Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Killer whales (Orcinus orca) are considered to be one of the most contaminated cetacean species in the world. Being apex predators and capable of long-range migrations across oceans, these mammals consume prey from many locations in the world. Since toxins are often accumulated up the food chain, killer whale tissues may be a resting place for toxins that have entered the marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-connect-with-the-environment-through-story-writing/">environment</a>, and its organisms, from human activities.&nbsp;



The authors of a new research study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c04126">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>, state that the potential health implications of selected ‘contaminants of emerging concern’ (CECs) and new persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in endangered Southern Resident and threatened Bigg’s (Transient) killer whales in the Northeastern Pacific (NEP) have not yet been documented. They set out to analyze samples of muscle and liver tissue from six individuals of each of these populations that were been stranded on the coast of British Colombia, Canada, between 2006 and 2018.



The researchers discovered that the whale tissue contained an array of chemical pollutants. The most prevalent were the CEC’s known as alkylphenols and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).&nbsp;



Just under half of the total pollutant load identified was derived from a substance called 4-nonylphenol or 4NP. &nbsp;This compound is used in the processing of pulp and paper, as well as in the production of soap, detergents and textiles. It can leak into the ocean via sewage treatment plants and industrial runoffs, where it is ingested by smaller organisms and moves up the food chain to reach top predators such as killer whales. The substance is listed as toxic in Canada, and can interact with the nervous system and influence cognitive function.&nbsp;



“This research is a wake-up call. Southern residents are an endangered population [of killer whales] and it could be that contaminants are contributing to their population decline. We can’t wait to protect this species,” said co-author Dr. Juan José Alava, principal investigator of the ocean pollution research unit at the Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries (IOF).



4NP is a CEC, which means it is a pollutant found in the environment that has, as yet, not been well studied. Because its effects are not yet understood, its use is not strictly regulated or monitored. “Very little is known of both the prevalence and health implications of 4NP as it has been studied in few marine mammals. This study is the first to find 4NP in killer whales,” said first author Kiah Lee, who undertook the research as an undergraduate at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Colombia</a>.



“This investigation is another example of an approach that takes into account the health of people, animals and the environment, using killer whales as a case study to better understand the potential impacts of these and other compounds on animal and ecosystem health,” said study co-author Dr. Stephen Raverty, IOF adjunct professor and veterinary pathologist with the B.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Food.



The remaining 54 percent of pollutants identified in the killer whale tissues belong to a group of compounds known as ‘forever chemicals’ because they persist in the environment. They are widely used in food-packaging materials, stain and water-repellent fabrics, cookware, and fire extinguishers. Many are listed as new persistent organic pollutants (POPs). These substances are toxic and are released into the environment through human activities, thus adversely affecting the health of humans and animals. Many of them are banned in Canada.



The most common pollutant from this group, present in the whale tissue, was 7:3-fluorotelomer carboxylic acid, or 7:3 FTCA. There are currently no restrictions on the production or use of 7:3 FTCA, but one of its potential parent chemicals is on a list of toxic substances proposed to be recognized as a new POP by the European Chemical Agency, under an international agreement, the Stockholm Convention, on POPs.



“This compound has not been found in B.C. before and it was found in killer whales, which are top predators. That means the contaminants are making their way through the food system,” said Dr. Alava.



In a further aspect of the current research, the scientists analyzed the pollutant content of tissues in a fetus found in one of the dead southern resident females. They found that all the pollutants present in the mother’s tissues were also present in the fetus, implying that all of these compounds are transferred across the placenta. Maternal transfer ratios indicated that 4NP was the most easily transferred contaminant, with a maternal transfer rate as high as 95.1 percent.&nbsp;



The study authors said that although too few killer whales have been screened for CECs and new POPs to infer the magnitude of contamination impact, these results raise concerns regarding pathological implications and potential impacts on fetal development and production of a viable neonate.



The experts encourage governments to help protect the endangered southern resident killer whales, and other marine life, by halting production of the chemicals of concern, including 4NP, and emerging POPs like 7:3 FTCA, as well as identifying and addressing potential sources of marine pollution in B.C. and Canada.



It's not just the killer whales that are affected, said Dr. Alava. “We are mammals, we eat Pacific salmon as well, so we need to think about how this could affect our health as well as other seafood that we consume.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Toxin from toilet paper production found in killer whales

Killer whales (Orcinus orca) are considered to be one of...

Tyrannosaurus Rex, a fierce predator that lived in the Cretaceous Period (83.6 to 66 million years ago) has long been thought to be a big, dimwitted brute. However, according to a new study led by <a href="https://www.vanderbilt.edu/">Vanderbilt University</a>, T. rex may have been much smarter than scientists previously believed it to be. In fact, this creature’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitual-social-media-checking-affects-adolescent-brain-development/">brain</a> has likely contained enough neurons to potentially allow it to solve complex problems and even form cultures.



“What if the asteroid [which wiped out the dinosaurs 66 million years ago] hadn’t happened? That’s a whole other world that would have been terrifying,” said study author Suzana Herculano-Houzel, a neuroscientist and biologist at Vanderbilt.



