In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



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Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp; Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries. Controlling the heart with light The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest. The external controller detects...

Insects play a crucial role in food chains and pollination. Over the last 20 years, their populations have dramatically declined due to rapid climate change. 



In a recent study, scientists have gained new insights into how certain fly species adapt to temperature shifts.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> studied two species from different climates: one from high-altitude forests in Northern California and the other from the hot deserts of the Southwest.



The findings reveal key differences in how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-like-to-play-and-have-fun-like-other-animals-according-to-a-fascinating-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> sense and respond to heat. The study suggests that changes in brain wiring and heat sensitivity influence whether a fly prefers warm or cool conditions.



This research may help predict how climate change will impact insect distribution and behavior. Tiny cold-blooded animals like flies rely on their environment to regulate body temperature. 



Their responses to temperature shifts offer valuable insights into the broader effects of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-flies-adapt-to-temperature">How flies adapt to temperature</h2>



The scientists found that flies from cool forests avoid heat due to their antennae’s molecular heat receptors.



In contrast, desert <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> are drawn to warmth, which is linked to changes in their brain wiring. These adaptations may have evolved over millions of years as each species adjusted to its environment.



The research sheds light on how animals develop preferences for specific temperature conditions. Understanding these adaptations can help predict future insect behavior in a rapidly changing world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-data-on-insects-and-climate-change">Limited data on insects and climate change</h2>



“Insects are especially threatened by climate change,” said Northwestern neurobiologist Marco Gallio. 



“Behavior is the first interface between an animal and its environment. Even before the struggle to survive or perish, animals can respond to climate change by migration and by changing their distribution."



“We are already seeing insect populations declining in many regions, and even insect vectors of disease like the Zika virus and malaria spreading into new areas.”



Gallio, a professor in the neurobiology department and the Soretta and Henry Shapiro Research Professor in Molecular Biology at the <a href="https://weinberg.northwestern.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences</a>, studies fruit flies and their sensory systems. 



Professor Gallio noted that limited data exist on insects and temperature because “not enough people care about the insects.” However, the available figures show a drastic decline over the past 20 to 50 years.



Insects pollinate 70% of crops and form the base of most terrestrial food chains. Their disappearance could trigger catastrophic ecosystem damage and directly affect human well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-sensitivity-in-flies">Temperature sensitivity in flies</h2>



Professor Gallio’s lab has long focused on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-have-a-new-weapon-to-defend-against-parasitic-wasps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small insects</a> respond to different temperatures.



“The common fruit fly is an especially powerful animal to study how the external world is represented and processed within the brain,” Gallio said. 



Years of genetic and neuroscience research have created a detailed map of the fly brain, more complete than that of any other animal.



Scientists wondered how brain circuits differed between species that lived in distinct thermal environments. 



Using tools like CRISPR, they studied genetic and neural mechanisms that shape temperature preferences.



PhD student Matthew Capek, lead author of the study, explained that flies from different climates detect heat at different activation points. 



This discovery partially explained the forest flies’ preference for cooler temperatures. However, it did not fully clarify the desert flies’ attraction to heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-the-right-insect-temperature">Seeking the right insect temperature</h2>



“The desert fly seemed actively attracted to warmer temperatures - around 90 degrees Fahrenheit compared to the forest fly’s sweet spot just below 70 degrees,” Capek said.



“In fact, the activation threshold of the antenna heat sensors corresponded to their favorite temperature range, which they will seek, rather than to a temperature they should avoid.”



Instead of avoiding high temperatures, desert flies interpret warmth as something positive. Their brain circuits appear wired to approach heat rather than flee from it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-desert-flies-seek-heat">Why desert flies seek heat</h2>



Gallio initially found this puzzling. If deserts are already hot, why would <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> seek out warmth? A research trip to the Anza Borrego desert of Southern California provided the answer.



“Deserts in this region are very hot during the day, but temperatures can drop extremely rapidly when the sun goes down, and night can be downright freezing,” said Alessia Para, a research associate professor of neurobiology and key author of the study. 



“Flies in this climate may need to constantly attend to the rapidly changing temperature and always seek the ideal range, finding shady spots during the day and hiding in cacti for warmth at night.”



Flies from milder environments may only react to extreme temperature shifts. In contrast, desert flies must continuously monitor temperature changes to survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-climate-and-temperature">Insects, climate, and temperature</h2>



Tracking the right temperature at all times is energy-intensive. For desert <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-walk-jump-and-dance-using-the-same-motor-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a>, however, it is a necessary survival strategy. 



Professor Gallio sees their behavior as part of a larger puzzle about how animals adapt to different climates.



“This comparative work is useful in a couple of different ways,” Gallio said. 



“When an animal is born, the brain is already programmed to know if many of the things it will encounter are bad or good for it, and we do not understand how that programming works.



“These fly species represent a natural experiment because a stimulus that is good for one species is bad for the other, and we can study the differences that make it so. 



“We also want to learn more about how animals have been able to adapt to different temperatures during evolution, so that we may be able to better understand and even predict how they react to ongoing climate change. 



“Of course, we care about the insects, and we hope that what we learn may help us appreciate and protect them better.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08682-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Insect populations are "dramatically" declining around the world as scientists sound alarm

Insects play a crucial role in food chains and pollination....

The timing of biological events in nature is crucial for survival. Flowers bloom in spring, cicadas mate in summer, and caterpillars hatch to feed on their host plants. 



However, extreme weather can disrupt this natural schedule - known as phenology - upsetting the delicate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-must-reconnect-with-nature-now-to-save-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">balance</a> of ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-nature-s-timing">Climate change and nature's timing</h2>



Phenology is closely tied to seasonal patterns, but climate change is interfering with nature's timing and causing shifts in how organisms interact.



A study led by <a href="https://www.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> ecologist Daijiang Li has explored how extreme weather affects phenology. The team focused on butterflies, moths, and flowering plants across the United States.



Extreme weather events, such as heat waves, cold snaps, heavy rainfall, and droughts, impact ecosystems but are often overlooked. Most research examines gradual climate shifts rather than immediate weather extremes. 



This oversight creates a knowledge gap in understanding how sudden changes affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and their interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immediate-impact-of-extreme-weather">Immediate impact of extreme weather</h2>



"Most studies have focused on climatic variables or seasonalities, such as annual temperatures or precipitation averages," said Li. 



"But as individuals, we respond to and make our decisions in response to immediate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-must-live-in-harmony-with-nature-to-create-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental stress</a>, rather than a 10-year trend, right?"



Li and his team found that extreme weather events play a significant role in phenology, comparable to average temperature changes. The research showed that these events interact with climatic variables, influencing plants and insects in complex ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-compounding-effects-of-weather-extremes">Compounding effects of weather extremes</h2>



"For example, extremely hot and extremely dry periods can have a compounding effect on the phenology," Li said.



"These variables don't occur in isolation. Rather, they interact with each other and interact with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-the-dual-crises-of-climate-and-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climatic variables</a> in driving the phenology of plants and insects as a whole."



The researchers analyzed data collected by citizen scientists through iNaturalist. This app allows users to document species by taking photos and uploading them to a database. Li’s team combined iNaturalist records with daily weather data from 1980 to 2022.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-specific-responses">Species-specific responses</h2>



"We looked at about 581 species of angiosperms (flowering plants) and the flying adults of 172 Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths) from 2016 to 2022," Li said. 



"We also looked at the spatial distribution patterns, how extreme weather events affect the phenology of those plants and insects, and also whether the plants and insects have similar or different responses to extreme weather events."



One concern is how extreme weather disrupts relationships between species. Some species depend on precise timing for survival. The yucca plant and yucca moth, for example, rely on each other. 



