than if their movements were simply random, because they don’t waste time searching areas they have already covered. In addition, their systematic meandering takes them away from the nest rapidly, to areas that have not been searched as thoroughly. Thus, the movement system of the ants is more efficient than if they walked around randomly. Popp says he was most intrigued by the extreme forms the ants’ patterns could take from these simple principles.



“Parts of some tracks look like the curled threads&nbsp;one can pull out of a piece of clothing, and in some it looks like the meandering path meanders itself,” he said, “creating a seemingly fractal structure. It reminds me of some space-filling curves we know from math!”



The new study is the first to find evidence for efficient search through regular meandering in a freely searching animal, the researchers report. It also adds another complex behavior for ants, suggesting that there’s still more to learn.



Popp says he’s most fascinated in questions about the rules in an ant’s mind that allow such complex search patterns to emerge. He notes also that the ants have solved a problem of collective search over the course of evolution in a way that might find application for designing autonomous swarms of search robots or drones for use in disaster areas or unexplored landscapes.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Meandering ants have a method to their madness

Have you ever watched an ant wandering around in search...

As Earth’s atmosphere traps more heat under the influence of greenhouse gases, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-killing-asteroid-scoured-the-worlds-oceans/">oceans</a> become warmer. This means that, ideally, if we wish to understand how much Earth’s climate has changed, we need to look at the warming of the oceans. The oceans have a massive thermal inertia (are slow to heat up) and have been able to absorb around 90 percent of the Earth’s increasing heat load, but they have been warming inexorably for many decades. The implications of this change in ocean heat content, which is unlikely to stop any time soon, are likely to be devastating to natural systems and to all living creatures.&nbsp;



In a new review published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00345-1">Nature Reviews Earth &amp; Environment</a>, an international team of scientists has analyzed temperature data from the world’s oceans in order to put together a clear picture of the extent of global ocean heat change since the 1950s. Using this information, the researchers are able to predict likely trends in ocean warming going forward, and to assess the potential consequences. This study is important because it motivates us to take actions to mitigate and respond to climate change. It shows what will happen if we don't take urgent action to slow global warming.



The study involved scientists from leading institutions in France, USA, Australia, the UK, and China, including the <a href="http://english.iap.cas.cn/">Institute of Atmospheric Physics</a>. The team collected temperature information from past studies of the world’s oceans that made use of a variety of different temperature sensors. Some of these sensors are manually placed in the oceans by researchers, others are deployed by cargo vessels, and many are autonomous devices that float in the ocean or are tethered, like a buoy or mooring. By combining many thousands of temperature measurements spread across the globe and over the years, the scientists were able to piece together a clear picture of global ocean heat content change back to the 1950s.



Analysis of the data showed that the upper 2000m of ocean began warming, unequivocally, at least in the 1950s. The warming has continued since then and has been driven, mostly by the heat uptake at the ocean surface, and the transport of this warmed water by currents, mixing and stirring in the ocean interior.&nbsp;This has meant that heat has not been equally distributed between the world’s oceans; some, such as the southern Atlantic and Southern Oceans, have warmed more than others due to the effects of current movements.



Now, the upper 2000m of ocean is warming at a rapidly accelerating rate that has more than doubled (from &lt;5 to 10 ZJ per year.&nbsp; A ZJ is 1021 Joules of energy, or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Joules) between the 1960s and the 2010s. To put this in perspective, the annual energy consumption for the USA is approximately 0.1 ZJ. In addition, this overall warming pattern is now driven less by ocean current mixing, and more by the passive uptake of added heat by surface waters, as the Earth becomes warmer and warmer.&nbsp;



A massive temperature data set like the one used in the current review is key to understanding both our past and our future, in terms of ocean heat content. The researchers describe the heat content changes between 1950 and 2019 in all the world’s oceans and this enables them to predict what will happen to the oceans in the coming decades. The most important finding is that the future of the oceans is in our hands.&nbsp;



The authors stress that if significant cuts in greenhouse gas emissions are made (i.e., if the target of the Paris Agreement of limiting global surface temperature increase to 2°C above the pre-industrial level can be achieved), the acceleration of ocean warming will stop at around 2030. However, if we don’t take action, the predictions are quite dire. The rate of warming will skyrocket throughout the 21st&nbsp;century: by the 2090s, the rate of ocean warming is projected to be four times larger than the current level.