Since the soft tissues that make up dinosaurs’ gray matter has not been conserved, Herculano-Houzel looked at T. rex’s bony brain case and compared it to the skeleton of its living relatives: birds. Extrapolating from an examination of the brains of emus and ostriches, she estimated that T. rex’s cerebrum had as many as three billion neurons, which is comparable to a baboon’s brain. In such a case, the dinosaur may have been able to use tools and even pass down acquired knowledge through generations.



Thus, while prior research argued that T. rex was a solitary, dumb beast, these new findings suggest that it may have been a clever social animal working in packs. This is confirmed by other studies that found mass burial sites in Utah and Montana, indicating that the carnivores moved in groups like wolves, as well as by the discovery of other fossils of male therapods guarding clutches of eggs (a social behavior frequently seen in modern birds).&nbsp;



Herculano-Houzel’s investigations hinge on treating theropods as a separate, warm-blooded group of dinosaurs – which may even have had feathers - instead of lumping T. rex and its relatives with all the rest of the dinosaurs. However, further research is needed to unearth more evidence of T. rex’s rich cognitive and social capacities.



“If they were hunters, maybe you find evidence of them hunting in groups, using some sort of social communication,” Herculano-Houzel concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/cne.25453">Journal of Comparative Neurology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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T. rex may have had brains and brawn

Tyrannosaurus Rex, a fierce predator that lived in the Cretaceous...

The Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) is found on the main islands of Japan, except Hokkaido, and is the most northerly occurring non-human primate in the world. In addition, in parts of its range it inhabits sub-alpine regions&nbsp;of the Japanese Alps (elevation 1500–1600&nbsp;m), which become extremely cold and harsh during winters. Since the monkeys have little access to their preferred diet of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruits-and-vegetables-can-reduce-adhd-symptoms/">fruits</a>, seeds, flowers and leaves when snow covers the ground, scientists have wondered what they eat in order to survive.



Previous research involving the DNA analysis of fecal samples from macaques living in Chubu Sangaku National Park during winter revealed evidence not only of the bark and leaves of bamboo (that stand out above the snow), but also of freshwater fish, mollusks and aquatic arthropods. It is very rare for monkeys to eat fish, unless the fish are dead or dying, trapped in receding pools. A research team led by scientists from <a href="https://www.shinshu-u.ac.jp/english/">Shinshu University</a> therefore decided to investigate how and where the macaques are catching fish to supplement their winter diet.&nbsp;



Between mid- and late January, 2022, the researchers entered the Kamikochi area of the Chubu Sangaku National Park in the Japanese Alps on a daily basis. They located troops of monkeys by tracking their footprints in the snow, and then followed them and observed their behavior along the Azusa River. The team used several cameras, including a shoulder-mount camcorder, to record macaque behavior. In this way, they followed three different troops of macaques, one for five days, one for four days and one for three days.&nbsp;



In addition, 12 infrared sensor cameras were set up as trail camera traps to record macaque behavior, for two months from the end of January 2022. The cameras were positioned in three areas – a small wetland and two small, spring-fed streams. The cameras recorded 1,122 instances of macaque behavior, with each recording lasting one minute. The researchers analyzed all photographic footage and divided the different behaviors into categories.&nbsp;



The results, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-23799-1">Scientific Reports</a>, identified 14 cases of macaques hunting for actively swimming fish, and then consuming them. Their behavior along the river also included grabbing drifting invertebrates from the surface of the water, turning over pebbles and capturing food from beneath, and feeding on riverine plants. When fishing, a monkey commonly chased a fish into shallow water, where it attempted to hide between the rocks. The monkey then held the fish down in the stream with both hands and grabbed it with the mouth.&nbsp;



The river and associated small streams are supplied with warmer water from many groundwater springs and active volcanoes in the area, such that their waters keep a stable temperature of around 5–6&nbsp;°C, despite the snow and cold conditions. The streams thus flow throughout the winter and are accessible to the monkeys.&nbsp;



The catching and feeding behavior recorded in this study appears to be an extension of existing, documented behaviors of feeding on vegetation that grows above the surface of the snow, as well as on aquatic plant matter. These types of vegetation also often carry insects, a food source that is readily utilized by the macaques. The streams containing aquatic plants are also home to many cold-water salmonids, so it is a small step for the macaques to transition from locating insects in streams to locating fish.&nbsp;



“Video analysis has also shown that, during these behaviors, when the fish are nearby, [the monkeys’] attention is diverted to the fish. We interpreted this sequence of behavior as a pre-adaptation to fish-eating, and that fish-eating behavior may have evolved through these several stages,” said Masaki Takenaka and Koji Tojo, both from the Department of Biology at Shinshu University.