The moth pollinates the yucca flowers, while the plant provides food for its larvae. If this timing is disrupted, both species suffer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-of-phenological-mismatches">Risk of phenological mismatches</h2>



"If larval stages of insects are too responsive to early spring heat waves, they may be more susceptible to mortality when temperatures return to normal or during cold snaps," Li said. 



"Similarly, if spring is warmer than usual, plants are going to flower earlier, making them more vulnerable to late frost during growing season."



If pollinators like butterflies or moths emerge before or after plants flower, both struggle. Pollinators cannot find food, and flowers go unpollinated. These mismatches threaten entire ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-reactions-to-cold-spells">Unexpected reactions to cold spells</h2>



The study also revealed that plants and insects react differently to extreme weather. While extreme cold in spring caused butterflies and moths to emerge early, plant flowering times remained largely unchanged.



"Those kinds of phenological mismatches are going to have consequences for both the plants as well as for the insects, causing both populations to suffer," Li said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-extreme-weather">Future research on extreme weather </h2>



Li and his co-authors, Michael Belitz, Lindsay Campbell, and Robert Guralnick from the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>, believe incorporating extreme weather into climate models will improve predictions. This could help mitigate negative effects on ecosystems.



"This work has the potential to be relevant across multiple sectors, from conservation to food security," said Campbell, an assistant professor at the Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory.



"We are still just beginning to more fully understand how extreme weather impacts insects and plants, which ultimately impacts us and our food security," said Guralnick. "This work is a step towards that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goal</a>."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02248-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Nature’s timing is drastically changing due to extreme weather

The timing of biological events in nature is crucial for...

NASA's Lunar Trailblazer mission is taking off soon, and it's got one big job: solving the Moon's water mystery.



This tiny satellite is catching a lift on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket - tagging along with Intuitive Machines' IM-2 launch as part of NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services initiative.



It'll spend months making its way to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-are-searching-for-viable-sources-of-water-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar orbit</a> before getting down to business.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunt-for-moon-s-water">Hunt for Moon's water</h2>



Scientists made an incredible discovery in recent decades - the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moons-entire-surface-is-covered-with-water-and-hydroxyl-not-just-the-poles/">Moon has water</a>. But we barely know anything about it. 



Where exactly is it? What form does it take? How much is there? Does it change over time?



<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/lunar-trailblazer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lunar Trailblazer</a> wants answers. This little satellite will map Moon water in unprecedented detail. 



The info it gathers during its two-year mission won't just teach us about the Moon either, it'll help us understand water cycles on airless bodies all across the solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smart-tech-for-moon-s-water-mystery">Smart tech for Moon's water mystery</h2>



The spacecraft carries two impressive instruments.



First, there's the High-resolution Volatiles and Minerals Moon Mapper (<a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=L-TRLBLZR-01" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HVM3</a>), an infrared spectrometer developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California.



Then, there's the Lunar Thermal Mapper (<a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=L-TRLBLZR-02" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LTM</a>), an infrared multispectral imager built by the University of Oxford with funding from the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/uk-space-agency" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Space Agency</a>.



HVM3 will track down spectral fingerprints - those wavelengths of reflected sunlight - that identify minerals and different water types on the lunar surface. 



The LTM handles mapping the minerals and thermal properties of the same areas.



Together, they'll create a complete picture of where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-is-the-moons-water-a-nasa-mission-will-soon-find-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> is, what form it takes, and how it shifts over time and temperature variations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-there-isn-t-simple">Getting there isn't simple</h2>



The Lunar Trailblazer isn't big - about the size of your dishwasher and weighing just 440 pounds with solar panels that extend 11.5 feet (3.5 meters) when fully open.



The mission team planned something clever: a looping path that'll take 4-7 months, and use the gravity of the Sun, Earth, and Moon as natural guides.



The team calls this technique a low-energy transfer, and it makes the journey much more feasible for the small explorer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peeking-into-dark-craters">Peeking into dark craters</h2>



Once it arrives, Lunar Trailblazer will direct its HVM3 instrument toward the Moon's South Pole craters. 



What makes these areas so remarkable? They contain cold traps that may have remained in darkness for billions of years - ideal hiding places for frozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-scientists-have-harvested-water-from-lunar-soil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a>.



The spectrometer relies on faint light reflecting off crater walls to observe the floors of permanently shadowed regions.



If it detects substantial ice deposits at the bottom of these craters, future lunar explorers may have just identified their next crucial source of Moon water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-doing-more-with-less">Doing more with less</h2>



NASA selected Lunar Trailblazer back in 2019 through their Small Innovative Missions for Planetary Exploration program. It's all about hitching rides on other missions to save money.



These missions accept more risk and have less oversight than bigger projects. That's the trade-off - but it lets NASA green-light science missions that just couldn't happen otherwise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-lunar-exploration">Future of lunar exploration</h2>



Water is the key to survival in space. 



If Lunar Trailblazer finds abundant, accessible ice, future astronauts won’t have to bring all their water from Earth - they can extract it directly from the Moon. 



This could lead to sustainable lunar bases, longer missions, and even a stepping stone for Mars exploration.



But beyond its practical applications, this mission taps into something deeper - a human need to explore, to push boundaries, to uncover the unknown. 



Lunar Trailblazer isn’t just a satellite; it’s a bridge to the future, guiding us toward a new era of space discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-moon-s-water-mystery">Future research on Moon's water mystery </h2>



The data from Lunar Trailblazer won't just satisfy scientific curiosity. It'll be practical. Future astronauts could use lunar ice for drinking water, breathing oxygen, or even rocket fuel. 



Scientists might sample it to trace where Moon water originally came from.



<a href="https://www.gps.caltech.edu/people/bethany-l-ehlmann" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bethany Ehlmann</a> of Caltech leads the mission as Principal Investigator, with Caltech handling the science and mission operations through their IPAC center. 



NASA JPL manages everything and provides engineering support and the HVM3 instrument.



<a href="https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/capabilities/space.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lockheed Martin Space</a> built the spacecraft itself and handles flight operations. It's all part of NASA's broader <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lunar Discovery Exploration Program</a>, which is overseen by the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/planetarymissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Mission Program Office</a> at Marshall Space Flight Center.



Information for this article came from a NASA JPL <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/6-things-to-know-about-nasas-lunar-trailblazer/">press release.</a>



Image Credit: Lockheed Martin Space



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NASA's dishwasher-sized spacecraft will map Moon's water

NASA's Lunar Trailblazer mission is taking off soon, and it's...

A team of astronomers has produced the sharpest-ever images of infant planets forming around a distant star, revealing rings of dust that could eventually spawn moons.&nbsp;



Taking advantage of a state-of-the-art adaptive optics system called Magellan Adaptive Optics Xtreme (<a href="https://magao-x.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MagAO-X</a>), the researchers examined two protoplanets orbiting PDS 70 - a star that is only about five million years old. 



Situated roughly 370 light-years away in the constellation Centaurus, this newborn system offers a rare window into the formative stages of planetary evolution.



Led by the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, the research provides some of the clearest evidence to date that young planets can be surrounded by dense rings of dust.&nbsp;



These disks are expected to collapse into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-the-moon-looks-100-million-years-younger-than-its-true-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moons</a> over the next few million years. The team also noted surprising shifts in the brightness of the planets, suggesting highly turbulent conditions as they rapidly evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-stars-and-massive-planets">Young stars and massive planets</h2>



The youth of PDS 70 makes it a valuable proxy for what our own solar system might have looked like billions of years ago. In contrast, our Sun - a “middle-aged” <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-star-movement-in-omega-centauri-may-finally-be-explained/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a> at roughly 4.5 billion years old - has long since lost the fleeting features of its infancy.



“Multiple massive planets act kind of like brooms or vacuum cleaners. They basically scatter the dust away and clear the large gap that we observe in this great big disk of gas and dust that surrounds the star," explained Laird Close, a professor of astronomy at the University of Arizona’s <a href="https://astro.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Steward Observatory</a>.