Some of the potential consequences of this unabated ocean warming are described by the researchers. By 2100, all regions of the ocean will exhibit warming, although the Southern and Atlantic Oceans will have warmed the most. This will lead to continued melting of ice sheets and glaciers and a consequent increase in sea levels worldwide. This, in turn, will cause coastal erosion, displacement of people, flooding and damage to coastal infrastructures. Ocean warming also affects the cycling of carbon, oxygen and nutrients in the ocean, affecting food chains that support the ocean’s living creatures.&nbsp;



In addition, ocean warming intensifies tropical cyclones and changes the paths of storms. It leads to marine heat waves that bleach corals, change phytoplankton blooms and kill kelp forests and sea grasses. This can lead to the mass mortality of benthic organisms, declines in fish and seabird populations and a shortage of food for humans. Weather patterns also change as a consequence of a warm ocean, with some areas receiving more rain and flooding while others become drier with more heat waves and droughts.&nbsp;



Continued monitoring of ocean temperatures is critical, say the authors, along with enhanced understanding and adaptation to the effects of warmer waters. However, they stress that the future of ocean warming is in our hands. Low greenhouse gas emissions would be likely to lead to a detectable and lasting reduction in ocean warming rate, with noticeable reductions in climate-change impacts. But if these emissions continue unabated, the consequences will be very severe. We have already experienced a wide range of climate disasters during 2022: heat waves, flooding, heavy rainfalls, and strong hurricanes. If the current weather is wild, just wait for the coming decades … we haven't seen anything yet.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Ocean warming could be devastating to all living creatures

As Earth’s atmosphere traps more heat under the influence of...

On Monday January 30, 2023 the <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) decided that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-covid-wave-currently-unfolding-across-china/">Covid-19</a> remains a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC). However, due to currently high levels of both natural and vaccine-induced immunity, as well as the relative mildness of the Omicron variants compared to previous ones, the experts agreed that the pandemic is at a “transition point.”



A PHEIC has the benefit of creating an agreement among countries to abide by WHO’s recommendations for managing the pandemic, while each country in its turn can declare its own public health emergency, allowing them to legally waive rules and marshal resources for mitigating the impact of such health crises. Although the world is much better equipped to manage the pandemic than it was in the previous three years, many nations around the world are still experiencing a high – and, in some cases, even rising - number of infections and deaths, an aspect clearly showing that the pandemic is far from over.



“Achieving higher levels of population immunity globally, either through infection and/or vaccination, may limit the impact of SARS-CoV-2 on morbidity and mortality, but there is little doubt that this virus will remain a permanently established pathogen in humans and animals for the foreseeable future. As such, long-term public health action is critically needed,” WHO’s International Health Regulations Emergency Committee&nbsp;recently stated.



“While eliminating this virus from human and animal reservoirs is highly unlikely, mitigation of its devastating impact on morbidity and mortality is achievable and should continue to be a prioritized goal.”



In a list of temporary recommendations, WHO advised that countries should continue vaccinating people and incorporate Covid vaccines into routine health care, while improving disease surveillance, continuing to fight misinformation, adjusting international travel requirements and recommendations based on comprehensive risk assessment, and maintaining a strong healthcare system to a avoid a “panic-neglect cycle” that characterized many of the previous pandemics.



“My message is clear: Do not underestimate this virus. It has and will continue to surprise us, and it will continue to kill unless we do more to get health tools to people that need them and to comprehensively tackle misinformation,” WHO’s Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Covid-19 remains a global health emergency

On Monday January 30, 2023 the World Health Organization (WHO)...

A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a> has found that scratches on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-daspletosaurus-sheds-light-on-dinosaur-evolution/">dinosaur</a> teeth could reveal what they used to eat. By employing a technique called “dental microwear texture analysis” (DMTA) – a scanning method devised to examine topographical dental wear and tear in microscopic detail – the experts inferred the feeding habits of large theropods, including Allosaurus and T. rex.



The researchers discovered that while some dinosaurs may have frequently crunched on hard bone, others had regularly eaten soft foods and prey. This technique opens up new research avenues in Paleontology, helping scientists better understand not only dinosaurs themselves, but also the environment and communities in which they lived.



“We wanted to test if we could use DMTA to find evidence of different feeding behaviors in tyrannosaurids (from the Cretaceous period, 145 million to 66 million years ago) compared to the older&nbsp;Allosaurus&nbsp;(from the Jurassic period, 201 million to 145 million years ago), which are both types of theropods,” explained study lead author Daniela Winkler, a postdoctoral fellow in Paleontology at the University of Tokyo. “From other research, we already knew that tyrannosaurids can crack and feed on bones (from studies of their feces and bite marks on bone). But allosaurs are much older and there is not so much information about them.”



