For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men.



Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. 



The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys and girls start off nearly equal in math. But just four months into formal math instruction, a small gap appears - and it keeps growing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nationwide-study-tracks-the-math-gap">Nationwide study tracks the math gap</h2>



The research draws on a French government testing program that was launched in 2018. This nationwide effort tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reminiscing-can-boost-language-development-in-preschoolers/">language</a> and math skills of young students from first through sixth grade. 



Over five years and across four student cohorts, the program gave researchers an unmatched view of early math development.



At school entry, French girls scored slightly better than boys in language. Math scores, though, were essentially the same. 



"The headline conclusion is that the gender gap emerges when systematic instruction in mathematics begins," Spelke explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-gender-differences">Looking for gender differences </h2>



Spelke had already spent decades studying how young children understand numbers and shapes. Back in 2005, she wrote a major review for American Psychologist. The piece challenged the notion that boys are biologically wired for better math performance than girls.



"My argument was, 'OK, if there really were biological differences, maybe we would see them in the infancy period,'" said Spelke. 



She and her team always tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/">gender</a> in their studies, but they never found infant boys outperforming girls in math, or vice versa. Still, Spelke admitted that something could be happening later in development.



"The fact that there are no differences in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conscious-awareness-when-does-our-sense-of-purpose-emerge/">infants</a> could be because the abilities that show gender effects actually emerge during preschool," she proposed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-instruction-for-boys-and-girls">Math instruction for boys and girls</h2>



In recent years, Spelke has turned her attention to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-better-way-for-kids-to-learn-math/">children learn counting</a> and numbers in real classrooms. 



Spelke partnered with Nobel Prize-winning MIT economist Esther Duflo to advise the Delhi office of the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). The team is helping four Indian states create and test math lessons for children in preschool through first grade.



In France, she works alongside her longtime collaborator, neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene. Together, they serve on the French Ministry of Education's Scientific Council, which helped develop the EvalAide testing program. 



The idea was simple: measure where every child stands in math and language and use that data to guide better teaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-gap-emerges-in-math">Gender gap emerges in math</h2>



For this study, the team analyzed data from four full cohorts of first-graders entering school between 2018 and 2021. 



What they found was consistent: no math gap at the time of school entry, a small but significant gap favoring boys after four months, and a steadily widening gap by second, fourth, and even sixth grade.



"It was even bigger in fourth grade," Spelke said. "And in sixth grade it was bigger still."



Interestingly, the gender gap in language shrank slightly after the first few months of school and stayed relatively stable in later years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruling-out-old-explanations">Ruling out old explanations</h2>



So why does the math gap grow with time in school? The researchers ruled out several familiar theories.



"If there was really a pervasive social bias, and the parents were susceptible to it, we would expect boys to be more oriented toward spatial and numerical tasks when they first got to school," said Spelke.



But that didn’t happen. At school entry, there was no math gap. This points away from both biological and early social bias explanations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-experiment-during-the-pandemic">An experiment during the pandemic </h2>



The EvalAide dataset offered other insights. French first-graders can be nearly a year apart in age, depending on when their birthday falls. 



The team wondered if the older students were skewing results. They weren’t. The widening gender gap aligned more closely with time spent in school than with age.



Then came an unusual variable: COVID-19. The 2019 cohort missed the final 2.5 months of first grade due to lockdowns. That gap year created a natural experiment.



"With less time in school, the amount of the gender gap grew by less than it did in the other years where there wasn't a long school closure," said Spelke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-math-gender-gap">Confirming the math gender gap</h2>



The cohort also began school just after a national education crisis. In early 2019, French students had scored <a href="https://www.polytechnique-insights.com/en/braincamps/society/how-to-improve-the-relationship-between-education-and-employment/maths-an-essential-subject-whose-level-is-falling-in-a-majority-of-countries/#:~:text=In%202003%2C%2015%25%20of%20French,European%20average%20of%20527%20points.">lowest</a> among 23 European countries in math, according to international rankings. 



In response, the French Education Ministry - guided by its Scientific Council - called for more math teaching in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-pandemic-setbacks-reduced-kindergarten-readiness/">kindergarten</a>.



