Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

An important aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-houseplants-can-poison-children-and-pets/">plant</a> development is gravitropism, the directional growth of organisms in response to gravity. This process allows plants to compete for limited resources. For example, if crop roots could be directed to grow down at a steeper angle, the plants could gain access to deeper water and nutrient reserves and potentially become more drought resistant.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin</a> has revealed four genes that are involved in gravitropism in corn and the model plant Arabidopsis. The research will help explain why some plant roots make a steeper turn towards gravity than others.&nbsp;



In collaboration with experts at the University of Illinois, the team used advanced techniques to observe subtle differences in root gravitropism in thousands of seedlings. This data was combined with genetic information for each seedling. The results allowed the researchers to map the likely positions of gravitropism genes in the genome.



“Because we had previously performed the same experiment with the distantly related Arabidopsis plant, we were able to match genes within the relevant regions of the genome in both species. Follow-up tests verified the identity of four genes that modify root gravitropism," explained study lead author Professor Edgar Spalding. "The new information could help us understand how gravity shapes root system architectures."



“We looked at an under-researched trait in maize that is important for a number of reasons, especially in the context of climate change. And we did it by making the evolutionary differences between plants work in our favor," said study co-author Professor Matt Hudson.



Corn and Arabidopsis evolved about 150 million years apart. Although both species share basic plant functions, the genes controlling them have likely been jumbled within the genome over time, explained Professor Hudson.



“I thought it was super cool that we could identify genes we wouldn’t have found otherwise just by comparing genomic intervals in unrelated plant species. We were pretty confident they were the right genes when they popped right out of this analysis, but Spalding’s group then spent seven or eight more years getting solid biological data to verify they do, indeed, play a role in gravitropism. Having done that, I think we’ve validated the whole approach such that in future, you could use this method for many different phenotypes," said Professor Hudson.



According to Professor Spalding, the method was probably particularly successful because precise measurements were made in a common environment. “Often, maize researchers will measure their traits of interest in a field, whereas Arabidopsis researchers tend to raise their plants in growth chambers. We measured the root gravitropism phenotype in a highly controlled way. These seeds were grown on a petri plate, and the assay lasted just hours, as opposed to traits you might measure in the real world that are open to all sorts of variabilities.”



“Gravitropism may be especially amenable to study through this approach because it would have been key to the original specialization of shoots and roots after the successful colonization of land."



Professor Hudson pointed out that gravitropism will be key to colonization of a different landscape, as well. “NASA is interested in growing crops on other planets or in space and they need to know what you'd have to breed for to do that. Plants are pretty discombobulated without gravity.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals genes that help plant roots grow toward gravity

An important aspect of plant development is gravitropism, the directional...

A,Woman,Collecting,And,Separating,Recyclable,Garbage,Plastic,Bottles,Into

All the proteins, carbohydrates and fats that we eat consist of polymers – very large molecules that are made up of smaller units or building blocks. These repeated small molecules are known as monomers and the function of our digestive system is to break down the large molecules into their small units so that they may be absorbed into our blood. Thereafter, these monomers are available in our bodies to be reassembled into our own protein, carbohydrate and fat polymers. Just like Lego blocks, the units are broken apart and then put back together again to produce something useful.



Plastics are also made of polymers, with their monomers being derived from petrochemicals resulting after the fractional distillation of crude oil. Currently, some of the plastics can be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-can-be-recycled-into-construction-materials/">recycled</a>, but this involves turning them into a powdered form and melting them for reuse in another form. A team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a> has now taken a different approach to the problem of recycling plastic polymers and attempted to break down the chemical bonds between the monomers so that they can be used again to build something new, just as we do with our digested food.&nbsp;



“We are thinking outside the box, about different ways of breaking chemical bonds,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://www.colorado.edu/chemistry/wei-zhang">Wei Zhang</a>, lead author of the study and chair of the Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado. “Our chemical methods can help create new technologies and new materials, as well as be utilized to help solve the existing plastic materials crisis.”