The scientists studied 48 teeth – 34 from theropod dinosaurs and 14 from crocodilians (modern crocodiles and alligators). Surprisingly, the analysis did not reveal evidence of much bone crushing behavior in either Allosaurus or tyrannosaurids, although it was well-known that the latter ate bone.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, there may be several reasons for this unexpected discovery. For instance, it could be that although T. rex was able to eat bone, it was less commonly done than previously thought. In addition, the team had to use well-preserved teeth, so it could be that extremely damaged teeth that could have provided evidence of bone crushing were excluded from the study samples.&nbsp;



The investigation also revealed noticeable differences between juveniles and adults. “We studied two juvenile dinosaur specimens (one&nbsp;Allosaurus&nbsp;and one tyrannosaurid) and what we found was a very different feeding niche and behavior for both compared to the adults. We found that there was more wear to juvenile teeth, which might mean that they&nbsp;had to more frequently feed on carcasses because they were eating leftovers,” Winkler explained.&nbsp;



“We were also able to detect different feeding behavior in juvenile crocodilians; however, this time it was the opposite. Juvenile crocodilians had less wear on their teeth from eating softer foods, perhaps like insects, while adults had more dental wear from eating harder foods, like larger vertebrates.”



Besides shedding more light on the behavior of various dinosaur species, this innovative technique could help scientists better understand the ancient environments in which these creatures lived. “From what we learn using DMTA, we can possibly reconstruct extinct animals’ diets, and from this make inferences about extinct ecosystems, paleoecology, and paleoclimate, and how it differs from today,” Winkler concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/pala.12632">Paleontology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Dinosaur teeth reveal their eating habits

A team of scientists led by the University of Tokyo...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-protects-against-alzheimers-disease/">coffee</a> with milk can have a strong anti-inflammatory effect, since the combination of antioxidants from coffee with proteins from milk doubles the anti-inflammatory properties of immune cells.



When pathogens and other foreign substances enter our bodies, our immune systems react by deploying an army of white blood cells and chemical substances to protect us, leading to inflammation. To counteract the bodily damaged caused by inflammation, antioxidants such as polyphenols help reducing the oxidative stress in our bodies. However, much remains unknown about these beneficial substances. Now, the researchers have examined what happens when polyphenols react with other molecules, such as amino acids (the building blocks of proteins).



“In the study, we show that as a polyphenol reacts with an amino acid, its inhibitory effect on inflammation in immune cells is enhanced,” said senior author Marianne Lund, an expert in Food Science at Copenhagen. “As such, it is clearly imaginable that this cocktail could also have a beneficial effect on inflammation in humans. We will now investigate further, initially in animals. After that, we hope to receive research funding which will allow us to study the effect in humans.”



To investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of polyphenols mixed with proteins, the scientists applied artificial inflammation to immune cells, and discovered that the cells exposed to this combination were twice as effective at fighting inflammation as those to which only polyphenols were added.



While previous research has found that polyphenols bind to proteins in meat products, milk, and beer, thus leading to major health benefits, the present study has shown that this process occurs also in coffee with milk. 



“Our result demonstrates that the reaction between polyphenols and proteins also happens in some of the coffee drinks with milk that we studied. In fact, the reaction happens so quickly that it has been difficult to avoid in any of the foods that we’ve studied so far,” Lund reported.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Because humans do not absorb that much polyphenol, many researchers are studying how to encapsulate polyphenols in protein structures which improve their absorption in the body. This strategy has the added advantage of enhancing the anti-inflammatory effects of polyphenols,” she concluded.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.2c06658">Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Coffee with milk has powerful anti-inflammatory properties

A new study led by the University of Copenhagen has...

Plants let their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-colors-in-sunflowers-dont-only-attract-bees/">flowers</a> fade quickly for protection from detrimental microbes, according to a study led by experts at <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en">Kyoto University</a>. Using field experiments and plant microbiome analyses, the researchers discovered that microbes growing on flowers can have a negative impact on fruit yields. As a defense mechanism, plants are quick to shed their flowers before the microbes increase in abundance.



"The results suggest that old flowers harbor microbial communities different from those at anthesis, and that the microbes abundant on old flowers negatively affect plant reproduction," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Although it has received little attention, antagonistic microbes that rapidly proliferate on the flowers may have affected the evolution of various flower characteristics such as flower volatiles and life span."