Sure enough, a tiny math gender gap appeared in fall 2019 among new first-graders. That gap hadn’t shown up in 2018 but was still present in 2020 and 2021.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problems-in-early-math-instruction">Problems in early math instruction </h2>



The study doesn't pinpoint a single cause, but its message is clear: differences in math achievement between boys and girls seem to grow as a result of what happens in early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schools-are-in-a-battle-with-cell-phones-to-keep-students-engaged/">school</a> instruction.



"We still don't know what that is exactly," Spelke said. "But now we have a chance to find out by randomized evaluations of changes to the curriculum."



The findings put pressure on education systems to ask hard questions about how math is taught in the early years - and what needs to change to make it fair for everyone.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09126-4">Nature</a>.



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Early math instruction may unintentionally favor boys

For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men. Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from Harvard University and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys...

Strong friendships between males aren’t very common in the animal kingdom. Instead, males typically compete among themselves for access to females. In some special circumstances though, male friendships can help with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-molecule-makes-animals-switch-from-eating-to-mating/">mating</a> success. In fact, some manakins depend on males working together to attract females with elaborate cooperative mating displays.&nbsp;



Among other animals, such as baboons, male friends can help each other rise in social status or defend females from another male, which promotes mating success.&nbsp;



Now, researchers from the <a href="https://www.dpz.eu/en/home.html">German Primate Center (DPZ) Leibniz Institute for Primate Research</a> looked into the benefits of male friendships among wild Guinea baboons in Senegal. These baboons are known for strong male social bonds but lack of a clear male hierarchy.



Among these baboons, the core social groups are made of one male with one to six females and their offspring, with the male typically fathering all of the offspring. The females choose a male freely and stay with him for a few weeks to several years. There are also bachelor males who are not usually sexually active. Several of these core groups along with bachelor males make up a “gang” of baboons.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The scientists wanted to know if male baboons with more friends attracted more females due to the possibility of greater levels of protection for the females and their offspring. Contrary to the hypothesis, males with more friends were not more attractive.&nbsp;



The study revealed that males also spent less time with their male friends once they started spending time with a female and especially when they fathered offspring. Males still maintained some friendships, but just adjusted the amount of time they spent with those friends.&nbsp;



To carry out the research, Federica Dal Pesco and her colleagues collected four years of field data. The experts observed the behavior of 30 males and determined paternity of 50 young.&nbsp;



"Contrary to our predictions, we found no evidence that male-male sociality was linked to higher reproductive success. Instead, we observed a strong negative relationship between bond strength and male reproductive success (i.e. number of associated females and paternities)," explained the study authors. "Guinea baboon males that were associated with a higher number of females spent less time affiliating with other males.&nbsp;



"While a number of now classic studies reported a positive relationship between sociality and reproductive success in both males and females across several mammalian and bird species, our results indicate that male-male sociality need not directly translate into increased short-term reproductive success. Instead, males that invest time and energy in relationships with females, at the expense of relationships with males, have the highest reproductive success."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Male baboons invest more time in relationships with females

Strong friendships between males aren’t very common in the animal...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/">Cardiff University</a> has shed more light on how the tilting and wobbling of the Earth as it orbits around the Sun has influenced the melting of ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere over the past two million years. This phenomenon drives the succession of global ice age cycles.&nbsp;



Scientists have long known that the waxing and waning of the massive ice sheets from the Northern Hemisphere results from changes in the geometry of Earth’s orbit around the Sun.&nbsp;



According to the experts, there are two main aspects of Earth’s geometry that can lead to the melting of ice sheets: obliquity – the angle of the Earth’s tilt as it orbits around the Sun, and precession – the way in which the Earth wobbles as it rotates, like a slightly off-center spinning top. Due to the angle of this wobble, sometimes the Northern Hemisphere and other times the Southern one is closer to the Sun. Thus, about every 10,000 years or so, one hemisphere will have warmer summers compared to the other.