The research focused on a class of durable plastics that is widely used in the aerospace and microelectronics industries, and is very challenging to recycle because it is designed to keep its shape in conditions of extreme heat. Instead of trying to recycle the plastic, the researchers investigated techniques to break down the bonds between the monomers chemically, so that they are available as building blocks to produce new items of the same material.&nbsp;



It’s a major step in the development of repairable and fully recyclable network polymers and the study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41557-022-01046-4">Nature Chemistry</a>, documents how this type of plastic can be perpetually broken down and remade, without sacrificing its desired physical properties. In fact, the new chemical methods developed by the scientists could potentially be applied to other plastic materials and could lead to similar discoveries about how to break down the chemical bonds fully and rebuild them, enabling the circular production of more plastic materials in our daily lives.



This means that the plastics in our satellites, cars and electronic devices, not to mention all those used in everyday life for packaging, textiles, toys and household goods, may soon be reprocessed to live another life – over and over again – rather than ending up in a landfill or contributing to the great garbage gyres in the oceans.&nbsp;



In the mid-20th century, plastics were ubiquitously adopted in almost every industry and part of life as they are extremely convenient, functional and cheap. But half a century later, after exponential demand and production, plastics pose a major problem to the health of the planet and to people. Plastics don’t biodegrade, but perish to form smaller and smaller fragments, known as microplastics. These have become ubiquitously present in land and sea environments, in our drinking water, our food and ourselves.&nbsp;



Conventional recycling currently involves breaking down the plastics mechanically into powders, and then melting them, burning them or using bacterial enzymes to digest them. The products can then be used to make something new and useful. For example, shoes may be made from recycled rubber tires, and certain clothing products can be made from plastic bottles. The material is not the same as the original, but at least the plastic does not end up in a landfill or an ocean – for the moment.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, a very small proportion of the world’s plastic waste currently gets recycled. The large majority of plastic items so beloved by us end up being thrown away, which results in hundreds of millions of tons of waste being generated every year.&nbsp; These slowly fragment and form microplastics, but they never really go away. Wouldn’t it be wonderful if we could simply break the plastic polymers up into their building blocks again and use them to make a brand new item of the same type? Plastics would then go round and round, being reincarnated into new products of the same material and potentially becoming immortal …&nbsp;



This is exactly what Zhang and his colleagues have managed to engineer. They reversed a chemical method and discovered they can both break existing chemical bonds and form new ones. This approach is based on the concept of reversible or dynamic chemistry, whereby chemical reactions can proceed forwards but can also go backwards.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This chemistry can also be dynamic, can be reversible, and that bond can be reformed,” said Zhang. “We are thinking about a different way to form the same backbone, just from different starting points.”&nbsp;



What’s especially novel about this latest method is that it has not only created a new class of polymer material that, like Legos, is easy to build, break apart and rebuild over and over, but the method can be applied to existing, especially hard-to-recycle polymers. These new chemical methods are also ready for commercialization and can plug and play with current industrial production.



“It can really benefit future design and development of plastics to not only create new polymers, but it’s also very important to know how to convert, upcycle and recycle older polymers,” said Zhang. “By using our new approach, we can prepare many new materials – some of which could have similar properties to the plastics in our daily life.”



This advance in the closed-loop recycling of plastics is inspired by the natural world, as plants, animals and human beings alike are currently part of a planetary-level, circular system of recycling, said Zhang. “Why can’t we make our materials the same way?”&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plastics may live an immortal life thanks to new techniques

All the proteins, carbohydrates and fats that we eat consist...

Patients who have suffered from heart failure are often placed on diuretic drugs to help them control the fluid levels in their bodies. Since the heart does not pump as efficiently in these patients, waste products accumulate in the body, causing shortness of breath and a build-up of fluid in the lungs, legs and abdomen. Diuretic drugs increase the production of urine in these patients so that they can avoid the negative effects of fluid retention. However, this gives rise to a potentially dangerous situation if these patients are exposed to the hot and dehydrating conditions of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-marine-heatwave-persists-in-the-mediterranean-sea/">heatwave</a>.



