Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Celebrations can benefit your health and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-spaces-in-childhood-improve-well-being-later-in-life/">well-being</a>, according to a new study from Indiana University. The experts found that celebrating positive life events and achievements while gathering for food and drink can help you feel more socially supported.&nbsp;



"Despite the ubiquity of celebrations in everyday life, very little is known about how they may contribute to consumer well-being," wrote the study authors. "In the current work, the authors propose that celebrations promote perceived social support, which prior work has conceptualized as the belief that others will be there for you in future, negative life events."



According to the researchers, social support is associated with health and well-being outcomes, including increased life-span and decreased anxiety and depression.



“Many celebrations this time of year include two of the three conditions – eating and drinking while gathering together,” said study co-author Professor Kelley Gullo Wight.&nbsp;



“Adding the third condition, making an intentional effort to recognize other’s positive achievements, is key. For example, take the time to congratulate someone for getting accepted to their first-choice university, or a work project that went well, or a new job offer. This will maximize the benefits to your well-being and the well-being of all the attendees at that holiday party.”



Over several years, the researchers used experiments to survey thousands of participants. The study showed that even virtual gatherings can increase perceived social support, as long as everyone has food and drink and they are celebrating positive events.&nbsp;



“We found that when people feel supported socially after a celebration, they’re more ‘pro-social,’ and more willing to volunteer their time or donate to a cause,” said study co-author Professor Danielle Brick. “This would be a good time for non-profits to market donation campaigns, around the time many people are celebrating positive life events, like holidays or graduations.”



The researchers noted that hosting celebrations which increase perceived social support can be especially beneficial at places serving populations more at-risk of loneliness and isolation, like nursing homes or community centers.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/07439156221145696">Journal of Public Policy &amp; Marketing</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Celebrations are beneficial for health and well-being

Celebrations can benefit your health and well-being, according to a...

When the Spanish arrived in 1519, the Basin of Mexico supported an unusually large population of indigenous Aztec people. Whereas Seville, the largest urban center in Spain, had a population of fewer than 50,000 residents, the Basin, now known as Mexico City, was home to as many as 3 million. Food for this population was cultivated using an extraordinarily precise agricultural system that relied on an accurate calendar to identify when to till the land, plant the crops and take in the harvest.&nbsp;



This region has a dry spring, with summer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/south-asian-monsoons-will-intensify-in-a-warmer-climate/">monsoons</a>, making it critical not to plant the maize crops too early or too late. If seeds were planted too early, in response to a random early rainfall event, all the young seedlings could die before the true monsoon weather arrived. If seeds were planted too late, the plants would have a short growing season and end up producing a lower yield. Considering that the Aztecs of the time did not have the celestial instruments used by Europeans (e.g., gnomon, compass, quadrant, and astrolabe), scientists have always wondered how they knew exactly when the day for planting (or harvesting) arrived.&nbsp;



New research by scientists from the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California Riverside</a>, and colleagues, has now combined information from the records of colonial chroniclers and from detailed measurements of coordinates referencing the mountains around the Basin of Mexico and the movement of the sun. With this information, the researchers set out to understand whether the Aztecs perhaps used the mountains of the Basin as a solar observatory, and kept track of the days by monitoring the position of sunrise against the peaks of these mountains.



Many scholars believe that the Aztec calendar-keepers used the sun’s position at sunrise against the prominent peaks on the basin’s mountainous horizon as calendrical landmarks, a “horizon calendar” that provided accurate indicators of specific dates along the solar year. The use of the landscape as a calendric tool is based on the fact that, because of the tilting of the Earth, the point on the horizon where the sun rises shifts from day-to-day throughout the year.



As a result of their initial investigations, the researchers hypothesized that the Aztecs used the eastern mountains of the Basin of Mexico to adjust the agricultural calendar to the solar year. They were also able to use this very precise system to recognize leap years and add in the extra day that keeps the calendar year synchronized with the solar year.&nbsp; “We concluded they must have stood at a single spot, looking eastwards, from one day to another, to tell the time of year by watching the rising sun,” said Exequiel Ezcurra, distinguished UCR professor of ecology who led the research.



To find that spot, the researchers studied Mexica manuscripts. These ancient texts referred to Mount Tlaloc, which lies east of the Basin. The research team explored the high mountains around the Basin and a temple at the mountain’s summit. Using astronomical computer models, they confirmed that a long causeway structure built at the temple aligns exactly with the rising sun on February 24 each year; this is known to be the first day of the Aztec New Year.