Over the past million years, the combined effects of obliquity and precession on the waxing and waning of Northern ice sheets have resulted, through complex interactions within the climate system, in ice age cycles lasting approximately 100 thousand years. However, scientists have previously argued that, before one million years ago - during a period known as the early Pleistocene - the duration of ice ages (about 41,000 years) was controlled solely by obliquity.&nbsp;



Yet, according to the Cardiff researchers, precession played a significant role during the early Pleistocene too. While warmer summers driven by precession have always caused Northern Hemisphere ice sheets to melt, before one million years ago, these events were less severe and did not lead to a complete collapse of ice sheets.



“Early Pleistocene ice sheets in the northern hemisphere were smaller than their more recent counterparts, and limited to higher latitudes where the effects of obliquity dominate over precession,” explained study lead author Stephen Barker, a professor of Earth Science at Cardiff University. “This probably explains why it has taken so long for us to find evidence of precession forcing during early Pleistocene.”



“Improving our understanding of Earth’s climate dynamics, even in the remote past, is crucial if we hope to predict changes over the next century and beyond. Ongoing changes may be manmade, but there’s only one climate system and we need to understand it,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm4033">Science</a>.



----



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How Earth’s orbit drives global ice age cycles

A new study led by Cardiff University has shed more...

A new report from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> emphasizes the need for people to be "the heart of climate action." Given that all <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/our-warming-climate-is-changing-how-animals-hibernate/">climate</a> solutions will involve people in one way or another, the social sciences will have a vital role to play, explained the researchers.&nbsp;



"Achieving the urgent and necessary transformations laid out in the recently published IPCC report will require placing people at the heart of climate action," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Tackling climate change cannot be achieved solely through technological breakthroughs or new climate models. We must build on the strong social science knowledge base and develop a more visible, responsive and interdisciplinary-oriented social science that engages with people and is valued in its diversity by decision-makers from government, industry, civil society and law."



The experts say social science can help to engage people and societies, and to establish a green transition that is both effective and promotes other climate action goals such as equity and fairness. The report is the first paper published by the new Advancing Capacity for Climate and Environment Social Science (ACCESS) program.



"To meet our climate goals, we need both profound societal change and continued technical improvements," said ACCESS team leader Professor Patrick Devine-Wright. "This dual approach can improve people’s quality of life, reduce emissions and ensure thriving economies and ecosystems."



"If people are at the heart of climate action, then understanding and tackling climate change cannot be done by engineers or natural scientists alone. All disciplines need to work together - not least a range of social sciences including political science, sociology, geography and psychology - to find solutions in ways that achieve wider societal goals."



Professor Devine-Wright said this progress should now continue, with the aim of developing more visible, responsive and interdisciplinary social science that engages with people and is valued in its diversity by decision-makers from government, industry, civil society and law.



The report is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/">PLOS Climate</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People must be placed at the heart of climate action

A new report from the University of Exeter emphasizes the...

A newly discovered network of “lost” ancient cities in the Amazon could provide new insight into how ancient civilizations constructed vast urban landscapes while living harmoniously with nature.&nbsp;An international team of researchers uncovered intricate settlements that have been hiding under tree canopies for centuries in the Llanos de Mojos savanna-forest, Bolivia.&nbsp;



The cities, built by the Casarabe communities between 500-1400 AD, feature elaborate and intricate structures unlike any previously discovered in the region. This challenges the view of Amazonia as a historically “pristine” landscape. Instead, Amazonia was home to an early urbanism created and managed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indigenous-people-harvested-oysters-sustainably-for-thousands-of-years/">Indigenous</a> populations for thousands of years.&nbsp;



The cities were built and maintained alongside nature, using sustainable strategies that promoted conservationism and preserved the rich biodiversity of the surrounding landscape.&nbsp;



“We long suspected that the most complex pre-Columbian societies in the whole basin developed in this part of the Bolivian Amazon, but evidence is concealed under the forest canopy and is hard to visit in person," said Professor José Iriarte of the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.