Care of heart failure patients involves close monitoring of their weight on a daily basis in order to detect sudden swelling or edema, which is the main reason for hospital admission. The <a href="https://www.escardio.org/">European Society of Cardiology</a> (ESC) guidelines recommend educating patients to increase their diuretic dose or alert their healthcare team if they experience an increase in breathlessness or swelling, or a sudden unexpected weight gain of more than 2 kg in three days. &nbsp;These conditions could indicate that the heart is under strain or that the dosage of diuretic medication needs to be increased.&nbsp;



Heart failure patients are not commonly instructed to look out for instances of weight loss, a situation that could be dangerous in times of hot temperatures, state the authors of a new study. “When healthy people drink more fluids during hot weather, the body automatically regulates urine output. This does not apply to patients with heart failure because they take diuretics,” explained study author Professor François Roubille of Montpellier University Hospital, France.



The nationwide study conducted in France linked hot temperatures during the 2019 heatwave with weight loss in heart failure patients. This may potentially indicate dehydration and is associated with a worsening condition in these patients who will not be aware of the danger if they are focused on monitoring their weight for increases only. The findings are published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ehf2.14129">ESC Heart Failure</a>,&nbsp;the open access journal of the <a href="https://www.escardio.org/Sub-specialty-communities/Heart-Failure-Association-of-the-ESC-(HFA)">Heart Failure Association</a>&nbsp;(HFA) of the European Society of Cardiology.



“This study is the first to show a strict relationship between ambient temperature and body weight in heart failure patients,” said Professor Roubille. “The finding is timely given the heatwaves again this year. The weight loss we observed in people with heart failure may lead to low blood pressure, especially when standing up, and renal failure, and is potentially life-threatening. With rising temperatures forecast for the future, clinicians and patients should be ready to reduce the dose of diuretics when weight loss occurs.”



The study made use of a national telemonitoring system to examine the relationship between body weight and air temperature in heart failure patients between 1 June and 20 September 2019. During this time, two heatwaves occurred, one at the end of June and the other at the end of July. The participants included 1,420 patients with chronic heart failure who weighed themselves every day using a connected scale that automatically sent their data to the clinic. They also reported daily symptoms such as edema, fatigue, breathlessness and coughing by answering questions on a personal device (e.g. smartphone, tablet) that also sent their answers automatically to the clinic.



Data that was collected remotely in this way was combined with measurements of daily noontime temperatures from the closest weather station to each patient’s home. The researchers analyzed the association between patient weight, ambient temperature on the same day, and temperature two days prior to the weight measurement. The negative relationship between temperature and weight was very strong, with weight decreasing as temperature increased. The strongest relationship was found between a patient’s weight and the ambient temperature two days prior to the weight measurement.&nbsp;



“The weight loss we observed during the heatwave was clinically relevant. Patients weighing 78 kg lost 1.5 kg in a short period of time. We were surprised to see that weight dropped with hot temperatures, as we had expected the opposite. For this reason, the telemonitoring system was programmed to alert clinicians when patients gained weight," said Professor Roubille.



“Given the expectation of more heatwaves, telemonitoring systems also need to alert clinicians of weight loss in heart failure patients. In addition, systems could notify patients losing weight that it may be due to the heat and they should contact their healthcare provider about reducing the dose of diuretics. For heart failure patients not monitored remotely, a good rule of thumb would be to contact a healthcare professional if weight drops by 2 kg during a heatwave for advice on adjusting diuretic medication. Reacting early should help us to prevent complications.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Heatwaves have life-threatening effects on heart failure patients

Patients who have suffered from heart failure are often placed...

Since <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-fungal-diseases/">fungal diseases</a> in human populations are on the rise, it is important for health authorities to know where these pathogens come from. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.unm.edu/">University of New Mexico</a> (UNM) has revealed that small mammals like rodents could act as reservoirs, agents of dispersal, and incubators of fungal pathogens.



“We wanted to understand if the fungal spores of respiratory pathogens reside in soils because they feed on dead and decaying plant matter, or if they are instead living within small animals and their spores are released into the soil after the rodents die,” said study lead author Paris Salazar-Hamm, a postdoctoral fellow in Microbiology at UNM.



“Our analysis, which specifically focused on lung pathogens that cause disease in humans, detected a wide range of fungi in the lung tissues of small mammals. We found that many of the rodents we sampled from areas in the Southwestern US were harboring the type of fungi that can cause lung infections in humans, such as the fungus that leads to Valley Fever, a disease that typically causes flu-like symptoms and can be life threatening.”