Among thousands of confirmed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-discovery-nasa-identifies-over-5500-distant-worlds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a>, very few are known to be in the protoplanetary stage. 



The two planets orbiting PDS 70, known as PDS 70 b and PDS 70 c, stand out as a unique opportunity for astronomers to track how worlds and their moons take shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-breakthrough-in-technology">Major breakthrough in technology </h2>



Central to the team’s success is MagAO-X, an advanced adaptive optics system installed on the 6.5-meter Magellan Telescope at Las Campanas Observatory in Chile. 



Adaptive optics counters the blurring effects of Earth’s atmosphere, which otherwise hinders ground-based observations.



With a deformable mirror that changes shape up to 2,000 times per second, MagAO-X can “untwinkle” stars in much the same way noise-cancelling headphones block ambient sound.



“This is a really great breakthrough in technology,” said Close, noting that the system achieves better resolution than even space-based telescopes like Hubble and the James Webb Space Telescope.&nbsp;



“Because our technology removes disturbances from the atmosphere, it’s a bit like taking a 6.5-meter telescope mirror and putting it in outer space by clicking a computer mouse button.”



In practical terms, this heightened resolution means MagAO-X can pick out exceptionally fine details from 370 light-years away - akin to discerning whether someone holds a single quarter or two quarters while standing 125 miles off.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-planets-with-dusty-birthplaces">Young planets with dusty birthplaces</h2>



One of the major discoveries from these observations was the presence of bright, compact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-directly-observes-carbon-factories-milky-way-galaxy-wolf-rayet-140/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rings of dust</a> around PDS 70 b and c.&nbsp;



These rings are expected to fall in on themselves over time, eventually giving rise to new moons, much like how Jupiter’s and Saturn’s moon systems likely formed out of similar dust disks in the early solar system.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/PDS-70-system_baby-planets_first-images_credit-Close-Close_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/PDS-70-system_baby-planets_first-images_credit-Close-Close_1s.webp" alt="Donuts of dust: An artist’s impression of the PDS 70 system with protoplanets, each surrounded by dust rings illuminated by starlight. The planets themselves (not to scale) have thin rings of plasma heated to around 14,000 degrees Fahrenheit, which glow at the red emission line of H-alpha light. Credit: Emmeline Close and Laird Close" class="wp-image-1961551"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Donuts of dust: An artist’s impression of the PDS 70 system with protoplanets, each surrounded by dust rings illuminated by starlight. The planets themselves (not to scale) have thin rings of plasma heated to around 14,000 degrees Fahrenheit, which glow at the red emission line of H-alpha light. Credit: Emmeline Close and Laird Close</figcaption></figure>



“We can see, for the first time, rings of dust surrounding protoplanets made visible by the bright starlight reflecting off of them,” said Jialin Li, a doctoral student in astronomy and one of the study’s co-authors.



Understanding these initial stages is vital, as the presence of dusty disks can affect how planets accumulate mass and whether substantial moons can form.&nbsp;



Over the coming millions of years, these forming gas giants could end up with satellite systems similar in scale to those found around Jupiter or Saturn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-shifts-in-planet-brightness">Surprising shifts in planet brightness</h2>



Another finding was how dramatically the planets varied in brightness over just three years. The team discovered that PDS 70 b dropped to about one-fifth of its original brightness, whereas PDS 70 c doubled in brightness over the same timeframe.



Close suggested these fluctuations are tied to changes in the hydrogen “waterfalls” streaming onto each planet. When hydrogen gas bombards a planet’s surface, it emits light at a wavelength known as H-alpha.&nbsp;



Because the amount of hydrogen flowing onto a planet can change quickly, its brightness at that specific wavelength can swing just as rapidly.



“Essentially, one of the planets abruptly went on a diet while the other was feasting on hydrogen,” said Close.



Despite these observations, astronomers still are not entirely sure what triggers such abrupt fluctuations. 



More continued monitoring of systems like PDS 70 may help clarify whether these brightness changes are typical for protoplanets or caused by particularly chaotic growth spurts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-ground-based-discoveries">The future of ground-based discoveries</h2>



MagAO-X has already broadened astronomers’ capabilities for examining protoplanets, and the team plans to search for additional infant worlds around other young stars.&nbsp;



Although discovering more planets at such an early formation stage is technically challenging, improvements in adaptive optics and telescope design could make it increasingly feasible.



“One of our main goals is to demonstrate just how well these observations can be done with telescopes on the ground,” said Jared Males, MagAO-X’s principal investigator and an associate astronomer at Steward Observatory.&nbsp;



“We can always build larger telescopes on the ground than in space, and this result shows how important it is to build the next generation of even larger telescopes and equip them with instruments like MagAO-X.”



By continuing to refine adaptive optics and other observational techniques, astronomers hope to fill in the missing details of how stars and their planets form.&nbsp;



In the process, they can draw parallels back to our own solar system’s earliest days - insights that were essentially lost to time after 4.5 billion years of evolution.



The study is published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/ad8648" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astronomical Journal</a>.



Image Credit: Emmeline Close and Laird Close



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Stunning images of "baby planets" reveal surprising growth spurts

A team of astronomers has produced the sharpest-ever images of...

Our brains constantly create internal maps of the world, allowing us to navigate spaces, recall past experiences, and plan for the future. These cognitive maps enable us to recognize patterns, anticipate changes, and adapt our behavior accordingly.&nbsp;



Whether it's finding the right floor in a hotel or realizing we’ve stepped out onto the wrong one, these maps help us make sense of our surroundings.



Neuroscientists have long studied how neurons respond to specific locations, but how these mental maps form over time has remained largely unknown.&nbsp;



Now, researchers at <a href="https://www.janelia.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HHMI’s Janelia Research Campus</a> have uncovered a step-by-step process for how these maps develop in the hippocampus, a brain region critical for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-create-three-copies-of-every-memory-we-make/">memory</a> and spatial navigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-neural-activity-over-time">Tracking neural activity over time</h2>



By recording the activity of thousands of neurons in a mouse's hippocampus over days and weeks, the research team, led by the <a href="https://www.janelia.org/lab/spruston-lab" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spruston Lab</a>, systematically documented how the brain constructs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-maps-help-the-brain-remember-places-and-paths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive maps</a> as an animal learns.&nbsp;



The study focused on how the hippocampus differentiates between two visually similar environments - much like different floors in a hotel - with each offering a reward in different locations.



“We are mapping out the step-by-step process of cognitive map formation, which is such an important concept,” said Weinan Sun, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> and a co-leader of the research.&nbsp;



“But there is also a second contribution: The result of watching that process gives us a hint about the underlying computations, and we get a little bit closer to understanding what the brain is doing in making these maps.”



The findings not only provide new insight into memory formation but could also improve treatments for neurodegenerative diseases like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-why-some-brains-resist-alzheimers-disease-symptoms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s</a> and advance artificial intelligence (AI) systems by helping them reason more like biological brains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-maps-of-similar-spaces">Brain maps of similar spaces</h2>



To study cognitive map formation, researchers used high-resolution imaging to track the neural activity of a mouse navigating a virtual environment. The mouse learned to recognize two nearly identical corridors - one offering a reward at a near location and the other at a far location - based on visual cues.



At first, the mouse had no understanding of the task, and its neural activity looked similar for both corridors. But as learning progressed, distinct patterns began to emerge.&nbsp;



Initially, the mouse learned where not to search for rewards, ignoring locations where it had previously been unsuccessful. Next, it recognized that only one reward was given per corridor and adjusted its behavior accordingly.&nbsp;



Finally, the mouse learned to suppress its response at the near reward location in the corridor where the reward was placed farther ahead. As the animal learned, its brain gradually separated the two corridors into completely distinct cognitive maps.