“Our hypothesis is that they used the whole Valley of Mexico. Their working instrument was the Basin itself. When the sun rose at a landmark point behind the Sierras, they knew it was time to start planting,” Ezcurra said.



According to the researchers, this landmark point was most likely to have been Mount Tlaloc. The Aztecs could have counted the number of days in a year, starting from the day on which the sun rises behind Mount Tlaloc in spring, and ending on the next springtime sunrise behind Mt Tlaloc. This would give 365 days. In the Aztec system, there were 18 “months” in a year, each one consisting of 20 days. This was followed by 5 nemontemi, or “useless” days, at the end of the year. After four years of counting the days in this way, a calendar-keeper would have had to add an extra day to the year, in order to keep the sun rising behind the peak of Mount Tlaloc on the same day of the year.&nbsp;



Landscape features are still often used to mark calendric dates in many traditional villages. Despite modern communications and the standardization of calendric time, many communities still have ceremonies related to planting or harvest that are celebrated when sunrise or sunset is aligned with landscape features that act as reference points. For example, the sun rises over the Heel Stone at Stonehenge, in the UK, each year on the 21st June, marking the summer solstice and the longest day of the year.&nbsp;&nbsp;



This study may be the first to demonstrate how the Mexica were able to keep time using the effect of Earth’s tilt, the sun, and the mountains as guiding landmarks.&nbsp;In addition, it illustrates how humans can use a variety of methods to solve questions they have about the natural world.&nbsp;



“The same goals can be achieved in different ways. It can be difficult to see that sometimes. We don’t always need to rely solely on modern technology,” Ezcurra said. “The Aztecs were just as good as, or better than, the Europeans at keeping time, using their own methods.”



The Aztec observatory could also have a more modern function, according to Ezcurra. Comparing old images of the Basin of Mexico to current ones shows how the forest is slowly climbing up Mount Tlaloc, likely as a result of an increase in average temperatures at lower elevation.



“In the 1940s the tree line was way below the summit. Now there are trees growing on the summit itself,” Ezcurra said. “What was an observatory for the ancients could also be an observatory for the 21st century, to understand global climate changes.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Aztecs kept accurate time using the sun and the mountains

When the Spanish arrived in 1519, the Basin of Mexico...

A team of archeologists from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> (OSU) has discovered projectile points in Idaho which are thousands of years older than any other such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-migrations-north-america/">artifacts</a> previously found in the Americas. These findings could help scientists fill in the history of how early humans crafted and used stone weapons.



Through carbon-14 dating, the researchers discovered that the 13 full and fragmentary projectile points – which are all razor sharp and measure between half an inch and two inches – date to roughly 15,700 years ago. This is 3,000 years older than the Clovis fluted points previously found in North America, and 2,300 years older than the points discovered before at the same Cooper’s Ferry site along present day Idaho’s Salmon River.



“From a scientific point of view, these discoveries add very important details about what the archaeological record of the earliest peoples of the Americas looks like,” said study lead author Loren Davis, a professor of Anthropology at OSU. “It’s one thing to say, ‘We think that people were here in the Americas 16,000 years ago;’ it’s another thing to measure it by finding well-made artifacts they left behind.”



Surprisingly, the points are highly similar to similar objects found in Hokkaido, Japan, dating to 16,000 – 20,000 years ago. Their discovery in Idaho confirms the hypothesis that there may have been early genetic and cultural connections between the ice age peoples of North America and Northeast Asia.



“The earliest peoples of North America possessed cultural knowledge that they used to survive and thrive over time. Some of this knowledge can be seen in the way people made stone tools, such as the projectile points found at the Cooper’s Ferry site. By comparing these points with other sites of the same age and older, we can infer the spatial extents of social networks where this technological knowledge was shared between peoples,” Davis explained.



Although these slender projectile points were very small, being most likely attached to darts rather than arrows or spears, they were probably quite deadly. “There’s an assumption that early projectile points had to be big to kill large game; however, smaller projectile points mounted on darts will penetrate deeply and cause tremendous internal damage,” Davis said. “You can hunt any animal we know about with weapons like these.”



These findings add more detail to our current scientific and historical knowledge of early human populations in the Pacific Northwest. “Finding a site where people made pits and stored complete and broken projectile points nearly 16,000 years ago gives us valuable details about the lives of our region’s earliest inhabitants,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ade1248">Science Advances</a>.



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By Andrei Ionescu, Earth.com Staff Writer



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Oldest stone weapons of the Americas found in Idaho

A team of archeologists from Oregon State University (OSU) has...