The scientists used next-generation sequencing – a method that allows for a quick detection and assessment of a wide number of fungal species – to analyze fungal DNA in rodent lung tissues from museum specimens. The investigation detected the fungus&nbsp;Coccidioides (the cause of Valley Fever) in the lung tissues of small rodents from Kern County, California, and Cochise and Maricopa Counties, Arizona - areas which have high rates of this disease – as well as from Catron, Sierra, and Socorro Counties in New Mexico, where this fungus has not been detected before.



“Current forecasts of the distribution of&nbsp;Coccidioides, based on climate and soil conditions, predict that Valley Fever will expand substantially northward and eastward over the next century as a result of climate change impacting environmental conditions. Our results will inform these modeling efforts by adding valuable information about animals as reservoirs for pathogens,” Dr. Salazar-Hamm said.



Future research is needed to assess the health of the host animals and clarify how this might impact the spread and virulence of the diseases.&nbsp;



“We were not able to assess the health of the mammalian hosts from which the lung tissues were acquired. Despite the presence of pathogens, it was impossible to say conclusively that there was disease. It would be interesting to further explore the impact of the fungi on the mammals. That effort would require more detailed information about the general health of the animal in question,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/ffunb.2022.996574">Frontiers in Fungal Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rodents are reservoirs for dangerous fungal diseases

Since fungal diseases in human populations are on the rise,...

In 2012, after two years of increased rainfall, California’s most prized ornamental trees – the coral beans – began wilting and falling away, revealing stems which had been hollowed out from the inside by the caterpillars of Erythrina stem borer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moths-may-struggle-to-move-in-response-to-climate-change/">moths</a>. Another massive outbreak followed in 2015 after a significant bout of rainfall caused by the Hurricane Dolores and, although the moths have declined afterwards, they have nevertheless continued to be spotted in Southern California each year, indicating that they may be there to stay. Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/">Florida Museum of Natural History</a> has performed a comprehensive DNA analysis of this invasive insect, in order to clarify its origins and find ways of controlling it.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Initially, the scientists believed that the moths invading Southern California’s coral beans may have originated from the Sonoran and Chihuahuan Deserts in Mexico. However, the analyses revealed that Erythrina stem borers have a very wide distribution, from Florida down through the Caribbean and some parts of South America, as well as many regions from Africa and Asia. Thus, since these insects can easily hitch a ride from one place to another while hidden in their host plants, it is possible they could have come from anywhere in the world through the horticultural trade.



By sequencing the DNA of the moths involved in the Southern Californian outbreaks and comparing it to that of moths from different U.S. states and other countries, the researchers found that these moths were most closely related to those living in the Baja Peninsula and Arizona. However, although the moths from North and South America seem almost identical, DNA analysis revealed that the western moths were in fact on a highly different evolutionary trajectory than their eastern relatives.



“The specimens turned out to be western, but to our surprise, all western moths also turned out to be isolated genetically from the rest of the New World,” said study lead author Andrei Sourakov, an entomologist at the Florida Museum. “So we had two entities here: one ranging from Florida to Argentina, and the other one with a distribution in western North America, which we named as a new subspecies.”



According to Sourakov and his colleagues, although it is possible that the insects were unintentionally brought to California by humans, they presence could also result from a natural expansion mediated by regional changes in climate.&nbsp;



Further research is needed to clarify these pests’ origin and patterns of spreading, and to devise ways of controlling them in order to mitigate their impact on crops.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jen.13082">Journal of Applied Entomology</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What is the origin of California’s latest invasive insect?

In 2012, after two years of increased rainfall, California’s most...