These “pre-adaptations” are the proposed mechanism for the evolution of the novel fish-hunting and eating behaviors observed, hypothesize the authors. They state that the macaques do not choose to eat fish as a preferred food source, but pressures brought about by the harsh winter conditions and the shortage of other suitable foods make this unique fishing behavior a matter of survival.&nbsp;



The researchers now wish to investigate how the fishing behavior is spread between members of the macaque group. Not all of them hunt for fish, or accept fish as a food, as evidenced by the fact that only 20 percent of fecal samples over three winters contained DNA from brown trout.&nbsp;



“Having obtained evidence that Japanese macaques in the Kamikochi area catch and eat live fish, the next step for us in this research was to investigate how these fish-eating behaviors spread within the macaque group," said Tojo. "Is it genetic? Is it a kind of culture that can be transmitted within the group?”&nbsp;



Now, after identifying 200 individuals across four distinct groups, Tojo and the team seek to identify relationships based on these individuals and their fish-seeking (or fish-avoidance) behavior, to see how it may be passed on to other individuals in the group and to future generations.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Japanese snow monkeys have learned to fish for food

The Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) is found on the main...

For a long time, scientists have used to associate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-more-aware-of-actions-than-objects/">dogs</a>’ aggressiveness solely with breed. However, a paradigm shift has occurred over the past decade, due to research linking behavioral profiles to factors such as dogs’ sex, age, metabolism, and hormonal patterns.&nbsp;



Now, based on a survey of 665 dog owners detailing the physical and behavioral features of their pet dogs, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/">University of São Paulo</a> (USP) in Brazil has investigated how morphological, environmental, and social factors modulate canine aggressiveness.



The scientists found that aggressiveness was influenced both by physical traits such as weight and skull morphology, and by social and environmental factors like the type of household the dogs lived in, the animals’ life histories, and the owner’s gender and age. These findings confirmed the hypothesis that behavior is not only learned or influenced by genetics but also the outcome of interactions with the environment.



“The results highlight something we’ve been studying for some time: behavior emerges from interaction between the animal and its context. The environment and the owner-pet relationship, as well as morphology, are all factors that influence how pets interact with us and how we interact with them,” said study senior author Briseida de Resende, a professor of Psychology at USP.



“The owner’s gender was found to be a good predictor of behavior toward strangers, in that absence of aggressiveness was 73 percent more frequent among women’s dogs,” reported lead author Flávio Ayrosa, a psychologist at the same university.&nbsp;



Moreover, the dogs’ sex and snout characteristics also appeared to influence their aggressiveness. “The likelihood of aggressive behavior toward the owner was 40 percent lower among female dogs than among males,” Ayrosa said.&nbsp;



“Snout length was even more significant: aggressiveness toward the owner was 79 percent more likely among brachycephalic [dogs with short snouts] than mesocephalic dogs [characterized by a longer snout].”&nbsp;



In addition, the researchers also discovered that the heavier the dog, the less likely it was to display aggressiveness toward its owner, with aggressive behavior decreasing by three percent per extra kilogram of body mass.



However, the scientists stressed that the owner-related findings are not necessarily cause-and-effect correlations.&nbsp;



“We found relationships, but it’s impossible to say which comes first. In the case of the factor ‘walking the dog,’ for example, it may be that people walked their dog less because the animal was aggressive, or the dog may have become aggressive because the owner didn’t take it out enough,” Ayrosa explained.&nbsp;



“Traits such as weight, height, cranial morphology, sex, and age influence the interaction between dogs and their environment. They may spend more time inside the home because of them, for example.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105766">Applied Animal Behavior Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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What factors predict aggressiveness in dogs?

For a long time, scientists have used to associate dogs’...

A new study by scientists at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> and the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research has reviewed the climate studies conducted or paid for by the oil and gas company currently known as ExxonMobil. The study, published in the peer-reviewed journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abk0063">Science</a>, dives deeply into the company data from the late 1970s onwards (before Exxon and Mobil joined forces), in order to assess the accuracy of the climate projections produced by or on behalf of Exxon over several decades.&nbsp;



The results of the investigation are summarized in one single chart that displays every global warming projection reported by Exxon and ExxonMobil scientists between 1977 and 2003. The authors of the study collected their data from previously unreported information and models buried in the company’s own documents. They conclude that the projections are startlingly accurate and reveal that the company knew just how much global warming would occur and the damage that was attributable to the burning of fossil fuels.&nbsp;



In fact, the scientists have&nbsp;put a number on what ‘Exxon knew,’ decades ago, about climate science: that the burning of fossil fuels would lead to 0.20 ± 0.04 degrees Celsius of global warming per decade.&nbsp;



Although it has been widely reported that Exxon has known about the threat of global warming since the 1970s, this study is the first quantitative review of the company’s early climate science.&nbsp;Previous research focused on Exxon's inconsistent internal and external rhetoric on climate change, and the fact that the oil company understood the science before it became a public issue and then spent millions to promote misinformation.



“We find that most of their projections accurately forecast warming consistent with subsequent observations,” the report concludes. “Their projections were also consistent with, and at least as skillful as, those of independent academic and government models.”



The researchers used established statistical techniques that are also used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the United Nations body that is responsible for assessing the science related to climate change. The researchers found that 63–83 percent of global warming projections reported by ExxonMobil scientists were consistent with subsequently observed temperatures changes. Moreover, projections modeled by ExxonMobil scientists had an average ‘skill score’ of 72 ± 6 percent, with the highest scoring 99 percent.&nbsp;



For comparison, NASA scientist Dr. James Hansen’s global warming predictions, presented to the U.S. Congress in 1988, had skill scores ranging from 38 percent to 66 percent.&nbsp;(When we account for differences between forecast and observed atmospheric CO2&nbsp;levels, the ‘skill score’ of projections modeled by ExxonMobil scientists was 75 ± 5 percent, with seven projections scoring 85 percent or above. Again, for comparison, Hansen’s 1988 projections had corresponding skill scores of 28 to 81 percent.)