A,Frontal,Portrait,(head,Shot),Of,A,Passive,Snowy,Owl

This week, birdwatchers flocked to Cypress in Southern California to catch a glimpse of a very rare sight – a white-feathered snowy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inbreeding-northern-spotted-owls/">owl</a> perched on a rooftop. Since snowy owls are native to arctic areas and less than 30,000 individuals are believed to exist worldwide, spotting one in a region such as Southern California can turn out to be a major event.



“I consider it an honor to be able to see the bird,” said Rob Young, an employer at the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/refuge/santa-ana">Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge</a>, and one of the many people who gathered in the Cypress neighborhood to admire this majestic bird. “Kind of put a feather in my cap so to speak, no pun intended.”



According to experts, the bird’s appearance in Southern California is a mystery, particularly due to the drastic differences between this region and its natural habitat. Reports claim that this species has not been spotted so further south since 1928. For these reasons, people are also concerned about the bird’s safety.



“The only thing it has to worry about here is that there’s a lot more potential damage,” explained local veterinarian Scott Weldy. “There are a lot more cars. We have power lines, the windmills. We have tons of things that traumatize flying birds here in Southern California.”



Alongside passionate birdwatchers, wildlife experts also came to observe the bird, pondering if it could be injured or unable to fly for various reasons. “The first thing I’m noticing is the tail feathers are frayed,” said Dr. Elizabeth Wood from the <a href="http://www.wwccoc.org/">Wetlands and Wildlife Care Center</a>. “So, that can indicate that the bird has been grounded for quite some time. It may just be from the days that it’s been on these roofs, but that can affect flight.”



“The best thing we can do is not capture or disturb it if it doesn’t need anything. We can do more harm than good if the capture went wrong,” concluded Debbie McGuire, the former Director of the Wetlands and Wildlife Care Center.



-—



By Andrei Ionescu, Earth.com Staff Writer



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Rare Arctic snowy owl spotted in Southern California

This week, birdwatchers flocked to Cypress in Southern California to...

Close,Up,Picture,Of,Brown,Eyes,From,A,Young,Man

A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.nei.nih.gov/">National Eye Institute</a> (NEI) has used patient stem cells and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/3d-printed-lungs-lives/">3D bioprinting</a> to produce eye tissue that could advance our understanding of age-related blinding diseases. The experts printed a combination of cells which form the outer blood-retina barrier and support the retina’s light-sensing photoreceptors. This method provides a technically unlimited supply of patient-derived eye tissue to study degenerative retinal diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD).



“We know that AMD starts in the outer blood-retina barrier,” said study senior author Kapil Bharti, the head of the NEI Section on Ocular and Stem Cell Translational Research. “However, mechanisms of AMD initiation and progression to advanced dry and wet stages remain poorly understood due to the lack of physiologically relevant human models.”



The outer blood-retina barrier consists of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), which is separated by Bruch’s membrane from the blood-vessel rich choriocapillaris. This membrane plays a fundamental role in regulating the exchange of both nutrients and waste between the choriocapillaris and the RPE. In individuals suffering from AMD, lipoprotein deposits (called “drusen”) form outside the membrane, impeding its function, and, over time, the RPE break down leading to the degeneration of photoreceptors and, ultimately, to vision loss.



The scientists combined three immature choroidal cell types in a hydrogel: pericytes and endothelial cells (which are critical components of capillaries), and fibroblasts, which give tissues structure. Then, they printed the gel on a biodegradable scaffold and noticed that, in just a few days, the cells began to mature into a dense capillary network. On day nine, the researchers seeded retinal pigment epithelial cells on the opposite side of the scaffold.&nbsp;



The printed tissue reached full maturity on day 42, and began looking and behaving similarly to native outer blood-retina barrier. Under induced stress, this printed tissue exhibited patterns of early AMD, such as drusen deposits beneath the RPE, followed by progression to late dry stage AMD, characterized by widespread tissue degradation. Keeping this tissue under low oxygen conditions induced wet AMD-like appearance, with a massive proliferation of choroidal vessels which migrated into the sub-RPE zone. However, by using anti-VEGF drugs, which are employed by physicians to treat AMD, they managed to suppress vessel proliferation and migration, and to restore tissue morphology.



“By printing cells, we’re facilitating the exchange of cellular cues that are necessary for normal outer blood-retina barrier anatomy,” Bharti explained. “For example, presence of RPE cells induces gene expression changes in fibroblasts that contribute to the formation of Bruch’s membrane - something that was suggested many years ago but wasn’t proven until our model.”