"Our lidar system has revealed built terraces, straight causeways, enclosures with checkpoints, and water reservoirs. There are monumental structures that are just a mile apart connected by 600 miles of canals, long raised causeways connecting sites, reservoirs and lakes."&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Lidar technology combined with extensive archaeological research reveals that Indigenous people not only managed forested landscapes but also created urban landscapes, which can significantly contribute to perspectives on the conservation of the Amazon."&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This region was one of the earliest occupied by humans in Amazonia, where people started to domesticate crops of global importance such as manioc and rice. But little is known about daily life and the early cities built during this period.”&nbsp;



The team used lidar technology to peer through the forest canopy and examine the sites. This revealed the sheer magnitude and magnificence of the civic-ceremonial centres found buried in the forest. The research team suggests that the scale of labor and planning to construct the settlements is comparable only with the Archaic states of the central Andes.&nbsp;



The discovery provides new insight into how ancient urbanism was carried out sustainably and embracing conservationism. For example, seasonally flooded savannas were transitioned into productive agricultural and aquacultural landscapes.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study shows that the Indigenous people managed forested landscapes and created urban landscapes in tandem. This is evidence of successful, sustainable strategies but also a previously undiscovered cultural-ecological heritage.&nbsp;



“These ancient cities were primary centres of a regional settlement network connected by still visible, straight causeways that radiate from these sites into the landscape for several kilometres. Access to the sites may have been restricted and controlled," said study co-author Dr. Mark Robinson.



“Our results put to rest arguments that western Amazonia was sparsely populated in pre-Hispanic times. The architectural layout of Casarabe culture large settlement sites indicates that the inhabitants of this region created a new social and public landscape."



"The scale, monumentality and labour involved in the construction of the civic-ceremonial architecture, water management infrastructure, and spatial extent of settlement dispersal, compare favourably to Andean cultures and are to a scale far beyond the sophisticated, interconnected settlements of Southern Amazonia.”&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lost cities in the Amazon were built in harmony with nature

A newly discovered network of “lost” ancient cities in the...

Tree hyraxes are non-descript, mid-sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-change-their-schedules-to-adapt-to-city-life/">mammals</a> that wake after dark in the canopies of Tropical African forests. Because they’re a shy nocturnal mammal living high in trees, little has been discovered about their behavior.&nbsp;



Now, experts at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a> are using new techniques to try and understand tree hyrax behavior in the Taita Hills of Kenya.&nbsp;



"Many aspects of tree hyrax ecology remain very poorly known. They are known to mainly feed on leaves of woody plants," wrote the study authors.&nbsp; "Tree hyraxes thus depend on trees for food, but they also utilize den trees for shelter, and dense canopy also allows easy movement between trees."&nbsp;



"Tree hyraxes are thought to be mainly solitary animals that maintain social relationships by calling and scent-marking signals. They are highly vocal and calling seems to be their primary means of communication."



Using thermal imaging cameras, the researchers were able to observe hyrax social behavior - something never before seen. The study also revealed what plants they especially enjoyed eating and where they hid for shelter.



In addition to thermal imaging cameras, automated acoustic recorders captured hyrax vocalizations. Besides being able to record data on interactions between the animals, these recordings allowed scientists to estimate a population for the first time.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“In small forest patches, the calls of tree hyraxes were rarely heard, and only in the early hours of the morning. These few surviving animals are making every effort to avoid detection and the attention of potential poachers,” said Hanna Rosti, who has long studied tree hyraxes.



Armed with their new data, the scientists estimate that there are only 2,000 to 4,000 hyraxes in the Taita Hills area where they conducted their research. This information is important for conservation of the hyrax. The scientists hope that the study will also have positive implications for tree hyraxes throughout Africa.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The results acquired through this research will move tree hyrax conservation significantly forward, not only in Taita Hills but also in other parts of Africa," said Professor Jouko Rikkinen.



"The methods used can also be applied to other nocturnal animals that are difficult to get close to."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New clues about the secretive lives of tree hyraxes

Tree hyraxes are non-descript, mid-sized mammals that wake after dark...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-cannot-maintain-an-energetic-lifestyle-at-high-altitudes/">Birds</a> that hunt their prey during the night need special adaptations in order to allow them to see in low light conditions and to judge the distance to obstacles in their flight path as well as the distance to their prey. Although these adaptations have been relatively well studied in nocturnal birds such as owls and nightjars, they have not been investigated in the world’s only nocturnal hawk, the letter-winged kite (Elanus scriptus).