The study finds that “Exxon and ExxonMobil Corp also correctly rejected the prospect of a coming ice age, accurately predicted when human-caused global warming would first be detected, and reasonably estimated the ‘carbon budget’ for holding warming below 2°C. On each of these points, however, the company’s public statements about climate science contradicted its own scientific data.”



It is clear from the study’s analysis that this company, the world’s largest oil and gas company, was in possession of accurate and reliable scientific information in the 1970s and 80s, and understood that&nbsp;mankind was indeed influencing the global climate through carbon dioxide release from the burning of fossil fuels. However, this did not stop the company from spending decades refusing to publicly acknowledge climate change and even promoting climate misinformation.



For example, in June 1988, when NASA scientist James Hansen told a congressional hearing that the planet was already warming, Exxon stated publicly that the science was still controversial. By 1989, the company had helped create the&nbsp;<a href="http://www.exxonsecrets.org/html/orgfactsheet.php?id=38">Global Climate Coalition</a>&nbsp;(disbanded in 2002) to question the scientific basis for concern about climate change. It also helped to prevent the U.S. from signing the international treaty on climate known as the Kyoto Protocol, in 1998, to control greenhouse gases.&nbsp;



The findings of the current study add weight to ongoing legal and political investigations into ExxonMobil and the extent to which the company’s personnel sowed doubt about the scientific basis for climate change predictions.



“These findings corroborate and add quantitative precision,” the authors write, “to assertions by scholars, journalists, lawyers, politicians, and others that ExxonMobil accurately foresaw the threat of human-caused global warming, both prior and parallel to orchestrating lobbying and propaganda campaigns to delay climate action, and refute claims by ExxonMobil Corp and its defenders that these assertions are incorrect.”



“This is the nail-in-the-coffin of ExxonMobil’s&nbsp;<a href="https://perma.cc/6GWL-V89E">claims</a>&nbsp;that it has been falsely accused of climate malfeasance,” commented study lead author Geoffrey Supran of Harvard University&nbsp;. “Our analysis shows that ExxonMobil’s own data contradicted its public statements, which included exaggerating uncertainties, criticizing climate models, mythologizing global cooling, and feigning ignorance about when – or if – human-caused global warming would be measurable, all while staying silent on the threat of stranded fossil fuel assets.”



An article published in the Guardian in 2019 finds that ExxonMobil is&nbsp;<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/oct/09/revealed-20-firms-third-carbon-emissions">one of 20 companies</a>&nbsp;responsible for one-third of energy-related global carbon emissions since 1965. In addition, half of the greenhouse gas emissions in our atmosphere were released after 1988. What a difference it would have made if the fossil-fuel companies, including ExxonMobil, had been upfront about this and had been part of the solution instead of the problem. We are likely to have been in much better environmental shape than we are now.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Exxon’s climate predictions were remarkably accurate, but ignored

A new study by scientists at Harvard University and the...

According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a>, when it comes to preserving coral reefs, what is going on above the water surface is as important as what is going on below it. By analyzing the productivity and biodiversity of the world’s symbiotic coral communities, the experts found that the maintenance of water optical quality in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-can-survive-if-given-the-chance-to-evolve/">coral reefs</a> is crucial to protect them and prevent reef degradation.



“Coral reefs are one of the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth,” said study lead author Tomás López-Londoño, a postdoctoral fellow in Marine Sciences at Penn State. “To better understand that diversity, we looked at the role sunlight plays in the symbiotic relationship between coral and the algae that provide the oxygen for its survival. We found that underwater light intensity plays a critical role in the energy expended by the coral’s symbiotic algae to maintain its photosynthetic activity.”



Scientists have long known that sunlight is a major source of energy for basically all biochemical reactions that sustain life on our planet. Yet, sunlight’s impact on corals has often been overlooked. “What’s new here is we developed a model that provides a mechanistic explanation for the biodiversity patterns in coral,” López-Londoño explained.&nbsp;



“Central to that explanation is water clarity, meaning that preserving the underwater light climate should be a priority for coral reef conservation. It’s as vital as pollution mitigation, limiting ocean acidification, and reducing thermal stress.”



By studying coral grown in an aquarium at different depths and gradations of sunlight, the researchers developed a mathematical model describing the connection between the depth-dependent variation in photosynthetic energy to corals and gradients of species diversity. Then, they tested this model on existent data about reefs in contrasting water clarity, and discovered that much of the variation in species richness with depth is driven by changes in exposure to sunlight.



“The model is very elegant in that it takes into consideration only two things,” said study senior author Roberto Iglesias-Prieto, a professor of Biology at Penn State. “It looks at productivity, the potential that an alga has to extract energy from the sun, and the cost of living, the cost of the repair of the photosynthetic machinery. It’s a very simple notion and we found it explains the existing empirical data.”