“Our collaborative efforts have resulted in very relevant retina tissue models of degenerative eye diseases. Such tissue models have many potential uses in translational applications, including therapeutics development,” concluded co-author Marc Ferrer, the director of the 3D Tissue Bioprinting Laboratory at NIH’s <a href="https://ncats.nih.gov/">National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41592-022-01701-1">Nature Methods</a>.



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By Andrei Ionescu, Earth.com Staff Writer



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Scientists create eye tissue through 3D bioprinting

A team of scientists led by the National Eye Institute...

African,American,Docktor,In,While,Coat,Checking,Neck,Of,Elderly

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tattoo-ink-lymph-nodes/">Lymph nodes</a> usually serve as the headquarters of our immune system. When we are vaccinated or get an infection, these nodes are the sites at which immune cells congregate, activate, and proliferate in order to mobilize an effective immune defense. However, with age, the normal tissue in the lymph nodes (called “the stroma”) is gradually replaced by adipose tissue (fat), in a phenomenon known as lipomatosis. Although this phenomenon is quite common and increases with age, relatively few scientific studies have addressed it to date.



Now, by analyzing over 200 lymph nodes, a team of researchers from <a href="https://www.uu.se/en">Uppsala University</a> in Sweden has found that lipomatosis begins in the medulla (the central part of the lymph nodes), and is characterized by the transformation of the fibroblasts (the supporting parts of the lymph nodes) into adipocytes (fat cells). In addition, some specific types of fibroblasts located in the medulla seem to be more prone to become adipocytes.



According to the scientists, in the early stages of lipomatosis, changes arise which impair the ability of lymph nodes to provide effective immunity. For instance, the specialized blood and lymphatic vessels that are normally used channels for immune cells to enter and exit the lymph nodes are destroyed in the areas of the nodes where fat has formed. Thus, lipomatosis may be a critical factor why many elderly people get more severe infections or have poorer responses to vaccination.



“Our study is a first step towards understanding why lipomatosis occur, and towards the longer term goal of finding ways to prevent its progression and the destruction of the lymph node,” said study lead author Tove Bekkhus, an expert in Immunology, Genetics, and Pathology at Uppsala.



Since the researchers are currently unable to mimic the effects they observed in human lymph nodes in animal models normally used for the study of aging, direct analyses of human subjects is necessary.&nbsp;



“I hope our work will spur an interest among other researchers in including lymph nodes lipomatosis as a factor when studying elderly people’s responses to vaccination and infections. The changes we observe are also highly relevant to cancer research, since in several types of cancer, the lymph nodes are the first places cancer cells spread to,” said study senior author Maria Ulvmar, a professor of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology at the same university.



“Our publication provides the first chapter of a story about fat and loss of function in our lymph nodes when we age. We will now continue to develop this story by designing new studies to learn more about the underlying causes and consequences of these changes.”



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/path.6030">Journal of Pathology</a>. &nbsp;



—



By Andrei Ionescu, Earth.com Staff Writer



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Aging turns lymph nodes into fat, impairing immunity

Lymph nodes usually serve as the headquarters of our immune...

The target of the United Nations Paris Agreement, signed by 196 parties in 2015, was to limit the global temperature rise to an average of between 1.5 and 2°C. Although some countries have made some progress towards reducing their greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-co2-emissions-hit-record-levels-in-2022/">emissions</a>, it is looking increasingly likely that we will overshoot this target. Unless urgent action is taken now, in the next decade, the planet is expected to continue heating rapidly, and to warm by more than the critical average of 2°C. 



Scientists envisage a period of higher temperatures in the middle of this century, as a result of our failure to reduce gas emissions. After this, however, it is hypothesized that the deployment of new, as yet unproven, technologies and techniques for removing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere will eventually bring temperatures back down to a safer level. But what will be the consequences of exceeding 2°C of global warming, even if we do return to lower temperatures in future?



A new study from scientists at the <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en/home">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research</a> (PIK), and their international colleagues, has concluded that temporarily overshooting the temperature target could increase the tipping risk of several Earth system elements by more than 70 percent, in comparison with the consequences of keeping global warming in line with the Paris Agreement range. This tipping risk increases even if, in the longer term, the global temperature stabilizes back within the Paris range.&nbsp;



“We show that the risk for some tipping events could increase very substantially under certain global warming overshoot scenarios,” explained Nico Wunderling, scientist at PIK and lead-author of the study published in&nbsp;Nature Climate Change. “Even if we would manage to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees after an overshoot of more than two degrees, this would not be enough as the risk of triggering one or more global tipping points would still be more than 50 percent. With more warming in the long-term, the risks increase dramatically.”