Although some species of hawks (Accipitriformes) and falcons (Falconiformes) can hunt at dusk, the letter-winged kite is the only species that is primarily active at dusk and at night. It inhabits the arid central regions of Australia, avoiding settled areas and towns. This habitat preference, along with the species’ nocturnal activity pattern and nomadic movements, makes&nbsp;E. scriptus&nbsp;rather difficult to observe in the wild.



In the past, there has been speculation that the species is more like an owl than a hawk because it appears to have unusually large eyes that face forwards. Some have suggested that the soft tissues of the eyes resemble those of nocturnal birds more than diurnal species, including the other Australian Elanus species, the black-shouldered kite (Elanus axillaris).&nbsp;



Birds that hunt their prey during the night often show specialized adaptations to their visual systems and skeletons. These anatomical changes include large orbits to accommodate eyes with large retinas that contain many photoreceptors. The eye of a nocturnal raptor also usually has a relatively small optic foramen, the hole in the skull through which the optic nerve travels to the brain. Certain areas of the brain of a nocturnal raptor may also be enlarged to facilitate detailed processing and interpretation of the images received by the eyes.



An international study led by <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> has now tested the speculation about the letter-winged kite’s adaptations using computed tomography (CT) scanning techniques to obtain high-resolution images from three specimens, along with 27 other raptor skulls. The skulls, all of which were sourced from museums within Australia, came from 16 raptor species in total, 12 of which belong to the Accipitriformes (hawks, eagles and kites) and the remaining three to the Falconiformes (falcons). The images were used to measure and compare eye socket characteristics, such as the orbit diameter and the optic foramen diameter.&nbsp;



“Letter-winged kites hunt at night and must be able to navigate obstacles in the dark while tracking down their favorite prey, the long-tailed rat,” said Professor Vera Weisbecker. “It has therefore long been speculated that their visual system shows adaptations for seeing in the dark, and particularly that they are similar to owls in having larger eyes than other hawks, and larger image processing centers in the brain.”



Dr. Karine Mardon is an experts in The National Imaging Facility at the University of Queensland Centre for Advanced Imaging. Dr. Mardon scanned the skulls of the birds of prey included in the study, and the researchers then compared 3D reconstructions of the letter-winged kite skulls and brains with those of the other birds of prey.



The results of the analysis revealed that things are not as clear as night and day. There was no difference in the relationship between the orbit and optic foramen diameters for the nocturnal&nbsp;letter-winged kite and its diurnal congeners, the black-winged kite (Elanus caeruleus) and the black-shouldered kite (Elanus axillaris). Elanine kites, as a whole, seem to have relatively large orbit diameters, but relatively small optic foramina compared to other species.



“Contrary to many anecdotal reports, the dimensions of the eye of letter-winged kites were no different to two closely related kites from the same genus – the black-shouldered and the black-winged kites,” said study lead author Aubrey Keirnan, a PhD student in Dr. Weisbecker's lab.



“But there was a twist in the story: we realized that all three kite species had larger orbits relative to their optic foramen, the hole in the back of orbit that the optic nerve passes through. This is often seen in nocturnal birds, where a small number of nerves relay a lot of input from the eye into a high-contrast, low-resolution image.”



“This suggests all&nbsp;Elanus&nbsp;kites may be pretty good at seeing in the dark and not too good at seeing in daylight – but for some reason, only the letter-winged kite has made the move into a nocturnal lifestyle."



According to Dr Weisbecker, this might also explain many reports that the letter-winged kite is particularly active during moonlit nights: “It might not actually be very good at flying in the total dark, unlike many owls.”



The study was co-led by Dr. Andrew Iwaniuk from the University of Lethbridge in Canada. He noted that the use of anatomical observations to infer the species’ behavior was an innovative approach to understanding a bird that is notoriously difficult to observe in the wild.