The results suggest that highly productive underwater environments with plentiful access to sunlight may be a vital safeguard against the risk of species extinction. Moreover, the findings offer a new strategy for reef conservation: preserving the clarity of water. Local communities could be actively involved in this by reducing the sedimentation and pollution associated with human development.&nbsp;



“Unlike so much of the environmental threats that corals face, this is something that can and should be managed locally,” Iglesias-Prieto concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-25094-5">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Access to sunlight is critical for the survival of coral reefs

According to a new study led by Pennsylvania State University,...

A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> has developed a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-can-help-predict-ecosystem-changes-when-animals-are-reintroduced/">DNA</a>-collection method that allows scientists to capture genetic information from wildlife without disturbing the animals or putting their own lives into jeopardy. The experts tested this protocol on elephant dung and managed to collect enough DNA to sequence the whole genomes not only of the elephants, but also of the microbes, plants, and other organisms associated to them.



“We combined existing methodologies in such a way that we are now able to use noninvasive samples to generate genome-scale data,” said&nbsp;study lead author Alida de Flamingh, a postdoctoral researcher in Genetics and Ecology at Illinois. “This allows us to assess wildlife populations without having to dart, capture, or immobilize animals.”



According to study co-author Alfred Roca, a professor of Animal Sciences at the same university, collecting DNA from animal dung is not something new. “Elephant fecal samples have been used for decades to study the genetics of elephants,” he said. “But this relies on very cumbersome methods, often involving chemicals that in some cases may be dangerous. The collections are bulky, they’re hard to ship and they have to be refrigerated, making the whole process very costly.”



Now, the researchers tested a less expensive alternative: using small data-collection cards that have previously been treated to prevent the samples from degrading, allowing to store them for months without refrigeration.



First, the scientists collected and analyzed samples from zoo elephants to determine how long after defecation the fecal samples would still yield viable genomic data. The analysis revealed that even after 72 hours, the samples could be reliably used for genomic sequencing. In a next step, the team tested this procedure on samples collected from wild African savanna elephants. The sequencing led to treasure trove of information.



“I was surprised. I thought we might get some elephant DNA from the cards, but I was thinking on the order of two percent. However, on average, more than 12 percent of the DNA was attributed to the elephant,” Roca reported.&nbsp;



Since this was achieved without using costly and time-consuming laboratory methods that target only elephant DNA, each sample yielded a vast amount of information not only about the elephants, but also the microbial composition of their guts, their habitat, and diet.



“It’s really beneficial to get an idea of everything that’s in there because now you can start asking questions, not only about elephant genomes but also about things like their health, their diet and whether there are pathogens or parasites present,” de Flamingh explained.



According to the researchers, when it comes to elephant genomes, the results are comparable with – or even better than - those obtained from blood samples. “You can explore the connectivity of different elephant populations, the level of genetic diversity, the level of inbreeding and relatedness among elephants. And I would say there are lots of reasons you don’t want to have to collect blood samples from wild elephants,” Roca said.



“It’s possible to do what you could do with blood, but it goes beyond that. You now can do analyses that you couldn’t do before with blood DNA, which only provides information about the elephant’s genome,” de Flamingh concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2022.1021004">Frontiers in Genetics</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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New DNA-collection method is harmless to wildlife

A team of researchers led by the University of Illinois...

As humans, we share many characteristics with other primates, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-early-human-evolution/">bonobos</a>, who – together with chimpanzees – are the ape species most closely related to us. While there are many similarities in the social behavior of bonobos and humans, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en">Leiden University</a> and the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/">University of Amsterdam</a> has recently found that there are also remarkable differences.&nbsp;



The experts discovered that, although both species are more interested in photos of conspecifics that show emotion than in neutral photos, human attention is more easily drawn to photos of family members or friends, whereas the attention of bonobos is drawn to the emotion of individuals they don’t know.



In a first experiment, the scientists trained bonobos from the <a href="https://apenheul.nl/">Apenheul</a> zoo to press a dot on a screen. After pressing it, two images appeared briefly that showed bonobos from the same group as well as unfamiliar conspecifics. While some images were neutral, others expressed emotions related to fear, play, or sex. Then, a dot appeared again behind one of the two images, and the bonobos had to touch it as quickly as possible in order to receive a food reward. 



The researchers kept track of how fast the bonobos pressed the dot that appeared after seeing the different pictures, with the presupposition that the apes would be faster at touching the dot behind the photo that immediately grabs their attention.



A second experiment presented people visiting the zoo with the same task, with photos of strangers or a person with whom they visited the zoo that day, and with varying facial expressions, such as neutral, happy, angry, or scared.&nbsp;



“In these studies, we saw that both humans and bonobos react more quickly to photos of conspecifics with an emotional charge than neutral photos,” said study lead author Evy Van Berlo, a postdoctoral researcher in Cognitive Behavioral Ecology at the University of Amsterdam. “That is what we expected: it makes sense given that we are both social animals. Yet there was also a remarkable difference. We humans are mainly focused on emotionally charged photos of people we know, while the attention of bonobos is focused on studying emotionally charged photos of unfamiliar others.”