In&nbsp;terms of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatology">climate science</a>, a&nbsp;tipping point&nbsp;is a critical threshold that, when crossed, leads to large and often irreversible changes in the&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_system">climate system</a>. For example, an average global warming of 1.5°C is predicted to lead to melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet. This will cause disastrous rises in sea level which will impact human societies worldwide.&nbsp;Tipping points are found across the planet, in ecosystems, ice sheets, and the circulation of the ocean and atmosphere. One of the dangers of reaching tipping point in a system is that this could interact with other sensitive elements, causing a cascade of tipping events, in other systems, with severe impacts.



“To effectively prevent all tipping risks, the global mean temperature increase would need to be limited to no more than one degree – we are currently already at about 1.2 degrees,” said Jonathan Donges, co-lead of the FutureLab on Earth Resilience in the Anthropocene at PIK. “The latest IPCC report is showing that we’re most likely on a path to temporarily overshoot the 1.5°C temperature threshold.”



The PIK scientists, together with researchers from the Earth Commission used different global warming overshoot scenarios with peak temperatures of between two and four degrees, and applied these to a set of four interacting tipping elements: the Greenland Ice Sheet, the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), and the Amazon rainforest.&nbsp;



The researchers applied a risk analysis approach based on millions of model simulations to reflect the uncertainties in relevant parameters such as the uncertainty in critical temperature thresholds as well as interaction strengths and interaction structure. Such a huge number of simulations would be computationally too expensive to do, based on fully coupled Earth System Model simulations.&nbsp;



For the different overshoot scenarios, the research team then analyzed the risk of crossing critical thresholds and the potential for triggering cascading interactions between the four elements, depending on the magnitude and duration of the overshoot.



“We found that the risk for the emergence of at least one tipping event increases with rising peak temperatures - already at a peak temperature of 3°C, more than one third of all simulations showed a tipping event, even when overshoot durations were limited strongly. At a 4°C peak temperature, this risk extended to more than half of all simulations,” explained Nico Wunderling.



“Especially the Greenland and the West Antarctic Ice Sheets are at risk of tipping, even for small overshoots, underlining that they are among the most vulnerable tipping elements. While it would take a long time for the ice loss to fully unfold, the temperature levels at which such changes are triggered could already be reached soon,” said Ricarda Winkelmann, Earth Commissioner and co-lead of the FutureLab on Earth Resilience in the Anthropocene.&nbsp;



“Our action in the coming years can thus decide the future trajectory of the ice sheets for centuries or even millennia to come,” she said.



The other two tipping elements considered in the study - the AMOC that could collapse, and the Amazon rainforest dieback - have higher critical temperature thresholds, but will react much faster once the tipping process has started. In the case of these events, damage would arrive fast and recovery would be very slow if temperatures decreased again. It is far more difficult to stop the tipping process of these events, once initiated by a temporary global warming overshoot.&nbsp;



Current mitigation policies and actions are expected to lead to a mean of between 2 and 3.6°C of global warming by the end of this century. “This is not enough. Even though a temporary temperature overshoot would definitely be better than reaching a peak temperature and remaining there, some of the overshoot impacts may lead to irreversible damages in a high climate risk zone and this is why low-temperature overshoots are key here,” explained Jonathan Donges.&nbsp;



The results of this study show that even temporary overshoots in mean global temperatures can increase tipping risks by up to 72 percent, compared with non-overshoot scenarios, even if the temperature in the long-term stabilizes back within the Paris range. The authors state that avoiding high-end climate risks is only possible if the temperature overshoot is kept in the low range. However, even if the mean global warming goes above 2°C for a few decades before being brought back down, this could transform the world’s most important ecosystems.



“Every tenth of a degree counts. We must do what we can to limit global warming as quickly as possible," said Winkelmann.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Temporary warming over 2°C may cause cascading tipping events

The target of the United Nations Paris Agreement, signed by...

The Internet of Things (IoT) connects and facilitates data exchange among a multitude of smart objects of various dimensions and shapes over the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/internet-based-drinking-interventions/">internet</a> and other sensing and communications networks. Such smart objects include self-driving cars equipped with sensors to detect road obstacles, remote-controlled home security systems, and temperature-controlled factory equipment.&nbsp;



By the next decade, scientists estimate that this burgeoning hypernetwork may reach trillions of devices and have a major impact on both daily life and various industries. However, current approaches to power sensor nodes rely mostly on battery technology, which is expensive and environmentally harmful. Moreover, the global production of lithium for battery materials may fail to keep up with the increasing energy demand from the nearly exponential rise in the number of sensors.