“Initially, the brain activity is very similar, and with learning, the activity becomes more and more different until they are orthogonal,” Sun explained. “In the end, each neural pattern of activity will encode a hidden state that reflects the true nature of the task.”



This ability to encode hidden states - aspects of an environment that are not immediately visible - is crucial for navigating complex and ambiguous spaces in the real world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-extracts-hidden-information">The brain extracts hidden information</h2>



The researchers identified a special type of neurons, which they call “state cells,” that help encode hidden information and distinguish between similar environments. These cells allow an animal to recognize whether it is in one corridor or the other - even if the visual surroundings appear identical.



“The brain cares about the immediate sensory input but interprets it in the context of the hidden state the animal is in,” Sun said.



This process mirrors how humans learn to differentiate between similar locations. When staying in a multi-floor hotel, for example, the hallways on each floor might look nearly identical.&nbsp;



At first, we might struggle to tell them apart, but over time, our brains encode subtle differences - such as the layout of furniture or the feel of the carpeting - allowing us to recognize our floor effortlessly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computational-principles-of-brain-maps">Computational principles of brain maps</h2>



Beyond mapping neural activity, the researchers wanted to understand the computational principles behind these maps. 



The experts tested various models and found that the best fit was a Clone-Structured Causal Graph (CSCG) - a type of state machine that infers hidden states based on observed patterns.



This finding suggests that the brain builds cognitive maps much like a computer program that predicts an outcome by piecing together hidden clues.



“One of the ultimate goals of neuroscience is to connect observed behavior with the cellular, molecular, and computational processes that produce it,” saID Janelia Executive Director Nelson Spruston, the study’s senior author.&nbsp;



“We are getting at the algorithmic level - arguably the hardest to pin down - which helps us connect the dots of how the brain operates to form these computations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-neuroscience">AI and neuroscience</h2>



Understanding how the hippocampus constructs cognitive maps could lead to advances in artificial intelligence and the treatment of memory disorders. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-ai-systems-learn-like-the-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI systems</a>, such as large language models (LLMs), struggle with tasks requiring reasoning, planning, and long-term memory.&nbsp;



By incorporating biological principles from the hippocampus, AI could become better at contextual learning and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-communicate-to-support-decision-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decision-making</a>.



“Neuroscience and AI can learn a lot from each other,” said Johan Winnubst, lead scientist at <a href="https://e11.bio/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E11 Bio</a>, who co-led the research.&nbsp;



“What large language models are able to do is very impressive, but they also fail in a lot of very obvious ways. Some of that has to do with reasoning and long-term planning. Maybe we can introduce lessons from the hippocampus to improve these models.”



Additionally, insights from this study could help researchers design better treatments for neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s, where memory formation and cognitive mapping are severely impaired.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The researchers have made their data publicly available through an interactive visualization tool, allowing scientists worldwide to explore the neural patterns behind cognitive map formation.&nbsp;



Moving forward, they plan to expand their research to more complex environments, testing whether the same principles apply to different types of learning and decision-making.



By connecting behavior, neural activity, and computational models, this study takes an important step toward unraveling one of neuroscience’s greatest mysteries: how the brain builds the maps that shape our perception, memory, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/every-part-of-the-brain-works-together-to-support-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08548-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How our brains build mental maps of the world

Our brains constantly create internal maps of the world, allowing...

New research has uncovered a surprising wrinkle in our understanding of how pesticides affect bumble bees.&nbsp;



While common sense tells us that chemicals meant to kill insects can only harm pollinators, it turns out there may be moments when a tiny amount of poison could actually help a bumble bee queen make it through winter - at least in the short term.



A team of researchers led by <a href="https://agsci.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University’s College of Agricultural Sciences</a> examined imidacloprid, a widely used neonicotinoid insecticide. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-term-benefits-vs-long-term-fitness">Short-term benefits vs. long-term fitness </h2>



It’s already well-established that high doses of imidacloprid shorten bees’ lives and reduce their ability to reproduce. 



But when the scientists took a closer look, they found something unexpected: at low, sublethal doses, imidacloprid seemed to help bumble bee queens survive through diapause, which is the bug-world version of hibernation.



This phenomenon is called hormesis - when a small dose of something that’s generally harmful turns out to be beneficial under just the right circumstances.&nbsp;



The experts compared it to caffeine for humans. A small amount might provide a boost, but we all know it can also interfere with our sleep if we’re not careful.&nbsp;



“Even low doses can have unintended effects, such as disrupting sleep,” said Etya Amsalem, an associate professor of entomology at Penn State and the study’s lead author.



According to Professor Amsalem, if hormesis goes unrecognized, it could lead to the mistaken conclusion that certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-attack-bees-in-multiple-ways-throughout-the-body/">pesticides</a> benefit bees. 



“Such a misconception is dangerous, given the well-documented negative effects of imidacloprid and the trade-offs associated with hormetic responses - where short-term benefits trade-off with long-term fitness.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-winter-struggle-of-bumble-bee-queens">Winter struggle of bumble bee queens</h2>



One reason this discovery matters so much is that queen bumble bees spend a huge chunk of their life - often around 75% - in diapause. This is a dormant state that helps them weather harsh winter conditions.&nbsp;



If a queen doesn’t make it through this frigid, food-scarce period, an entire future colony is lost in the process.



“Despite the fact that most pollinators undergo winter diapause, pesticide risk assessments typically focus on the bee’s active seasons, overlooking a significant portion of the bee’s life cycle,” Amsalem explained.&nbsp;



So, while we know a fair bit about how chemicals impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-climate-change-is-buzzing-off-bumblebee-senses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> during spring and summer, there’s a big gap in our knowledge about what happens to them over winter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pesticides-and-bumble-bee-survival">Pesticides and bumble bee survival</h2>



To figure out how imidacloprid might affect bees during both the active and dormant phases, the team fed bumble bees sugar water containing different concentrations of the insecticide.&nbsp;



For worker bees and males, higher doses led to the usual bad news: shorter lifespans and fewer offspring. But when the scientists gave queen bees just a little bit of imidacloprid before sending them into diapause under controlled conditions, they noticed a puzzling effect.&nbsp;



“Surprisingly, we found that sublethal imidacloprid exposure actually improved the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebee-queens-have-an-odd-preference-for-contaminated-soil/">queens</a>’ survival,” Amsalem said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormesis-a-double-edged-sword">Hormesis: A double-edged sword</h2>



While a longer winter survival time sounds like a good thing, that’s only one part of the bigger story. The team also saw that imidacloprid exposure lowered overall fitness, such as decreasing a colony’s total reproductive output.&nbsp;



In other words, the queen might make it through the winter more often if she has just a tiny bit of pesticide in her system, but that same pesticide still saps her and her colony in other ways - perhaps making them less robust once spring arrives.



That’s the essence of hormesis: it’s a trade-off. In bees, these short-term gains don’t necessarily mean the insecticide is actually beneficial when you look at the big picture.&nbsp;



Instead, scientists worry that not accounting for hormesis could lead us to think that certain pesticides are harmless or even helpful, when in fact they may still pose major threats to our pollinator populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-the-bigger-picture">Looking at the bigger picture</h2>



Bumble bees are critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/">pollinators</a> for a variety of crops. Any shift in their survival rates - good or bad - could have huge implications for agriculture and ecosystems. If our standard methods of testing pesticide safety overlook what happens during diapause, we risk missing the full picture.



Professor Amsalem believes these findings should be woven into how we assess and regulate pesticides. She also said we need to dig deeper into the “why” of this hormetic response. 



“Most importantly,” she explained, “we must strive to conduct nuanced science that provides a holistic understanding of how stressors affect pollinators - ensuring better-informed conservation efforts.”