Previously, researchers have investigated the tradeoff between energy that plants spend on producing and maintaining their flowers. Since flowers serve as a reproductive structure, it seems that plants would benefit from keeping them longer.&nbsp;



In an earlier study, the Kyoto team had looked at the mystery of why plants invest their energy to produce fragile flowers that wither quickly, rather than investing a bit more energy to produce flowers that are more durable.



“Interestingly, flower lifespan is negatively correlated with temperature; the hotter the environment where they bloom, the shorter the period a plant retains them. The phenomenon has been known for a long time,” said study co-author Shoko Sakai.



“Then, at some point, I came up with the hypothesis that antagonistic microbes, such as bacteria and fungi growing on flowers after the flower bud opens, must be the driver that shortens the lifespan of a flower. I doubted that it was a coincidence that microbes grow faster in higher temperatures.”



The team conducted field experiments to determine what microbial communities appear on flowers that live longer. The experts transferred microbes from old flowers of wild ginger to other wild ginger plants with new flowers that had just opened.



The experimental plants ultimately produced fewer fruits, despite the fact that there were no visible signs of infection or disease. When the researchers analyzed the microbiomes of the plants, they found several groups of bacteria that were increasing with time.&nbsp;



“So far, flower characteristics have mostly been studied in the context of their interactions with pollinators," said Sakai. "Recent studies have raised the question whether we have overlooked the roles of microbes in the studies of floral characteristics. For example, flower volatiles - which are often regarded as a primary pollinator attractant - can also function to suppress antagonistic microbes."



"The impacts of microbes on plant reproductive ecology may be more deeply embedded in the evolution of angiosperms than we have considered."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://mbmg.pensoft.net/">Metabarcoding and Metagenomics</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants shed their flowers quickly for protection

Plants let their flowers fade quickly for protection from detrimental...

Each year, the United States spends almost a trillion dollars attempting to combat metallic corrosion, an electrochemical reaction which occurs when metals oxidize and begin to rust. Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> (OSU) has estimated how much corrosion is gradually worsening global carbon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-will-increase-arctic-co2-emissions-by-40-billion-tons/">emissions</a>.&nbsp;



Although previous research has already estimated the economic cost of corrosion to be about three to four percent of United States’ gross domestic product, this is the first study to quantify the environmental impact associated with steel corrosion.



Global steel production has increased steadily for decades and, since steel has poor resistance to corrosion, part of that demand is to replace steel from construction materials that have become corroded over time. According to the experts, reducing the amount of steel which needs to be replaced due to corrosion could have significant effects on the amount of greenhouse gases produced to make steel.



“Given society’s reliance on coal fuel, iron and steel production is one of the largest greenhouse gases emitters of any industry. But most of the costs associated with the industry actually stem from the energy that goes into creating steel, and that energy is lost as the steel reverts to rust, which is similar to its original form of iron ore,” explained study senior author Gerald Frankel, a professor of Materials Science and Engineering at OSU.&nbsp;&nbsp;



By using historical carbon dioxide intensity data in order to estimate CO2 levels per year starting from 1960, the scientists found that, in 2021, steel production accounted for 27 percent of the carbon emissions of the global manufacturing sector, and approximately 10.5 percent of the total carbon emissions worldwide, while corroded steel emissions accounted for about 1.6 to 3.4 percent of emissions.



Fortunately, due to regulations placed on the steel industry, technological advancements in the steel industry have resulted in a 61 percent reduction in energy consumption over the past half a century. Nonetheless, policy makers and industry officials should still act urgently to amend and coordinate international policy concerning steel production and corrosion management.



“Coordinated international strategies, as well as decreasing global steel demand, by using best practices for corrosion mitigation, could better improve global corrosion management strategies and drastically reduce the rise in greenhouse gas emissions we’re seeing due to repeatedly replacing corroded steel,” Frankel said.



If such actions are not undertaken soon, greenhouse emissions caused by the steel industry could spike to 27.5 percent of the global carbon emissions by as early as 2030, with corroded steel representing four to nine percent of that number. This could have dire impacts on the Earth’s climate.



“Global warming is a societal challenge that takes coordination of a lot of multidisciplinary approaches. Our work is bringing to light an issue that seems to have gone under the radar in terms of the importance of adding to the problem,” Frankel concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41529-022-00318-1">npj Materials Degradation</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Steel corrosion is a major contributor to climate change

Each year, the United States spends almost a trillion dollars...