According to the researchers, this evolutionary difference has probably emerged due to differences in the living environment of the two species. “Bonobos live in a relatively stable ecological environment in Congo, where there is enough food available. Under those circumstances, there is less need for competition with other groups and peaceful interaction with strangers might even be beneficial for the conservation of the species. Early humans, on the other hand, lived in nomadic groups that had to compete with other groups of humans for food. Under such circumstances, it is probably evolutionarily more beneficial to favor individuals from your own group over strangers,” Van Berlo explained.



In future research, the scientists plan to repeat this study with other species of great apes with different social organizations, such as chimpanzees, which are more competitive, male-dominated, and socially stratified. “With chimpanzees, for example, I would expect them to be more interested in the emotions of individuals they know than the emotions of strangers,” Van Berlo concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000882">Emotion</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Bonobos are more interested in the emotions of strangers

As humans, we share many characteristics with other primates, such...

Snow-capped mountains are valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parts-of-asia-face-irreversible-declines-in-freshwater-storage/">freshwater</a> resources that could potentially be wiped out by global warming in the coming decades. These "water towers" provide up to 80 percent of the world's freshwater, and more than half of the global population depends on mountain ecosystems for water, food, and energy.&nbsp;



Last year, a study co-led by Alan Rhoades and Erica Siirila-Woodburn of the <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/">Berkeley Lab</a> predicted that mountain ranges in the western United States will regularly experience low-to-no-snow winters in 35 to 60 years if greenhouse gas emissions are not reduced.



In a new study, Rhoades and his colleagues have determined that mountain ranges in the southern midlatitudes will face a low-to-no-snow future much sooner. These mountains, particularly in the Andean region of Chile, may transition to low-to-no-snow conditions as early as 2046.



According to the researchers, low-to-no-snow occurs when the annual maximum water stored as snowpack is within the bottom 30 percent of historical conditions for a decade or more. The study revealed that low-to-no-snow winters will emerge in the southern midlatitudes at a third of the warming compared to the northern midlatitudes.



“These findings are pretty shocking. We assumed that both regions in the southern and northern hemispheres would respond similarly to climate change, and that the Andes would be more resilient given its high elevation,” said Rhoades. “This shows that not every degree of warming has the same effect in one region as another.”



On a positive note, the researchers found that low-to-no-snow winters can be prevented in both the northern and southern midlatitude mountain ranges if global warming is limited to 2.5 degrees Celsius. Rhoades pointed to another study from the Berkeley Lab, which found that it is possible to reach net zero CO2 emissions in the United States by 2050. This could be accomplished by rebuilding the energy infrastructure to run primarily on renewable energy.



“It just requires the will and initiative to invest financial resources at the level of urgency that climate change demands, which means we need to start doing this today,” said Rhoades.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-022-01518-y">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Mountains face low-to-no-snow winters in a warming climate

Snow-capped mountains are valuable freshwater resources that could potentially be...

Being socially connected is vital to human wellbeing but this aspect of human functioning is often impaired in people who suffer the symptoms of depression or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweetener-has-been-linked-to-anxiety/">anxiety</a>. They may feel withdrawn and tired, unable to find the energy or drive to interact with people. Many patients with depression tend to withdraw from social contact and would rather stay at home, or in bed, than face society.&nbsp;



A new study by researchers from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> has revealed that when depressed or anxious people perform acts of kindness towards others, the symptoms of their mental illness become less severe and they are able to heal themselves to a certain extent.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Social connection is one of the ingredients of life most strongly associated with wellbeing. Performing acts of kindness seems to be one of the best ways to promote those connections,” said David Cregg, who led the research as part of his PhD dissertation.



Cregg and his colleague Professor Jennifer Cheavens tested their acts of kindness technique in an experiment involving 122 people from central Ohio who had moderate to severe symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress.&nbsp;



After an initial introductory session, the participants were randomly allocated to one of three different groups.&nbsp; Two of the groups received interventions that are commonly used in cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) treatments for depression. The first group was instructed to plan social activities for two days a week, and the members of the second group had to keep records, for at least two days a week, that helped them identify negative thought patterns and revise their way of thinking in order to reduce depression and anxiety (a form of cognitive reappraisal).&nbsp;



The participants in the third group were instructed to perform three acts of kindness a day, for two days out of each week. Acts of kindness were defined as “big or small acts that benefit others or make others happy, typically at some cost to you in terms of time or resources.” Examples of kind acts that participants performed included baking cookies for friends, offering to give a friend a ride, and leaving sticky notes with worlds of encouragement in places where s roommate would find them.



All three interventions continued for a period of five weeks. Participants were evaluated after week five, and then again after a further five weeks, to see whether the interventions were successful at reducing the symptoms of depression and anxiety.



The researchers’ findings, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2022.2154695">Journal of Positive Psychology</a>, showed that helping others is a powerful technique for healing oneself. &nbsp;Although participants in all three groups showed an increase in sense of life satisfaction, and a reduction in depression and anxiety symptoms after the 10 weeks of the study, those participants in the acts of kindness group showed the greatest improvements.