To truly protect bumble bees and other pollinators, experts will need to examine every part of their life cycle, not just those busy spring and summer months.&nbsp;



That includes thinking about how warming and pesticides might affect them differently in different seasons - and whether certain amounts of chemicals that look safe on the surface can still be causing hidden problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The discovery that low doses of imidacloprid can help queens survive winter means we can’t simply dismiss all sublethal pesticide exposure as benign. It also means that if we don’t consider diapause in our risk assessments, we might jump to the wrong conclusions.&nbsp;



Future research will no doubt explore exactly how these low doses increase queen survival and whether similar patterns show up in other insect species or other types of pesticides.



What’s clear is that pollinator health is rarely a simple matter of “just avoid poison.” From the vantage point of ecology, everything is connected. A small dose can have unforeseen benefits - until it doesn’t.&nbsp;



By expanding our perspective to include times of the year we usually overlook, like the frigid months when queen bees are hidden away, we stand a better chance of keeping these vital pollinators humming along for generations to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0612">Biology Letters</a>.



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Pesticides affect bumble bee health in complex ways

New research has uncovered a surprising wrinkle in our understanding...

Bamboo-based kitchenware is popping up in supermarkets and online shops worldwide. People praise these products for their seemingly eco-friendly image and pleasing designs.



Yet, researchers are examining whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-chemicals-linked-to-neurological-disorders/">certain chemicals</a> migrate from these items into food, particularly in the presence of high temperatures or acidic substances. 



Shoppers want to trust their cups, plates, and bowls, and that trust hinges on transparent science.



“In this study, we collected 33 bamboo and other bio-based dishes from the British, Chinese and Czech markets,” stated <a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/1834707" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Kamila Bechynska</a>, a lead researcher from the University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-bamboo-the-basics">Understanding bamboo - the basics</h2>



Bamboo is one of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-pandas-taste-for-bamboo-is-literally-written-in-their-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fastest-growing plants</a> on Earth, and it’s as strong as it is versatile. Technically a type of grass, bamboo can grow over three feet in a single day, making it an incredible renewable resource. 



People use it for everything - from building houses and making furniture to crafting eco-friendly clothing and utensils. 



It’s also a powerhouse for the environment, absorbing tons of carbon dioxide while pumping out fresh oxygen.



Some species of bamboo even thrive in poor soil, helping prevent erosion and restore damaged land.



Beyond its practical uses, bamboo is a lifeline for wildlife. Pandas, lemurs, and even some elephants rely on it for food. 



In many cultures, bamboo also has deep symbolic meaning, representing strength, flexibility, and resilience. 



Plus, it's becoming a go-to material for <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/top-5-uses-for-bamboo-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable living</a> - bamboo toothbrushes, straws, fabrics, and of course, kitchen utensils are replacing plastic alternatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bamboo-and-melamine-concerns">Bamboo and melamine concerns</h2>



Bamboo composites often rely on melamine and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-cleaning-products-may-be-as-harmful-as-traditional-ones/">formaldehyde</a> resins to maintain shape. Some experts point to potential health implications if these substances leach into food.



In a 2020 <a href="https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.2903/j.efsa.2019.5902">publication</a> by the European Food Safety Authority's Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes and Processing Aid, the authors concluded that "Fillable articles made from melamine formaldehyde resin, such as coffee-to-go cups sold as bamboo-ware, may leak harmful substances into hot foods.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regulatory-twists">Regulatory twists</h2>



Furthermore, in 2019, the <a href="https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2019.5902" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Food Safety Authority</a> clarified that bamboo should not be lumped in with wood, highlighting the need for separate scrutiny of these plant-based materials.&nbsp;



Several European agencies expressed similar concerns. They urged tight controls on bamboo and plastic blends that are used to produce tableware that enters the market.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-industry-and-consumer-responses">Industry and consumer responses</h2>



Industry groups have supplied limited data on compliance testing for these products. They often point to successful results for formaldehyde migration and heavy metals detection, though the sample sizes can be rather small.



Some companies tout <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-pandas-taste-for-bamboo-is-literally-written-in-their-genes/">bamboo-based</a> cups and lunchboxes as safe for dishwasher use, but evidence on long-term durability remains patchy. 



Others highlight meeting official migration standards without offering full transparency on their manufacturing processes.



Consumers need to be aware that tableware marketed as "bio-based" is not necessarily as "green" and sustainable as portrayed. 



Although the natural materials used may be safe, but these are often compounded with synthetic substances, such as melamine-formaldehyde resin, which may carry risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-knowledge-gaps">Ongoing knowledge gaps</h2>



Regulators still see gaps in how these products perform over time and with repeated use. Hot liquids and acidic foods could accelerate the release of chemicals.



Laboratories in multiple countries continue to evaluate unknown substances that might linger in the resin. Without more data, the real extent of exposure to toxic additives is uncertain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-advice">Practical advice</h2>



Shoppers who prefer bamboo ware should be aware that repeated heating can increase wear and tear. Official guidance encourages discarding damaged items to reduce the possibility of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-rely-on-quantum-mechanics-to-transfer-energy-from-sunlight/">chemical transfer</a>.



Choosing cups and plates that list detailed composition and adhere to recognized testing procedures can cut down on potential risks. Inspecting labels and product certifications may offer extra peace of mind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions">Future directions</h2>



Food safety bodies are collecting more data to shape updated regulations on the production standards for bamboo-based dishware. 



Additional research could clarify whether these products meet today’s standards under various conditions of use.



Scientists remain interested in pinpointing any harmful chemical releases tied to high temperatures or long storage. Authorities are also exploring whether consistent labeling can guide consumers more effectively.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S095671352500057X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Control</a>.



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Trendy bamboo products may come with a hidden cost

Bamboo-based kitchenware is popping up in supermarkets and online shops...

Researchers at the University of Manchester suggest that fossilized bones of the ancient flying reptiles known as pterosaurs may offer vital insights for building lighter, stronger materials in future. 



Using advanced X-ray imaging, the research team discovered a hidden network of microscopic canals inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-took-flight-millions-of-years-before-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pterosaur</a> wing bones.&nbsp;



These canals, originally used for nutrient transport and structural maintenance, also helped protect against small cracks - a natural design that could revolutionize aerospace engineering today.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-flyers-with-an-engineering-edge">Prehistoric flyers with an engineering edge</h2>



Pterosaurs were flying reptiles that lived alongside dinosaurs and were the first vertebrates to achieve powered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-flight-feathers-may-reveal-which-dinosaurs-could-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flight</a>.&nbsp;



Early pterosaur species had wingspans of about 2 meters (6.5 feet), but later forms grew much larger, with some exceeding 10 meters (32 feet). 



Supporting such expansive wing membranes required a delicate balance between high strength and low weight. 



The scientists behind this new study used state-of-the-art X-ray Computed Tomography (XCT) to examine precisely how pterosaurs met this challenge. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-pterosaur-bones-for-biomimicry">Analyzing pterosaur bones for biomimicry</h2>



By analyzing fossil bones at near sub-micrometer resolution, the experts uncovered a dense web of channels inside the bone tissue. 



These channels not only served biological functions, such as transferring nutrients and aiding bone growth, but also provided mechanical reinforcement. 



They directed stress away from weaker areas, thus preventing microfractures from developing into serious damage.



“We are so excited to find and map these microscopic interlocking structures in pterosaur bones," said Nathan Pili, a Ph.D. student at the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> and first author of the study. 



"We hope one day we can use them to reduce the weight of aircraft materials, thereby reducing fuel consumption and potentially making planes safer.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaur-bones-in-amazing-detail">Pterosaur bones in amazing detail</h2>



To capture these structures in 3D, the research team harnessed ultra-detailed X-ray imaging that can visualize features around 20 times thinner than a human hair.&nbsp;



Past examinations of pterosaur bones had never reached this resolution, leaving these intricate microcanals undiscovered. 