According to a new study led by an international team of scientists, China is currently a nighttime “hotspot” for the production of nitrate radicals (PNO3) that may have a significant impact on health-threatening levels of ozone and fine particulates (PM2.5) in the atmosphere. 



While the United States and Europe experienced a decline in nocturnal production of NO3, China has recently experienced a rapid increase in these pollutants. The experts believe that this may have serious implications not only for China, but also for other developing countries such as India.



“Nitrogen oxides derived from combustion and natural sources are reactive gases that regulate the formation of key air pollutants including both ozone (O3) and PM2.5. Nocturnal oxidation driven by nitrate radicals is an important, but poorly understood, process in atmospheric chemistry – we must understand this better, if we are to formulate effective global pollution mitigation strategies and understand the influence of nitrogen oxides on air quality and climate,” said study co-author Zongbo Shi, an expert in Aerosol Chemistry and Physics at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a>.



The analysis revealed that the current production of NO3&nbsp;radicals increased significantly in three megacity clusters (the North China Plain, the Yangtze River Delta, and the Pearl River Delta), while in eight major Chinese cities - Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Chengdu, Xi’an, Jinan, Zhengzhou and Shijiazhuang – it is currently comparable to that in Los Angeles in the 1990s, and keeps increasing. Moreover, if ozone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-a-higher-risk-of-stroke/">pollution</a> keeps rising, nighttime oxidation in China will most likely increase further, even if NO3&nbsp;emissions are curbed.



Considering the fact that much lower levels of NO3&nbsp;radicals in both U.S. and Europe have been shown to exert significant impacts on particulate nitrate and organic aerosol formation in those regions, the scientists believe that NO3&nbsp;radical chemistry may play a more critical role in atmospheric oxidation and thus aggravate both O3&nbsp;and PM2.5&nbsp;pollution in China very soon, posing public health problems in this country, as well as abroad.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-01122-x">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Nocturnal pollution is a rising public health threat in China

According to a new study led by an international team...

Sometimes the common names for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-animals-play-a-key-role-in-stabilizing-soil-carbon/">animals</a> can end up being rather confusing. For example, guinea pigs are not related to pigs and neither are they native to Guinea. In the case of American black bears, not all of them are black. In fact, they come in a range of colors, including brown (also known as cinnamon), blond, or bluish-grey, and some even have coats with mixed colors.&nbsp;



Scientists have wondered why there is this diversity in coat color among black bears. Some have hypothesized that the cinnamon coat is a way of mimicking the generally larger grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), which is brown (but can also be black!) This may provide some form of camouflage or defense for the American black bears.&nbsp;



In new research from scientists at <a href="https://www.hudsonalpha.org/">HudsonAlpha</a>, the University of Memphis, and the University of Pennsylvania, the answer to this question has been discovered in the genomes of the black bears, and it involves a mutation in a pigment gene that happened a very long time ago. The research paper is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



Dr. Emily Puckett is an assistant professor of Biological Sciences at the University of Memphis. She has devoted her career to learning more about the evolution and genetics of bears. With help from partners in state, provincial, and federal wildlife agencies, she collected hundreds of DNA and hair samples from North American bears. Dr. Puckett teamed up with Dr. Greg Barsh, an animal pigmentation expert at HudsonAlpha, to figure out why black bears aren’t always black.



Melanin is the pigment that gives mammals their coat colors. It is produced in the skin by cells known as melanocytes. There are two types of melanin: eumelanin is black or brown, and pheomelanin is red or yellow. It is widely accepted that genetic variation in melanin biosynthesis is what gives rise to differences in hair, eye, and skin color.&nbsp;



The researchers studied photos of bears and analyzed their hair samples. They found that the cinnamon-colored black bears produce reduced amounts of eumelanin, just like grizzly bears. They then sequenced the genomes of nearly 200 bears and identified several different missense mutations in the gene&nbsp;called TYRP1&nbsp;that codes for making the enzyme tyrosinase-related protein 1.&nbsp;



Cinnamon-colored black bears have a mutation called&nbsp;TYRP1R153C,&nbsp;while most (but not all) grizzly bears have a mutation called&nbsp;TYRP1R114C. The&nbsp;TYRP1&nbsp;gene produces the enzyme within the melanocytes, and this enzyme helps produce eumelanin, which explains why the cinnamon and grizzly bears have less of this specific pigment.&nbsp;



In addition, studies carried out in the lab of Dr. Mickey Marks at the University of Pennsylvania determined that the TYRP1R153C and TYRP1R114C&nbsp;mutations interfere with melanin synthesis and distribution.