Now, a team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.kaust.edu.sa/en">King Abdullah University of Science &amp; Technology</a> in Saudi Arabia (KAUST) has argued that emerging forms of thin-film device technologies relying on alternative semiconductor materials – such as printable organics, metal oxides, or nanocarbon allotropes – could lead to a more economically and environmentally sustainable IoT.



By drawing energy from the environment using so-called energy harvesters, such as photovoltaic cells and radio-frequency (RF) energy harvesters, wirelessly powered sensor nodes could help achieve a more sustainable IoT. Moreover, the emergence of large-area electronics as a better alternative to conventional silicon-based technologies is also an important step forward in this process. Since they can be produced at low temperatures and on biodegradable substrates like paper, such devices are more ecofriendly than their silicon-based counterparts.



Over the past years, the KAUST researchers have developed a variety of RF electronic components, such as metal-oxide and organic polymer-based semiconductor devices known as Schottky diodes. “These devices are crucial components in wireless energy harvesters and ultimately dictate the performance and cost of the sensor nodes,” said study co-author Kalaivanan Loganathan.



Another major contribution from the research team includes scalable methods for manufacturing RF diodes to harvest energy reaching the 5G/6G frequency range. “Such technologies provide the needed building blocks toward a more sustainable way to power the billions of sensor nodes in the near future,” concluded corresponding author Professor Thomas Anthopoulos.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41928-022-00898-5">Nature Electronics</a>.



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By Andrei Ionescu, Earth.com Staff Writer



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Greener energy is needed for the Internet of Things

The Internet of Things (IoT) connects and facilitates data exchange...

Mammoth,In,The,Middle,Of,Mountains,.,This,Is,A

Recently, several international experts have started to raise alarms about attempts made by a team of Russian scientists to “reawaken” and study in their laboratory ancient viruses found in the carcasses of frozen mammals, such as woolly mammoths, trapped in the Siberian permafrost. Much like in the case of SARS-CoV-2 at the beginning of the pandemic, humans are immunologically naïve to such prehistoric viruses buried in the permafrost and, although most of them may not be able to infect us, a handful that potentially could may spark new outbreaks or even another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/china-may-trigger-the-deadliest-wave-of-the-covid-19-pandemic/">pandemic</a>.



In an article published at the beginning of December on <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.11.10.515937v1.full">bioRxiv</a>, a team of researchers led by Jean-Michel Claverie (an emeritus professor of Virology at the <a href="https://www.univ-amu.fr/en">Aix-Marseille University</a> in France) has described their discovery of a virus that had been stranded under a frozen Siberian lake more than 48,500 years ago. While this virus seemed to be infectious only to amoebas, the scientists stressed that many other types of viruses could lurk in similar locations, and that some of them may be able to infect humans and other animals.



“Every time we look, we will find a virus. It’s a done deal. We know that every time we’re going to look for viruses, infectious viruses in permafrost, we are going to find some,” Claverie said.



While climate change and subsequent permafrost thawing holds significant risks for releasing some of these viruses from the places in which they had been trapped for thousands of years, human intervention could be an even more worrisome factor in these viruses’ (re)emergence.



For instance, Russia’s <a href="http://www.vector.nsc.ru/">State Research Centre of Virology and Biotechnology</a> (known as Vector) is now aiming to extract cellular material containing the viruses that killed ancient mammoths discovered in the permafrost, and take it back to the lab for experimentation. According to Claverie – and various other scientists worldwide - such experiments are highly dangerous and should not be performed.



“[Vector's research] is terrible. I’m totally against it. [It] is very, very risky. Our immune systems have never encountered these types of viruses. Some of them could be 200,000 or even 400,000 years old. But ancient viruses that infected animals or humans could still be infectious,” he warned.&nbsp;



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By Andrei Ionescu, Earth.com Staff Writer



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Unearthing ancient viruses could spark a new pandemic

Recently, several international experts have started to raise alarms about...

In the United States, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-wildfire-years-are-just-getting-started/">wildfires</a> pose a major risk to entire communities (particularly in Western states), frequently destroying homes, businesses, and lives. When wildfires sweep through a region, they usually affect the economy as a whole, decreasing U.S. firms’ values to stakeholders, especially when businesses incur physical damage and supply chain issues, or lose employees. However, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a>, these firms rarely report their wildfire risks in required federal filings, and choose instead to hide such risks in nonspecific risk disclosures.