According to the team, the extraordinary precision of the scans allowed them to understand how the channels fit together like a network, conferring both strength and flexibility.



The microcanals were originally pathways for blood vessels and other biological materials. Over millions of years of evolution, however, pterosaurs adapted to maintain enough bone density to support flight without adding unnecessary mass.&nbsp;



The result was a structural arrangement that distributed loads effectively - an arrangement that the researchers believe could point to innovative “palaeo-biomimetic” solutions for 21st-century engineering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aircraft-inspired-by-pterosaur-bones-nbsp">Aircraft inspired by pterosaur bones&nbsp;</h2>



Modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-aircraft-demonstrate-major-climate-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aircraft</a> designers are always looking for lighter yet more resilient materials to reduce fuel consumption, cut emissions, and enhance safety.&nbsp;



The canal-based structure found in pterosaur bones might be mimicked in metal 3D printing, producing airplane parts with strategically placed internal channels that mirror the reptile’s natural bone architecture.



“It is highly likely that, among the billions of permutations of life on Earth, unique engineering solutions have evolved but were lost to the sands of time,” said Professor Phil Manning, senior author of the study and Director of Science at the <a href="https://dct.gov.ae/en/what.we.do/culture/museums/natural.history.museum.abu.dhabi..aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum Abu Dhabi</a>.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/ancient-pterosaur-bone_aerospace-design_credit-UManchester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/ancient-pterosaur-bone_aerospace-design_credit-UManchester_1s.webp" alt="Credit: Nathan Pili, University of Manchester" class="wp-image-1961537"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Credit: Nathan Pili, University of Manchester</figcaption></figure>



“We hope to unlock the potential of ancient natural solutions to create new materials but also help build a more sustainable future.”



The researchers suggest that such bio-inspired designs could allow for integrated sensors or even self-healing properties, further pushing the boundaries of aviation technology.&nbsp;



As more advanced 3D printing methods emerge, these fossil-derived ideas could feasibly enter industrial production lines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dual-function-of-pterosaur-bones">Dual function of pterosaur bones</h2>



As the largest known flying vertebrates, some pterosaurs had wingspans of up to 10 meters (32 feet) or more, supported primarily by an elongated fourth finger that served as a “wing spar.”&nbsp;



This anatomical arrangement required bones that were strong enough to sustain flight stresses yet not so heavy as to hinder takeoff and maneuverability. The newly revealed microcanal system effectively addresses both goals.



The dual function of biological support and mechanical resilience is a hallmark of evolutionary engineering, where life solves specific survival challenges over millions of years of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a>.



“There is over 4 billion years of experimental design that were a function of Darwinian natural selection,” Manning commented. 



“These natural solutions are beautifully reflected by the same iterative processes used by engineers to refine materials.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinct-creatures-and-modern-innovation-nbsp">Extinct creatures and modern innovation&nbsp;</h2>



The study’s authors see these discoveries as a stepping stone to palaeo-biomimetics, the idea that even extinct creatures can guide modern innovation.&nbsp;



Whether for aircraft, marine vessels, or other structural applications, the strategies that once helped pterosaurs soar across prehistoric skies may now help address present-day engineering obstacles.



While natural selection did not always produce “perfect” designs, there may be countless examples of biological systems that overcame extreme challenges.&nbsp;



The pterosaur bone microcanals are just one instance of how ancient life can inform solutions that lie beyond the scope of conventional human design.



Pili and colleagues plan to conduct higher-resolution scans of more pterosaur fossils, hoping to uncover additional secrets hidden in ancient bones.&nbsp;



These efforts may spur a new wave of cross-disciplinary research involving paleontology, materials science, and advanced manufacturing. 



The hope is that some of the most promising ideas for the future might be found by looking 100 million years into the past.



The findings were recently published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-88257-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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100-million-year-old bones inspire new aircraft design

Researchers at the University of Manchester suggest that fossilized bones...

The frozen landscape of the Canadian Arctic was once home to palm trees - a revelation that defies everything we thought we knew about Earth's climate history.



Today, the Arctic is defined by ice, permafrost, and extreme cold, supporting only the hardiest plants and animals. 



However, evidence suggests that millions of years ago, the region was warm enough to sustain towering palm trees and a thriving ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-look-at-the-arctic-s-past">A new look at the Arctic's past </h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://www.conncoll.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Connecticut College</a> are describing fossil discoveries that tell a very different tale of the Arctic's history.



The research sheds light on how the Arctic once existed - with dense forest, warm-water ecosystems, and a climate akin to the today's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropics</a>.



The idea of palms thriving in a region that now endures months of icy darkness and subzero temperatures is astonishing. 



It contradicts our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ecosystems-are-endangered-by-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> environments and compels us to reexamine the dynamic nature of Earth's climate over geologic timescales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-fossils-from-the-eocene">Plant fossils from the Eocene </h2>



The scientists studied small silica structures known as phytoliths - microscopic plant fragments that are a fossilized record of past <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegetation-impacts-energy-movement-in-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a> - embedded in ancient lakebed residues from Canada's Northwest territories.



The mineralized structures, which preserve the unique shape of the plants they originated from, are important evidence of a drastically different Arctic environment.



In particular, the researchers visited the Giraffe Pipe locality, a relatively well-preserved geological location that provides an exceptional snapshot of prehistoric times, suspended in perpetuity.



This out-of-the way place, which was once a productive ecosystem, contains some of the finest-preserved plant fossils from the Eocene epoch. The fossils help scientists recreate ancient climates with extraordinary accuracy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-palm-trees-in-the-arctic">Palm trees in the Arctic</h2>



What the team discovered was nothing less than incredible. The fossil record indicates that about 48 million years ago, this area had warm, stable temperatures throughout the year - even in times of pure winter darkness when the sun never broke the horizon.



Contrary to today's Arctic environment, where ice covers the terrain and subzero temperatures prevail for most of the year, this ancient ecosystem was more like a subtropical haven.



Palm trees did not merely survive here - they thrived, towering above a dense forest of warm-climate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-plants-adapt-to-changing-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>. Their existence upends long-standing beliefs regarding the boundaries of plant survival and offers a striking image of an Arctic that was once recognizably warm and vibrant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-palm-trees-and-a-lost-arctic-world">Palm trees and a lost Arctic world</h2>



"These findings give us a window into past greenhouse conditions and help refine models predicting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-levels-complicate-predictions-of-future-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">future climate change</a>," said Peter Siver, the study's lead researcher.



The discovery included fossilized stegmata - unique linear arrangements of plant structures in palm leaves - which represent the earliest known record of this evolutionary trait.



The researchers also identified traces of warm-adapted aquatic life, further confirming that the Arctic once harbored a stable, temperate ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-climate-assumptions">Challenging climate assumptions</h2>



The study challenges previous assumptions about ice formation in the Northern Hemisphere. By examining these ancient environments, researchers can gain critical insights into how ecosystems adapt to long-term climate shifts.



Warm-adapted aquatic organisms found alongside the palm tree fossils further solidify the narrative of a once-thriving, temperate arctic ecosystem. 



The research offers more than just a fascinating historical account - it provides crucial context for understanding contemporary climate dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-story-of-life-on-earth">The story of life on Earth</h2>



Understanding Earth's climate history isn't just about satisfying scientific curiosity. It helps us comprehend the incredible adaptability of life and the dramatic transformations our planet can undergo.



The Arctic of 48 million years ago serves as a powerful reminder of the planet's complex and ever-changing nature. 



The study demonstrates that even the most extreme environments can shift drastically over time, shaped by the forces of geology and climate.



In the face of today's climate challenges, these prehistoric insights offer a unique perspective on environmental change, resilience, and the extraordinary story of life on Earth.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/aob/advance-article/doi/10.1093/aob/mcaf021/8006661" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of Botany</a>.