Today, the Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) spacecraft successfully slammed into its target, an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-building-blocks-of-life-may-come-from-asteroids/">asteroid</a> called Dimorphos. <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a> controllers deliberately crashed the $330 million robot spacecraft into Dimorphos, which passed at a distance of about 10.8 million kilometers from the Earth.&nbsp;



When striking its target, the Dart spacecraft traveled at over four miles per second and was almost immediately destroyed. The aim of this kamikaze mission is to learn how to deflect asteroids that may collide with our planet in the future.&nbsp;



“We know&nbsp;asteroids have hit us in the past,” said Alan Fitzsimmons, a professor of Astronomy at <a href="https://www.qub.ac.uk/">Queen’s University Belfast</a> and member of the science team for the Double Asteroid Redirection Test (Dart) mission. “These impacts are a natural process and they are going to happen in the future. We would like to stop the worst of them. The problem is that we have never tested the technology which will be needed to do that. That is the purpose of Dart.”



The probe was launched last November and is scheduled to strike the asteroid in the early hours of September 26. By investigating the asteroid’s path after the collision, the scientists hope to clarify how similar methods could be employed to deflect Earth-bound asteroids or comets.



“Dart’s target has been carefully chosen,” explained Jay Tate, the director of the <a href="https://spaceguardcentre.com/">National Near Earth Objects Information Center</a> in Knighton, UK. “Dimorphos actually orbits another, bigger asteroid called Didymos, and the extent of the deflection caused by the crash will be easier to detect as astronomers have been carefully observing its path around the bigger asteroid.”



In 2024, the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> will send another robot spacecraft called Hera to Dimorphos in order to study the crater left by Dart and find more about its collision with the asteroid.&nbsp;



“Hitting Dimorphos is not going to be easy,” Fitzsimmons said. “It is only 160 meters in diameter and the spacecraft will be travelling at four miles a second. Hitting the asteroid dead center – where the crash will have most effect – will push Dart’s autonomous navigation devices to their limit.”



“NASA engineers and scientists have done a tremendous job and are confident this should absolutely work. But you never really know until you have done it,” he concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

NASA successfully crashed a spacecraft into an asteroid

Today, the Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) spacecraft successfully slammed...

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/highly-reactive-chemicals-discovered-in-the-atmosphere/">atmosphere</a> above a telescope is an important factor in how much an astronomer can see in the sky. For this reason, the locations of observatories are carefully picked. Usually, high elevation, desert, and remote areas are preferred. 



Now, a team of scientists led by the University of Bern and the National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) PlanetS has investigated how climate change might impact astronomical observation.&nbsp;



“Even though telescopes usually have a lifetime of several decades, site selection processes only consider the atmospheric conditions over a short timeframe. Usually over the past five years – too short to capture long-term trends, let alone future changes caused by global warming," explained study lead author Caroline Haslebacher.



The research shows that observatories in Hawaii, the Canary Islands, Mexico, Chile, South Africa, and Australia will probably experience rises in temperature and atmospheric humidity by 2050. These changes could make observing the cosmos more challenging.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Nowadays, astronomical observatories are designed to work under the current site conditions and only have a few possibilities for adaptation. Potential consequences of the climatic conditions for telescopes therefore include a higher risk of condensation due to an increased dew point or malfunctioning cooling systems, which can lead to more air turbulence in the telescope dome," said Haslebacher.&nbsp;



This problem was not something that was simply overlooked, the scientists say, but available technology didn’t allow climate change to be taken into account when many observatories were built.



"This is the first time that such a study has been possible. Thanks to the higher resolution of the global climate models developed through the Horizon 2020 PRIMAVERA project, we were able to examine the conditions at various locations of the globe with great fidelity - something that we were unable to do with conventional models. These models are valuable tools for the work we do at the Wyss Academy," said study co-author Marie-Estelle Demory.



"This now allows us to say with certainty that anthropogenic climate change must be taken into account in the site selection for next-generation telescopes, and in the construction and maintenance of astronomical facilities," said Haslebacher.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202142493">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Global warming changes how we see the sky

The atmosphere above a telescope is an important factor in...

Caribbean,Sea,Surface,Summer,Wave,Background.,Exotic,Water,Landscape,With

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-making-the-ocean-more-acidic/">Plastic</a> pollution is all over the place these days. Billions of tons of it are jammed into landfills or float around in the sea, gradually breaking down into smaller and smaller fragments but never truly disappearing. This represents one of the most serious environmental problems of our time, and one that is not going to go away unless we change our use of plastics or develop new materials that are biodegradable.&nbsp;



And that’s just what scientists at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California San Diego</a> have being doing over much of the past decade. The interdisciplinary team, including biologist Stephen Mayfield and chemists Michael Burkart and Robert “Skip” Pomeroy, have developed polyurethane foams that are made from algae and other biological sources, and that are consequently biodegradable by natural decomposers (bacteria and fungi) in the environment. The experts have used these foams in the manufacture of shoes, including flip-flops, the world’s most popular form of footwear, and have already tested their decomposition in terrestrial environments. Once buried in the soils, the shoes began to degrade within just 16 weeks.