By examining over 80,000 10-K reports – annual reports filled by all publicly traded companies, including disclosures and exhibits – between 1996 and 2018, the researchers found that, on average, only 6.1 percent of firms with wildfires in their headquarters counties mention wildfire information in their required federal filings.



“Despite a growing awareness of the strategic importance of climate change, firm-level disclosures of extreme weather and climate-related risks and events remain the exception rather than the norm,” said study lead author Paul Griffin, a professor at the UC Davis Graduate School of Management.&nbsp;



“Disclosure is a sign that the firm is taking these events seriously and will take action itself to mitigate the risk. Disclosure leads to real action,” he added.



The analysis revealed that the number of wildfire days in a company’s headquarters county&nbsp;is a key factor in determining whether the company will disclose wildfire risks. Largely, only firms previously affected by wildfires directly, such as utility and banking industries with tangible assets, report these risks. Thus, the most disclosure-sensitive companies appear to be those that experienced wildfires which disrupted their past operations, while the most disclosure-insensitive ones are those whose 10-K disclosures related to forward-looking risk factors only. The latter are also more likely to use limited, imprecise language to describe their wildfire risk.



Although wildfire disclosure sensitivity started to increase after 2010 – in line with the <a href="https://www.sec.gov/">Security and Exchange Commission</a> (SEC) guidance pressing companies to consider extreme weather as a material risk factor – there is still an unacceptably large number of firms hiding wildfire risk in their areas of operations.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jbfa.12674">Journal of Business Finance &amp; Accounting</a>.&nbsp;



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By Andrei Ionescu, Earth.com Staff Writer



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Wildfire risks not commonly disclosed by U.S. companies

In the United States, wildfires pose a major risk to...

Young babies never lie still. They move continuously, giving kicks and wriggles, and reaching out with their arms. Right from birth - and even in the womb - babies start to make movements that are seemingly random and have no purpose. New research conducted by scientists from the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a>, Japan, has now found that these “spontaneous movements” have an important role in the development of the sensorimotor system that enables us to control our muscles, movements and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cows-are-getting-high-from-industrial-hemp/">coordination</a>.



Whole-body coordination involves large-scale sensorimotor interaction, and the ability to make the desired movements. When these bodily movements are made in the early stages of a baby’s life, they may potentially help the baby acquire this complex coordinated behavior. It is as though the baby is practicing this behavior and, thereby, preparing his or her muscles and joints, as well as stimulating neuronal development.



Currently, there is limited knowledge about how newborns and infants learn to move their bodies in a coordinated fashion. “Previous research into sensorimotor development has focused on kinematic properties, muscle activities which cause movement in a joint or a part of the body,” said Project Assistant Professor Hoshinori Kanazawa from the Graduate School of Information Science and Technology. “However, our study focused on muscle activity and sensory input signals for the whole body. By combining a musculoskeletal model and neuroscientific method, we found that spontaneous movements, which seem to have no explicit task or purpose, contribute to coordinated sensorimotor development.”



For their study, the researchers recruited 12 healthy neonates (&lt; 10 days old) and 10 young infants of around 3 months in age. None of them or their first-degree relatives had neurological impairments.&nbsp;The team recorded the joint movements of the babies in the absence of external stimulation for 60 s, while they were awake, active and in a happy state. In addition, they recorded the three-dimensional positions of 51 markers on the muscles and joints of the babies, using 12 infrared cameras.&nbsp;



The researchers then placed a set of three markers to define the relative positions of each body link connected through the joint. The target joints were the shoulder, elbow, hand, hip, knee, and ankle. The body links connected through the joints included the head, trunk, upper arm, forearm, hand, pelvis, thigh, calf, and foot. In this way, they mapped the exact movements of these elements.



The babies’ muscle activity and sensory input signals were estimated with the help of a whole-body, infant-scale musculoskeletal computer model which had been developed by the researchers. Finally, they used computer algorithms to analyze the ways in which the input signals and muscle activity interacted, spatially and temporally, during the babies’ open-ended movements.&nbsp;



The results of the study, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, showed that the spontaneous, whole-body movements that neonates and infants exhibit could contribute to the structure of sensorimotor interactions, such as walking or reaching for something, later in life. Even though the movements appear to have no pattern or purpose, and are akin to “sensorimotor wandering,” they could contribute to the self-organizing sensorimotor interactions in the future. It was as though the movements are a form of practicing for the future and are certainly not simply random.