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Palm tree fossils found in the Arctic rewrite Earth's climate history

The frozen landscape of the Canadian Arctic was once home...

Life on Earth has faced several extinction events, but none were as devastating as the end-Permian mass extinction 252 million years ago. Nearly 90% of all species vanished, yet some amphibians managed to survive.



This catastrophe reshaped ecosystems, forcing the remaining species to adapt to extreme conditions. Among these survivors were ancient amphibians called temnospondyls, distant relatives of modern frogs and salamanders.



Scientists from the University of Bristol have uncovered how these early amphibians endured the extinction crisis. 



The findings, published in Royal Society Open Science, reveal that temnospondyls thrived by feeding on freshwater prey, which remained stable while land-based food sources dwindled.



Their adaptability helped early amphibians <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-saunas-hot-solution-to-fighting-global-amphibian-extinction-apocalypse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survive</a> a world marked by climate chaos and environmental upheaval.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-amphibians-survived-extinction">How amphibians survived extinction</h2>



The period following the end-Permian extinction was marked by drastic environmental shifts. Massive volcanic eruptions led to rising global temperatures, acid rain, and widespread wildfires. 



Many terrestrial species struggled to find food as plant and animal populations plummeted. However, freshwater ecosystems remained relatively stable, providing a refuge for adaptable predators like temnospondyls.



“One of the great mysteries has been the survival and flourishing of a major group of amphibians called the temnospondyls,” said Aamir Mehmood from Bristol’s <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Biological Sciences</a>. 



“These were predatory animals that fed on fishes and other prey, but were primarily linked to the water, just like modern amphibians such as frogs and salamanders. We know that climates then were hot, and especially so after the extinction event. How could these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-a-new-virus-put-an-end-to-the-global-amphibian-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water-loving animals</a> have been so successful?”



Scientists believe that the feeding habits of amphibians played a crucial role in preventing their extinction. Unlike land-dwelling predators, which relied on an unstable food supply, temnospondyls could hunt a variety of freshwater creatures, ensuring their survival even when environmental conditions changed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-features-of-early-amphibians">Features of early amphibians </h2>



“We collected data on 100 temnospondyls that lived throughout the Triassic and wanted to look at how their ecologies changed. We measured their body sizes and features of the skulls and teeth that tell us about function,” noted co-author Dr. Suresh Singh.



“Much to our surprise, we found that they did not change much through the crisis," added Dr. Armin Elsler. "The temnospondyls showed the same range of body sizes as in the Permian, some of them small and feeding on insects, and others larger."



“These larger forms included long-snouted animals that trapped fishes and broad-snouted generalist feeders. What was unusual though was how their diversity of body sizes and functional variety expanded about 5 million years after the crisis and then dropped back.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surviving-the-tropical-dead-zone">Surviving the tropical dead zone</h2>



Due to extreme global warming in the Early Triassic, many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibian-siphonops-annulatus-discovered-feeds-milk-to-offspring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> moved away from the tropics. However, temnospondyls managed to cross these inhospitable regions.



“Our work shows that the temnospondyls, unexpectedly, were able to cross the tropical dead zone," said Professor Mike Benton.



"Fossils are known from South Africa and Australia in the south, as well as North America, Europe, and Russia in the north. The temnospondyls must have been able to criss-cross the tropical zone during cooler episodes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-decline-of-early-amphibians">The decline of early amphibians</h2>



Their early success highlights the resilience of amphibians, showing how adaptability can determine survival in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-and-toads-face-new-risks-as-their-habitats-dry-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme environments</a>. However, Mehmood pointed out that the amphibians' rapid success in the Early Triassic was short-lived.



"They coped with the hot conditions probably by having a low requirement for food, by being able to eat most prey animals, and by hiding in sparse water bodies. But when the ancestors of dinosaurs and of mammals began to diversify in the Middle Triassic, the temnospondyls began their long decline."



The dominance of temnospondyls faded as the new competitors emerged, leading to their eventual extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-of-resilience">A legacy of resilience</h2>



Temnospondyls may have disappeared, but their story highlights how adaptability shapes survival. Their ability to endure extreme environmental changes for millions of years demonstrates the importance of flexible feeding strategies and ecological diversity.



The history of temnospondyls also provides insight into how modern amphibians might respond to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibian-fossils-found-in-burrows-reveal-ancient-survival-strategies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental challenges</a>.



As climate change alters habitats today, species with broad diets and adaptable lifestyles may have the best chance of survival, just as the temnospondyls did millions of years ago.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241200" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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How amphibians survived Earth’s deadliest mass extinction

Life on Earth has faced several extinction events, but none...

Cosmic,Vortex:,The,Fiery,Eye,Of,The,Galaxy

Dark matter has puzzled scientists for decades, stirring endless debate about what constitutes the huge chunk of mass in the universe that is not directly visible. 



While numerous theories have been proposed, researchers have yet to confirm a definitive explanation for this elusive substance.



Advanced instrumentation has now sparked renewed attempts to uncover possible signals from dark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">matter</a> in the near infrared spectrum. 



After reviewing recently collected data, scientists are discussing results that appear to set new standards on how long certain dark matter particles can last.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-dark-matter-the-basics">Understanding dark matter - the basics</h2>



Dark matter is the mysterious, invisible glue that holds the universe together. Most scientists believe it’s there because of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-big-bang-theory-attempts-to-explain-origin-of-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational pull on galaxies</a>, but they can’t see or touch it. 



Unlike regular matter, dark matter doesn’t emit, absorb, or reflect light, making it impossible to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-now-searching-for-dark-matter-inside-old-earth-rocks-minerals-crystals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">detect directly</a>. 



Instead, astronomers study how galaxies move and rotate - without dark matter’s extra gravity, they should be flying apart. 



The crazy part? Dark matter makes up about 85% of the universe’s total mass, yet we have no idea what it actually is.



Scientists are on a mission to crack the dark matter mystery, using massive underground detectors and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-might-be-driving-force-behind-black-hole-mergers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">powerful telescopes</a>. 



Some theories suggest it’s made of undiscovered particles, while others think it could be linked to hidden dimensions. 



Whatever it is, most scientists believe that dark matter plays a huge role in shaping the cosmos, influencing everything from galaxy formation and black holes, to the structure of the universe itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter-signals-in-infrared-light">Dark matter signals in infrared light</h2>



Associate Professor <a href="https://inspirehep.net/authors/1421892" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wen Yin</a> from <a href="https://www.tmu.ac.jp/english/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tokyo Metropolitan University</a> has worked with a team on a fresh approach that searched for faint signals produced by <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1407.0546" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">axionlike particles</a>.



They relied on the fact that certain theoretical models predict these particles will emit narrow bands of light when they decay.



“The identity of dark matter has been a mystery in astronomy, cosmology, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-formation-may-have-occurred-before-the-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particle theory</a> for about a century,” wrote Yin and co-authors from Tokyo Metropolitan University in a new study. 



They used an infrared spectrograph, known as <a href="http://lihweb.kyoto-su.ac.jp/WINERED/overview_winered.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WINERED</a>, which picks up subtle features in light that might reveal how dark matter decays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-infrared-tools-to-detect-dark-matter-decay">Using infrared tools to detect dark matter decay</h2>



Instruments like WINERED, the <a href="https://www.jwst.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>, and other devices help scientists inspect complicated <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/electromagnetic-signal" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electromagnetic signals</a> in the cosmos to see if anything stands out. 



Researchers are particularly keen on the near infrared band because some dark matter models point to that range as a possible hotspot.



Investigating this spectral window is tricky because noise from <a href="https://earthsky.org/astronomy-essentials/everything-you-need-to-know-zodiacal-light-or-false-dawn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zodiacal light</a> and atmospheric interference can obscure important features. 