“When we looked at other species, we were surprised to find the&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;variant responsible for cinnamon&nbsp;U. americanus&nbsp;is identical to one previously described as a cause of oculocutaneous albinism (OCA3) in humans,” says Dr. Barsh. OCA3 is characterized by reddish skin and hair and frequent visual abnormalities and is most common in people of African or Puerto Rican ancestry. But according to Puckett, bears with&nbsp;TYRP1&nbsp;mutations have normal skin and can see just fine.



The&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;variant was primarily found in bears from the southwest United States, and at lower frequencies moving northward to Southeast Alaska and the Yukon Territory.&nbsp;The TYRP1R153C&nbsp;mutation was associated with the cinnamon color in black bears, as well as with the chocolate and light brown colors, meaning it accounts for almost all of the color diversity among&nbsp;U. americanus.



The researchers used their data to learn more about the&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;mutation. One hypothesis is that it may first have occurred in grizzly bears and then been&nbsp; transferred to black bears, but demographic analysis indicated that this was not what happened. Instead, the&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;mutation arose spontaneously about 9,360 years ago in black bears living in the western United States, then spread as the bears moved and became distributed across their current geographic range.



“Based on its wide range today, the&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;mutation that arose in black bears over 9,000 years ago probably gave an advantage to the cinnamon-colored bears,” says Dr. Puckett. “We used genetic modeling and simulations to predict the selective forces acting on the cinnamon morph. But our predictions ruled out the grizzly mimicry hypothesis as well as another hypothesis having to do with thermoregulation.”



The research team proposed a new explanation for the persistence of the coat color variant: crypsis. This refers to the ability of an animal to conceal itself by blending into the surrounding environment, usually by having similar coloration or patterning as the background. The researchers suggest that this is not only important for prey species or ambush predators, but also for large-bodied species that need to blend into their habitat.&nbsp;



“These results illustrate how genetic variation in melanin biosynthesis can underlie iconic phenotypes and inform our understanding of color variation and recent evolution in large carnivores,” says Dr. Barsh.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Why are some black bears actually brown?

Sometimes the common names for animals can end up being...

For decades, immunobiologists have pondered what are the long-term effects of infections on people’s immune systems. For instance, after the organism fights off a pathogen, does the immune system return to a previous baseline, or could a single infection change it in ways that alter how it will respond not only to an already familiar virus or bacteria but also to a new pathogenic threat?



Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a> and the <a href="https://www.niaid.nih.gov/">National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases</a> (NIAID) has systematically analyzed immune responses of healthy people who had received the flu vaccine, and compared the responses between those who had never been infected with SARS-CoV-2 and those who experienced mild cases but recovered.



The analysis revealed that the immune systems of men previously infected with the new coronavirus responded more robustly to flu vaccines than previously-infected women or people who had never been infected with SARS-CoV-2. These findings suggest that the immune statuses of men previously infected with SARS-CoV-2 was altered in ways that changed their response to a different type of future exposure.



“This was a total surprise,” said study senior author John Tsang, an immunobiologist at Yale. “Women usually mount a stronger overall immune response to pathogens and vaccines, but are also more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases.”&nbsp;



According to the scientists, this discovery could also be linked to an intriguing aspect noticed already early in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-origins-of-covid-19-will-most-likely-remain-a-mystery/">Covid-19</a> pandemic: men appeared much more likely to die from a runaway immune response than women after contracting Covid. The new study shows that even mild cases of Covid-19 may trigger stronger inflammatory responses in males than females, resulting in stronger functional changes to the male immune system, even a long time after recovery.



When analyzing the participants’ response to flu vaccinations, the experts found that males previously infected with SARS-CoV-2 produced more antibodies to influenza and increased levels of interferons (proteins produced by cells in response to infections or vaccines). This was surprising since, in general, healthy females have stronger interferon responses than males.



Since hundreds of millions – if not, according to some estimates, several billions – of people worldwide have been infected with the new coronavirus so far, and the emergence of long-Covid symptoms in some people is currently a major health concern, understanding the lingering effects of Covid on the immune system is crucial.&nbsp;



“Our findings point to the possibility that any infection or immune challenge may change the immune status to establish new set points. The immune status of an individual is likely shaped by a multitude of prior exposures and perturbations,” Sparks concluded.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05670-5">Nature</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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What are the lingering immune system effects of Covid?

For decades, immunobiologists have pondered what are the long-term effects...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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