“We were surprised that during spontaneous movement, infants’ movements “wandered” and they pursued various sensorimotor interactions. We named this phenomenon ‘sensorimotor wandering,’” said Kanazawa. “It has been commonly assumed that sensorimotor system development generally depends on the occurrence of repeated sensorimotor interactions, meaning the more you do the same action the more likely you are to learn and remember it.”



“However, our results implied that infants develop their own sensorimotor system based on explorational behavior or curiosity,” he continued, “so they are not just repeating the same action but a variety of actions. In addition to this, our findings provide a conceptual linkage between early spontaneous movements and spontaneous neuronal activity.”



Previous studies on humans and animals have shown that motor behavior (movement) involves a small set of primitive muscular control patterns. These are patterns that can typically be seen in task-specific or cyclic movements, like walking or reaching. The results of this latest study supports the theory that newborns and infants can acquire sensorimotor modules, i.e., synchronized muscle activities and sensory inputs, through spontaneous whole-body movements without an explicit purpose or task.&nbsp;



Through sensorimotor wandering, the babies showed an increase in coordinated whole-body movements and in anticipatory movements. The movements performed by the infant group showed more common patterns and sequential movements, compared to the more random movements of the newborn group.



The researchers believe that a better understanding of these movements and their role in later functions, will help us to understand how they are involved in early human development. We may also be able to identify early indicators of certain developmental disorders, such as cerebral palsy.&nbsp;



Next, Kanazawa wants to look at how sensorimotor wandering affects later development, such as walking and reaching, along with more complex behaviors and higher cognitive functions. “My original background is in infant rehabilitation. My big goal through my research is to understand the underlying mechanisms of early motor development and to find knowledge that will help to promote baby development.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Baby movements seem random, but help with coordination

Young babies never lie still. They move continuously, giving kicks...

For many people, skiing holidays are as much a part of the end of the year as Christmas trees and fireworks. However, as global warming intensifies, white slopes are becoming increasingly rare. Now, a team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/en.html">University of Basel</a> has calculated how well the Andermatt-Sedrun-Disentis - one of Switzerland’s largest ski resorts - will remain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-cover-has-decreased-in-recent-decades/">snow</a> reliable with technical snowmaking by the end of the century, and how much water this snow will require to be produced.



Current climate models predict that although there will be more precipitation during the next decades, it will be largely in the form of rain rather than snow. Thus, for ski resorts such as the Andermatt-Sedrun-Disentis, technical snowmaking will become a necessity. By collecting data on the aspects of this resorts’ slopes, and on where and when the snow is produced and with how much water, and then applying the latest climate change scenarios (CH2018) combined with the SkiSim 2.0 simulation software for projections of snow conditions with and without technical snowmaking, the experts discovered that the use of technical snow could guarantee a 100-day ski season, at least in the higher parts of the resort.



However, if greenhouse emissions will continue unabated, the business may be tight during the Christmas period, and regions such as Sedrun, for instance, will no longer be able to guarantee snow over Christmas in the long term. While new snow guns may alleviate the situation to a certain degree, they will not be able to solve the issue completely.



“Many people don’t realize that you also need certain weather conditions for snowmaking,” said study senior author Erika Hiltbrunner. “It must not be too warm or too humid, otherwise there will not be enough evaporation cooling for the sprayed water to freeze in the air and come down as snow.”&nbsp;In addition, since warm air absorbs more moisture, it will be increasingly difficult to produce snow technically. “Here, the laws of physics set clear limits for snowmaking,” Hiltbrunner added.



According to the scientists, if technical snowmaking will continue to be used as a way of keeping the resort operating, water consumption for snowmaking will increase by 80 percent. Thus, in an average winter towards the end of the century, consumption would amount to over 540 million liters of water (from about 300 million currently). Moreover, since some of the water used for snowmaking now comes from the Oberalpsee – which can provide a maximum of 200 million liters per year – by mid-century new sources will necessarily need to be exploited.



“The Oberalpsee is also used to produce hydroelectric power. Here, we are likely to see a conflict between the water demands for the ski resort and those for hydropower generation,” concluded lead author Maria Vorkauf, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.agroscope.admin.ch/agroscope/en/home/about-us/agroscope.html">Agroscope</a> research station.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00484-022-02394-z">International Journal of Biometeorology</a>.&nbsp;



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By Andrei Ionescu, Earth.com Staff Writer



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Christmas skiing not guaranteed by the end of the century

For many people, skiing holidays are as much a part...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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