Now, in new research, the team has tested whether these polyurethane foams made from bio-based monomers will decompose when immersed in seawater. Working with study coauthor Samantha Clements, a marine biologist and scientific diver at Scripps Institution of Oceanography, the researchers fixed samples of their foams and shoes to the Ellen Browning Scripps Memorial Pier and monitored how they changed, physically and chemically, using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy.



The pier’s location provided a unique opportunity to test materials in the natural nearshore ecosystem, which is the exact environment where castoff plastics often end up. In 2010, researchers estimated that 8 billion kilograms of plastic enter the ocean in a single year, with a steep escalation predicted by 2025. Upon entering the ocean, plastic waste disrupts marine ecosystems, washes ashore as litter, or migrates to central locations where it forms trash gyres such as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, which covers an area more than 1.6 million square kilometers.&nbsp;



In a previous interview in 2020, Pomeroy referred to the current production and waste management problems that started around 60 years ago with the development of plastics and said, “If you could turn back the clock and re-envision how you could make the petroleum polymer industry, would you do it the same today that we did it years ago? There’s a bunch of plastic floating in every ocean on this planet that suggests we shouldn’t have done it that way.”&nbsp;



The results of the current study, published in the journal Science of the Total Environment, showed that the polyurethane material attached to the pier was soon colonized by an assortment of marine organisms and started to degrade in as little as four weeks.&nbsp; The decomposers, mostly bacteria and fungi, broke the material down into its original monomers (chemical building blocks) which they then used as a source of nutrients. When the researchers identified the microorganisms that were capable of consuming the polyurethane samples, they found them to be species commonly found throughout the natural marine environment.&nbsp;



“No single discipline can address these universal environmental problems but we’ve developed an integrated solution that works on land – and now we know also biodegrades in the ocean,” said Mayfield, a professor in the School of Biological Sciences and director of the California Center for Algae&nbsp;Biotechnology. “I was surprised to see just how many organisms colonize on these foams in the ocean. It becomes something like a microbial reef.”



The researchers will continue in their quest to develop renewable and sustainable monomers made from biological sources in order to produce polymers for different applications in future. Their research also continues to investigate the processes involved in biological decomposition and the chemical substances produced as a result. The experts state that people are beginning to understand the enormity of the plastic pollution problem and to seek alternatives that are less damaging to the natural world.



“Improper disposal of plastic in the ocean breaks down into microplastics and has become an enormous environmental problem,” said Mayfield. “We’ve shown that it’s absolutely possible to make high performance plastic products that also can degrade in the ocean. Plastics should not be going into the ocean in the first place, but if they do, this material becomes food for microorganisms and not plastic trash and microplastics that harm aquatic life.”



Check us out on <a cashx-data-position="1575" href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and <a cashx-data-position="1576" target="_blank" href="http://earth.com/" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>



By <a cashx-data-position="1696" href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a cashx-data-position="1697" href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Biodegradable plastic shoes break down in ocean water

Plastic pollution is all over the place these days. Billions...

A new study led by the <a href="https://umbc.edu/">University of Maryland, Baltimore County</a> (UMBC) has found that many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-new-rna-viruses-identified-in-ocean-waters/">viruses</a> are using information from their environment to “decide” when to sit tight inside their host organisms and when to multiply and burst out, destroying the host cells. These findings add a new layer of complexity to our understanding of virus-host interactions, and may have future implications for the development of antiviral drugs.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The scientists focused on bacteriophages, or viruses that infect bacteria (often referred to as “phages”). These phages can only infect their hosts when the bacterial cells have specific appendages - called pili and flagella – that help the bacteria move and mate. The generation of these appendages is controlled by a protein the bacteria produce, called CtrA.&nbsp;



Surprisingly, the researchers discovered that many appendage-dependent phages have patterns in their DNA where the CtrA protein can attach (the so-called “binding sites”). Detailed genomic analyses revealed that these binding sites were not unique to a single phage or group of phages: many different types of phages had CtrA binding sites. According to study senior author Ivan Erill, a biologist at UMBC, the ability to monitor CtrA levels “has been invented multiple times throughout evolution by different phages that infect different bacteria.”