“These results are encouraging because they suggest that all three study interventions are effective at reducing distress and improving satisfaction,” Cregg said. “But acts of kindness still showed an advantage over both social activities and cognitive reappraisal, by making people feel more connected to other people, which is an important part of well-being."



Cheavens noted that just taking part in social activities did not improve feelings of social connection in this study. In addition, the process of cognitive reappraisal also does not involve increasing social connectedness in any way. &nbsp;



“There’s something specific about performing acts of kindness that makes people feel connected to others. It’s not enough to just be around other people, participating in social activities,” she said.



The researchers also discovered why performing acts of kindness worked so well to improve the symptoms of people with depression or anxiety. It helped distract participants from their own suffering while they were reaching out to help and consider others.&nbsp;



“Doing nice things for people and focusing on the needs of others may actually help people with depression and anxiety feel better about themselves,” explained Cheavens.



“We often think that people with depression have enough to deal with, so we don’t want to burden them by asking them to help others. But these results run counter to that,” she said.



Cregg said that, while this study used techniques of CBT, it is not the same experience as going through a complete CBT treatment. Those who undergo the full treatment may have better results than those in this study. However, the findings do show that even the limited CBT exposure given in this study can be helpful to people with depression or anxiety.&nbsp;



“Not everyone who could benefit from psychotherapy has the opportunity to get that treatment,” she said.&nbsp;“But we found that a relatively simple, one-time training had real effects on reducing depression and anxiety symptoms.”



And even those who are able to get CBT treatment may benefit even more if they are encouraged to carry out acts of kindness towards others on a regular and ongoing basis. This study shows that helping others has a healing effect through creating vital social connections.



“Something as simple as helping other people can go above and beyond other treatments in helping heal people with depression and anxiety,” concluded Cregg.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Acts of kindness can help relieve depression

Being socially connected is vital to human wellbeing but this...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> has found that the rate of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-climate-and-land-use-could-lead-to-catastrophic-levels-of-soil-erosion/">soil erosion</a> in the Midwestern U.S. is 10 to 1,000 times greater than pre-agricultural erosion rates. These newly discovered pre-agricultural erosion rates –reflecting the rates at which soils form – are much lower than the upper allowable limit of erosion set by the <a href="https://www.usda.gov/">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> (USDA). These findings could have major repercussions for everything from domestic agricultural policy to global food security and climate change mitigation strategies.



The scientists made use of a rare element beryllium-10 (10Be), which forms when stars in our galaxy explode and send high-energy particles - called cosmic rays - rocketing towards the Earth. When this galactic shrapnel smashes into our planet’s crust, it splits oxygen in the soil apart, leaving small trace amounts of&nbsp;10Be, which can then be used to determine average soil erosion rates over the span of thousands to millions of years.



“We went to fourteen small patches of remnant native prairie that still exist in Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas, and used a hand auger to collect deep soil cores, in material that dates back to the last Ice Age,” said&nbsp;study senior author Isaac Larsen, a professor of Geosciences at UMass Amherst. “We brought this soil back to our lab at UMass, sifted it to isolate individual sand grains, removed everything that wasn’t quartz, and then ran these few spoonfuls through a chemical purification process to separate out the&nbsp;10Be - which was just enough to fit on the head of a pin.”



The researchers then sent this sample to a laboratory, where the individual&nbsp;10Be atoms were counted in order to calculate a precise rate of erosion, stretching from the present day back to the last Ice Age (about 12,000 years ago). “For the first time, we know what the natural rates of erosion are in the Midwest,” said study lead author Caroline Quarrier, who completed this research as part of her master’s thesis at UMass Amherst. “And because we now know the rate of erosion before Euro-American settlement, we can see exactly how much modern agriculture has accelerated the process.”



The results were far from encouraging. “Our median pre-agricultural erosion rate across all the sites we sampled is 0.04 mm per year,” Larsen reported. Any modern-day erosion rate higher than that value means that soil is disappearing at a faster pace than it is accumulating.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, USDA’s current limit for erosion (one millimeter per year, so 25 times greater than the average rate the researchers found) will inevitably lead to rapid loss of topsoil, which plays a critical role not only for U.S. agriculture, but also for global food security, as well as climate change mitigation strategies that rely on soil as an important carbon sink.



However, according to the scientists, there is no reason to despair yet. “There are agricultural practices, such as no-till farming, that we know how to do and we know greatly reduce erosion,” Quarrier said. “The key is to reduce our current erosion rates to natural levels,” Larsen concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G50667.1">Geology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Soil erosion rates have exploded in the Midwestern US

A recent study led by the University of Massachusetts Amherst...