A new data analysis technique, which separates narrow decay signals from broad background emissions, reduces this confusion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-hidden-galaxies">Mapping hidden galaxies</h2>



The <a href="https://www.lco.cl/magellan-telescopes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Magellan Clay Telescope</a> in Chile measures about 21 feet (6.4 meters) across, and has the ability to capture even the faint glow from distant <a href="https://esahubble.org/wordbank/dwarf-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dwarf galaxies</a>.



By pointing this telescope at galaxies named Leo V and Tucana II, Yin’s team managed to gather significant infrared data in just four hours.



Their measurements pointed to no noticeable bursts at certain frequencies, which suggests that axionlike particle decay was not observed. 



The absence of any distinct signal implies that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particles</a>, if they exist, might survive for more than 1025 seconds, which is many times the age of our cosmos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-something-unexpected">Signs of something unexpected</h2>



Although the data so far show no conclusive dark matter decay, there were slight hints of unexplained patterns that deserve further investigation. 



Such anomalies might indicate that more sensitive instruments or longer observation windows could finally pin down a genuine dark matter signature.



Several groups worldwide are refining spectrometers to explore these curious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-big-bang-theory-attempts-to-explain-origin-of-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signals</a> at higher resolution. 



Continued monitoring of galaxies with low background interference could clarify whether these faint clues are actual traces of dark matter or just simple flukes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-detecting-dark-matter-signals">Challenges in detecting dark matter signals</h2>



Examinations of <a href="https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/cosmic-horizons-book/cosmic-microwave-background-radiation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">background radiation</a> remain complicated because the universe is filled with scattered light from multiple sources. 



Researchers must also untangle contamination from Earth’s own atmosphere, which intensifies when the sun heats the air.



Despite these obstacles, improved calibration methods and collaborative efforts between astronomers and particle physicists continue to enhance the search for hidden cosmic matter. 



No single test has delivered a decisive answer, yet confidence is growing that bigger discoveries lie ahead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-findings-matter">Why these findings matter</h2>



If axionlike particles do show up, they might solve a puzzle that has preoccupied scientists since the 1930s. 



Decades ago, measurements of galaxy rotation speeds revealed invisible mass exerting gravitational influence, which prompted the name “dark matter” for this puzzling substance.



Pinpointing whether these elusive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-does-not-exist-universe-27-billion-years-old-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particles</a> exist could also unlock new physics beyond the current understanding, and pave the way for novel insights about the structure of the cosmos.



Scientists remain motivated to analyze more data from advanced spectrographs as the chase continues for clues about what really makes up the bulk of our universe.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.051004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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Dark matter, if it exists, has a strictly limited lifetime, new study says

Dark matter has puzzled scientists for decades, stirring endless debate...

Health is often assessed through physical fitness, diet, and medical history. However, new research suggests that male reproductive health might hold critical clues about life expectancy. 



A study published in the journal Human Reproduction reveals a surprising connection between semen quality and lifespan.



The researchers analyzed data from nearly 80,000 men over 50 years. They found that those with higher motile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/semen-has-its-own-microbiome-and-it-may-be-the-cause-of-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm</a> counts lived longer.



Men with over 120 million motile sperm lived two to three years longer than those with less than 5 million. This research, the largest of its kind, is described as a “landmark” publication in an editorial commentary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-semen-quality-affects-lifespan">Semen quality affects lifespan</h2>



Dr. Lærke Priskorn and Dr. Niels Jørgensen led the study at Copenhagen University Hospital-Rigshospitalet. The team examined semen samples from men who sought fertility <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/novel-gene-editing-tool-analyzes-sperm-health-in-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">assessments</a> between 1965 and 2015.



The researchers analyzed sperm concentration, volume, motility, and shape. They then tracked mortality rates using Danish national registers.



Over the study period, 11% of the participants died, amounting to 8,600 deaths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adjusting-for-other-factors">Adjusting for other factors</h2>



Among the men studied, 59,657 provided samples between 1987 and 2015. For this group, additional data such as educational level and medical history were available.



“Previous research has suggested that male infertility and lower semen quality could be associated with mortality,“ noted Dr. Priskorn.



“We conducted this study to test the hypothesis and at the same time get an absolute estimate of how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-enhances-sperm-performance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semen</a> quality predicts a man’s lifespan and to understand whether diagnosed diseases prior to semen quality assessment might explain some of the reported association.”



Dr. Priskorn emphasized that higher semen quality correlated with longer life expectancy. The researchers found no link between mortality and pre-existing medical conditions or educational levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-semen-quality-as-a-health-indicator">Semen quality as a health indicator</h2>



The findings suggest that poor semen quality might indicate broader health risks. It could serve as an early warning sign for potential health problems.



“We need to better understand the association between semen quality and men’s general health,“ said Dr Jørgensen.



“However, this study suggests that we can identify subgroups of men with impaired semen quality who are apparently healthy when their semen quality is assessed, but who are at increased risk of developing certain diseases later in life.”



Dr Jørgensen noted that fertility evaluations could help detect risks of future health conditions. Further research will explore whether specific diseases, such as cancer or heart disease, contribute to the shorter lifespan of men with poor semen quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-lifestyle-data">Missing lifestyle data</h2>



The study’s large sample size is a major strength. However, some limitations exist. The researchers lacked data on lifestyle habits and only had pre-existing medical records for men who provided samples after 1987.



Additionally, the study could not differentiate between men with obstructed reproductive tracts and those with other causes of low motile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-body-prevents-multiple-sperm-from-fertilizing-an-egg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-underlying-factors">Exploring the underlying factors</h2>



Professor John Aitken from <a href="https://www.newcastle.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Newcastle</a> praised the research as a milestone in reproductive medicine. He explored possible reasons for the link between semen quality and lifespan.



“In this commentary, I have highlighted several potential mediators of such an association including genetic defects on the sex chromosomes (X or Y), a compromised immune system, comorbidities, lifestyle factors and chemical pollutants capable of compromising telomeric integrity,“ he wrote.



“Given the complexity of these factors, we might ask whether they are acting independently, or do they reflect the existence of some fundamental pathological process that cuts across all of these epidemiological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-begins-egg-sperm-and-a-covert-team-of-proteins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathways</a>?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxidative-stress-and-longevity">Oxidative stress and longevity</h2>



Professor Aitken suggested oxidative stress as a possible factor. This condition results from an imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants in the body. Oxidative stress damages cells, impacts semen quality, and plays a role in aging.



“Any factor (genetic, immunological, metabolic, environmental or lifestyle) that enhances overall levels of oxidative stress, could reasonably be expected to drive changes in the semen profile and subsequent patterns of mortality, as observed by Priskorn et al.,” wrote Professor Aitken.



”Furthermore, an aetiology grounded in oxidative stress might also explain the relationships observed between complications of pregnancy (preeclampsia, gestational hypertension and gestational diabetes) and female mortality later in life."



”An overarching oxidative stress hypothesis also accords with the observation that circulating antioxidant levels are generally higher in women than men, just as their telomeres are usually longer. 



”So perhaps, for both genders, the secret to achieving both high fecundity and heathy ageing, is to monitor oxidative stress and adopt measures to maintain a balanced redox state. Could it be that simple? Clearly, much food for thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-semen-quality">Future research on semen quality</h2>



The study raises important questions about fertility and long-term health. Researchers plan to investigate specific causes of early death among men with poor semen quality. They will also look for biomarkers that could predict future health risks.



These findings highlight the potential of fertility assessments in the early detection of health issues. Ultimately, understanding the implications of semen quality could lead to better preventive healthcare strategies for men.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humrep/advance-article/doi/10.1093/humrep/deaf023/8051460" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human Reproduction</a>.



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Poor semen quality signifies more than just fertility problems

Health is often assessed through physical fitness, diet, and medical...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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