An example on which the scientists focused involved a group of bacteria called Caulobacterales that exist in two forms: a “swarmer” form in which they swim around freely, and a “stalked” form in which they attach to surfaces. While the swarmers have pili and flagella, the stalks do not. Thus, since the phages can only infect swarmer cells, it is in their best interest to burst out of their host when there are many swarmer cells available to infect.



“We hypothesize the phages are monitoring CtrA levels, which go up and down during the life cycle of the cells, to figure out when the swarmer cell is becoming a stalk cell and becoming a factory of swarmers and, at that point, they burst the cell, because there are going to be many swarmers nearby to infect,” Professor Erill explained. In other words, phages are “using cellular intel to make decisions, and if it’s happening in bacteria, it’s almost certainly happening in plants and animals, because if it’s an evolutionary strategy that makes sense, evolution will discover it and exploit it.”



“Everything that we know about phages, every single evolutionary strategy they have developed, has been shown to translate to viruses that infect plants and animals,” he added. “It’s almost a given. So if phages are listening in on their hosts, the viruses that affect humans are bound to be doing the same.”



According to Professor Erill and his colleagues, these fascinating discoveries could open up new therapeutic pathways. “If you are developing an antiviral drug, and you know the virus is listening in on a particular signal, then maybe you can fool the virus,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.918015">Frontiers in Microbiology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Viruses have “eyes and ears” on their hosts

A new study led by the University of Maryland, Baltimore...

Middle aged people who experience frequent nightmares are more likely to be diagnosed with dementia later in life, according to research led by the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a>. The study suggests that nightmares may become prevalent several years or even decades before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insomnia-may-lead-to-memory-loss-in-adults/">memory</a> and thinking problems of dementia set in.



“We’ve demonstrated for the first time that distressing dreams, or nightmares, can be linked to dementia risk and cognitive decline among healthy adults in the general population," said Dr. Abidemi Otaiku.



“This is important because there are very few risk indicators for dementia that can be identified as early as middle age. While more work needs to be done to confirm these links, we believe bad dreams could be a useful way to identify individuals at high risk of developing dementia, and put in place strategies to slow down the onset of disease.”



The researchers analyzed data from three community-based cohorts which included more than 600 adult men and women aged 35 to 64; and 2,600 adults aged 79 and older. All of the participants were dementia-free at the start of the study. Data was collected between 2002 and 2012. Younger participants were followed up to nine years, and the older participants were followed for five years.



The experts found that middle-aged people (35-64) who reported bad dreams on a weekly basis were four times more likely to experience cognitive decline over the following decade. Older people were twice as likely to be diagnosed with dementia.



Associations were much stronger for men than for women. Older men experiencing nightmares on a weekly basis were five times more likely to develop dementia. In women, the risk increased by 41 percent.



The experts will continue to investigate whether this association exists for young people as well. Future research will also consider other dream characteristics, such as how often we remember dreams and how vivid they are, to identify dementia risk. Using electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), the researchers plan to investigate the biological basis of bad dreams in both healthy people and people with dementia.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101640">EClinicalMedicine</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nightmares in middle age linked to dementia

Middle aged people who experience frequent nightmares are more likely...