Scientists have been drilling and removing ice cores in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-emperor-penguin-officially-listed-as-endangered/">Antarctica</a> for many years with the aim of identifying characteristics of Earth’s atmosphere and climate dating back hundreds of millennia. The concentration of carbon dioxide in air bubbles trapped in the ice gives clues about levels of this greenhouse gas in the past, and the ratios of different water isotopes present in the ice can reveal how temperatures in the Antarctic have changed.&nbsp;



Using information derived from Antarctic ice cores, scientists have previously identified that, going back 800,000 years, the Antarctic climate consisted of a succession of long, cold ‘glacial’ periods interspersed roughly every 100,000 years with warm "interglacial" periods (of which the last 11,000 years is the most recent).&nbsp;



Now, in a new study of ice core data, an international team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a> has analyzed temperature changes on a seasonal scale, recording all the winter and summer temperatures going back 11,000 years to the start of the Holocene Period. Published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05411-8">Nature</a>, this study is the very first seasonal temperature record of its kind, from anywhere in the world.



“The goal of the research team was to push the boundaries of what is possible with past climate interpretations, and for us that meant trying to understand climate at the shortest timescales, in this case seasonally, from summer to winter, year-by-year, for many thousands of years,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://www.colorado.edu/instaar/tyler-jones">Tyler Jones</a>, lead author on the study, and assistant research professor and fellow at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.colorado.edu/instaar/">Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research</a>&nbsp;(INSTAAR).



The researchers used data from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) Divide ice core, which is the longest ice core ever drilled by U.S. researchers. It was removed from a dome of ice in central West Antarctica in 2011 and measures 11,171 feet (3405 meters), which is over 2 miles long. This core contains atmospheric and climate data from as much as 68,000 years ago, although the researchers only used sections dating back 11,000 years.&nbsp;



For this study, the scientists analyzed a continuous record of water-isotope ratios from the WAIS ice core. The ratios between the concentration of these isotopes (elements with the same number of protons but different atomic masses) reveal information about past temperatures and atmospheric circulation, including transitions between ice ages and warm periods in Earth’s past.



In addition to providing the first data on summer and winter temperature changes in the recent past, the study also validates one aspect of a long-standing theory about Earth’s climate that has not been previously proven. It shows that seasonal temperatures in Polar Regions respond to Milankovitch cycles.&nbsp;



A century ago, Serbian scientist Milutin Milankovitch hypothesized that cyclical orbital changes in the Earth’s movement around its axis and around the sun, affect how much solar radiation reaches its surface, and can thus drive long-term climate changes and trigger the start and end of glaciation periods (ice ages).&nbsp;



“I am particularly excited that our result confirms a fundamental prediction of the theory used to explain Earth’s ice-age climate cycles: that the intensity of sunlight controls summertime temperatures in the polar regions, and thus melt of ice, too,” said Kurt Cuffey, a co-author on the study and professor at the University of California Berkeley.



It was not a straightforward matter to measure seasonal changes in Earth’s temperature from ice cores, due to their short timescales. Water isotopes tend not to stay in one place in the upper ice sheet, but instead move around in interconnected pathways (similar to the air pockets in Styrofoam) as they change states between vapor and ice, over decades or centuries, before solidifying. This process, known as diffusion, can “blur” the finely detailed data that the researchers were trying to examine.&nbsp;



Luckily the high-quality ice cores from the WAIS allowed high-resolution measurements down to seasonal level. This, along with recent advances in ice core analysis during the past 15 years, enabled the team to correct for the diffusion present in the data and obtain the detail they sought.



“Even beyond that, we had to develop new methods entirely to deal with this data, because no one’s ever seen it before. We had to go above and beyond what anyone’s done in the past,” said Jones.



“This research is something that humans can really relate to because we partly experience the world through the changing seasons – documenting how summer and winter temperature varied through time translates to how we understand climate,” he added.



These finely detailed data on long-term climate patterns of the past also provide an important baseline for other scientists, who study the impacts of greenhouse gas emissions on our present and future climate. By knowing which planetary cycles occur naturally and why, researchers can better identify the human influence on climate change and its impacts on global temperatures. Interestingly, they are confident that the current period of warming is not related to any Milankovitch cycles, but is instead the result of human-produced greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.



This particular study has a long history of its own. For more than three decades, researchers at&nbsp;<a href="https://www.colorado.edu/instaar/research/labs-groups/stable-isotope-lab">INSTAAR’s Stable Isotope Lab</a>&nbsp;at CU Boulder have been studying a variety of stable isotopes – non-radioactive forms of atoms with unique molecular signatures – found everywhere from inside ice cores and permafrost to the air in our atmosphere. Jones joined the lab in 2007 as a master’s student and has never left.



“I have this distinct memory of walking into my advisor, Jim White’s office in about 2013, and showing him that we would be able to pull out summer and winter values in this record for the last 11,000 years – which is extremely rare. In our understanding, no one had ever done this before,” said Jones. “We looked at each other and said, ‘Wow, this is going to be a really big deal.’”



It then took almost a decade to work out how to cope with problems such as diffusion, and how to interpret the data from ice cores drilled many years earlier.&nbsp;



The team’s next step is to attempt to interpret high-resolution ice cores in other places – such as the South Pole and in northeast Greenland, where cores have already been drilled –to understand our planet’s climate variability better.



“Humans have a fundamental curiosity about how the world works and what has happened in the past, because that can also inform our understanding of what could happen in the future,” said Jones.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Tracking seasonal temperature changes over 11,000 years

Scientists have been drilling and removing ice cores in Antarctica...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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