“The species lives in remote, arid Australia, avoids human settlements and is highly elusive. Population estimates vary between 670 and 6,700 individuals according to the IUCN, and it is currently listed as near-threatened. To conserve the species, it is critical that we understand its behavioral needs and capabilities, but they are extremely difficult to observe," said Dr. Iwaniuk.



“We are extremely lucky to have Australia’s amazing museum collections at our disposal to help us understand this bird without the need to find and disturb the species. For example, the letter-winged kite, and its relatives, might be impacted differently by artificial light sources than other hawks."



Dr. Jeroen Smaers of Stony Brook University said the research perfectly exemplifies how studying variation across many species enlightens our understanding of individual species - an approach that is starting to show its contributions to animal conservation.



“Our work on the letter-winged kite is really just the beginning," said Keirnan. "Our measurements showed that many other birds of prey are quite unique in one aspect or other of their visual system. I am excited to spend my PhD on delving further into how measurement of the visual system can help in the understanding and management of other birds.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.220135">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The world’s only nocturnal hawk may not see well in the dark

Birds that hunt their prey during the night need special...

Tidal flats fringe the edges of coastal areas and are important ecosystems for plant and animal communities, as well as for people. They include beaches and coastal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wetlands-are-caught-in-a-battle-between-co2-and-rising-seas/">wetlands</a>, both of which are used extensively for human activities, such as fishing and bathing.&nbsp;



These areas, where the tide rises and falls each day, act as buffer zones between the land and the ocean, and can protect coastal communities from the most severe effects of extreme weather events such as hurricanes, tsunamis and floods. However, urban expansion and ever-increasing pressure from human activity threaten the functionality of these tidal ecosystems, and even their very existence, as people seek new places to occupy and build infrastructure.&nbsp;



About 29 percent&nbsp;of the United States’ population lives in coastline counties – more than 41 million live in Atlantic counties alone. This high population density poses a critical threat to coastal areas because it brings with it intense human activity, some of which is focused on the tidal flat areas. Although several recent studies have found that tidal areas are shrinking due to direct and indirect human activity, there is as yet no unified method for assessing or quantifying the interactions between urban areas and tidal flats on a large scale. At best, research is focused on local areas only and uses different methodological approaches.



Researchers from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.fau.edu/">Florida Atlantic University</a>&nbsp;have now developed a novel approach that quantifies patterns of change in tidal flats from a spatiotemporal perspective, using data that has been collected over time. For their study, they analyzed the annual dynamics of three highly urbanized coastal counties in the southeastern U.S., namely Charleston in South Carolina, Chatham in Georgia, and Duval in Florida.&nbsp;



The area under investigation contains several unique environmental settings, including a tidal flat system of more than 3,168 square kilometers that is characterized by numerous sounds, estuaries and wetlands. The researchers identified and quantified the tidal flat losses in these three counties, between 1985 and 2015, that were directly or indirectly associated with urban expansion. Their study is one of the first to investigate correlations between tidal flats and urban areas using this technique.



The data used in this study came from the 30 m annual map collection of urban extent in the U.S., which was derived from Landsat images taken between 1985 and 2015. The National Land Cover Database (NLCD) archives the land cover maps in different time periods throughout the U.S., which provides worthwhile references for urban mapping before 2011. In addition, a set of nighttime light images given by the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite was used for analysis of urban extent after 2011. Using a similar approach, data from 30 m annual maps of tidal flat areas in the southeastern U.S. between 1984 and 2020 were also used.&nbsp;



The findings showed that currently, Charleston, SC, has the largest tidal flats (544.87 km2&nbsp;on annual average), followed by Chatham, GA (343.46 km2&nbsp;on annual average), and Duval, FL (89.49 km2&nbsp;on annual average).&nbsp;However, the tidal flats in all three of these counties showed significant shrinkage in area between 2005 and 2015.