Even if no human being has set foot on Mars yet, the Red Planet is already littered with over 15,000 pounds of trash from the 18 human-made objects that have been sent to the planet over the past five decades. According to Cagri Kilic, a postdoctoral fellow in Robotics at the <a href="https://www.wvu.edu/">West Virginia University</a>, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-pieces-of-debris-threaten-the-space-economy/">debris</a> currently found on Mars comes from three main sources – discarded hardware, inactive spacecraft, and crashed spacecraft.&nbsp;



Every mission on Mars requires a module protecting the spacecraft – which includes a heat shield to protect the craft when passing through the planet’s atmosphere, as well as a parachute and landing hardware to ensure a smooth landing on the planet’s surface. As it descends, the craft discards parts of the module, which can land in different locations, and can break down into smaller pieces when hitting the ground, which are further dispersed by Martian winds. Over the years, a great quantity of such small, windblown litter has been found across the planet’s surface.&nbsp;



In addition, the nine inactive spacecraft currently abandoned on Mars make up the second type of debris, although “these might be better considered historical relics than trash,” according to Dr. Kilic. Finally, crashed spacecraft and their pieces are another major source of trash.



“When you add up the mass of all spacecraft that have ever been sent to Mars, you get about 22,000 pounds (9979 kilograms). Subtract the weight of the currently operational craft on the surface – 6,306 pounds (2,860 kilograms) – and you are left with 15,694 pounds (7,119 kilograms) of human debris on Mars,” Dr. Kilic reported in <a href="https://theconversation.com/mars-is-littered-with-15-694-pounds-of-human-trash-from-50-years-of-robotic-exploration-188881">The Conversation</a>.&nbsp;



This massive amount of litter currently spread on Mars poses risks to current and future missions on the Red Planet. For instance, the Perseverance teams are documenting all debris they find in order to make sure that none of it will contaminate the samples that the rover is collecting. Moreover, NASA engineers have recently investigated whether Perseverance could get tangled in debris from the landing, but have concluded that the risk is rather low.



However, according to Dr. Kilic, the “real reason debris on Mars is important is because of its place in history. The spacecraft and their pieces are the early milestones for human planetary exploration.” Yet, whether trash could be considered or not a valuable historical artefact remains a topic for debate.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mars littered with over 15,000 pounds of trash

Even if no human being has set foot on Mars...

According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.eurac.edu/en">Eurac Research</a> – a private research center from Bolzano, Italy – global snow cover has been steadily declining over the past four decades. On average, there are 15 fewer days that snow remains on the ground - with peaks of up to 20 or even 30 fewer days in Canada’s western provinces - and snow coverage has decreased by a total of four percent.&nbsp;



This study is a follow-up of an initial analysis of global snow cover published in 2020, which provided evidence that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-cover-in-the-alps-could-soon-be-cut-in-half/">snowfall</a> has declined in 78 percent of mountain areas over the past two decades. By extending the start of data collection to 1982, the author of both studies Claudia Notarnicola, the deputy director of Eurac Research’s <a href="https://www.eurac.edu/en/institutes-centers/institute-for-earth-observation">Institute for Earth Observation</a>, has shown that “with a few exceptions, data on both the extent and duration of snow cover are clearly decreasing.”



To investigate these trends, Notarnicola took a hybrid approach, combining MODIS satellite data time series from 2000 to 2020 with state-of-the-art mathematical models.&nbsp;



“I chose a highly attested NASA global model as the basis and then refined it. In fact, for the period when the data from the model and the more precise satellite images overlapped, I was able to better calibrate the model thanks to so-called ‘artificial neural networks,’ a computational system that falls under the aegis of artificial intelligence,” explained Notarnicola.&nbsp;



“The analysis of the harmonized time series over 38&nbsp;years indicates an overall negative trend of −&nbsp;3.6% ± 2.7% for yearly snow cover extent and of −&nbsp;15.1&nbsp;days ± 11.6&nbsp;days for snow cover duration.”



According to Notarnicola, the few existing counter-trends are not very encouraging. For instance, although the eruption of the El Chichon volcano in Mexico in the early 1980s caused a slight cooling which counteracted the decrease in snowfall, this phenomenon had not lasted long.&nbsp;



“In general, over these 38 years of analysis there are also some cases of increases in both coverage and snow days, specifically in parts of Central Asia and some valleys in the United States,” Notarnicola added. “There are no consensus explanations for these phenomena, but they could be other effects of climate change, for example variations in currents and winds or specific microclimatic conditions. In any case, these are a few exceptions in a very negative global context,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-16743-w">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Snow cover has decreased in recent decades

According to a new study led by Eurac Research –...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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