The results also showed that the tidal flats are under pressure from urban expansion from both the eastern and western sides. In particular, the western side has been rapidly urbanized during the three decades, giving Duval County the largest new urban areas within two kilometers of the coast. Duval County has experienced more erosion and urban growth than the other two counties and also has much smaller tidal flats than the other two counties. It has the largest newly urbanized area toward the seashore. Compared with the two other counties, Duval County also has a less stable environment of tidal flats, which calls for a higher level of public awareness and concern.



Meanwhile, some suburbs in the two other counties have also been rapidly urbanized, including the eastern and western wings of the city of Charleston and southwestern side of the city of Savannah. These urbanizations would have affected the surrounding tidal flats, with the closest areas experiencing higher environmental pressures.&nbsp;



The researchers found that, in locations where new urban areas overlap with tidal flats, the constant shrinkage of the tidal flats is hysteretic to (lags behind) the accelerated process of urbanization in the coastal area. This hysteresis effect also exists in the restoration and management of ecosystems, and severe damages could result in irreversible changes.



“It takes time to observe the follow-up ecological effects of urban expansion in recent years. Based on our research, the tidal flats in these three counties urgently need a sustainable plan of management in response to the rapid expansion of urban areas,” said study senior author Dr. Weibo Liu.



These results highlight the conflicts between intensified human activities and tidal flat environments. The study authors said that, in order to deal with this environmental crisis, the conflict between human beings and the coastal environment urgently calls for public awareness, as well as effective collaborations between lawmakers, scientists, and local authorities.



“Urban expansion is regarded as one of the major anthropogenic threats to the environment of tidal flats,” said study first author Chao Xu. “While it is challenging to stop the inundation process driven by sea level rise, a more practical solution would be to limit urbanization near the shoreline. This way, tidal flats would be more flexible to migrate toward the inland area.”



The researchers propose that their method could be modified and then usefully applied to assess changes in tidal flat areas around the entire coast of the U.S., and even in other areas of the world.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/earth">Earth</a>.



Image Credit: Florida Atlantic University



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tidal flats are under pressure from urban expansion

Tidal flats fringe the edges of coastal areas and are...

While millions of years ago, all mammals lived on land, at one point, some species such as seals and whales left land and evolved to live in the sea. Since underwater, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-device-identifies-mosquitoes-using-only-sound/">sound</a> is a more reliable sensory cue than vision, it is not surprising that aquatic species have developed auditory organs that are more efficient in processing underwater sounds than the hearing apparatuses of terrestrial mammals, including humans.&nbsp;Surprisingly though, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en">University of Southern Denmark</a> has found that, in some cases, humans can hear as well as seals underwater.&nbsp;



Since the 1950s, scientists have made various attempts to measure human hearing underwater. The U.S. Military, for instance, had an interest in understanding how divers are affected by underwater explosions, so they directed a significant amount of funding to clarify this issue. However, subjects were generally tested with diving equipment on, including neoprene caps or air-filled diving masks, which can affect their hearing.&nbsp;



“Common to all these scientific studies is that they all find hearing thresholds [the sound levels below which the auditory system is unable to detect any sound] that are higher than the thresholds we have found in our new study,” said study co-author Jakob Christensen-Dalsgaard, an expert in animal hearing at SDU.



By measuring the underwater hearing thresholds of seven participants, the experts found that the average threshold was 71 dB at a frequency of 500 Hz.&nbsp;



“It is 26 dB lower than hypothesized in previous studies, so we must conclude that humans hear significantly better underwater than previously reported by science. In fact, the threshold at 500 Hz is in line with how well animals such as cormorants and seals hear underwater,” said&nbsp; Dr. Christensen-Dalsgaard.



While previous studies hypothesized that human hearing underwater is mediated by bone conduction, with sound waves causing vibrations in the skull, this new study argues that resonance in the enclosed air in the middle ear actually amplifies the sound and makes the ear more sensitive – a phenomenon common to cormorants, turtles, and frogs too.



However, the sense of hearing is not only about being able to pick up sounds, but also about determining the direction of the sound – which, for humans, remains very difficult underwater.&nbsp;



“In air we can determine the sound direction within a few degrees, but in water there is an up to 90 degrees error margin. This is not so strange, because we are trained to react to the small time differences between the ears, which are due to the speed of sound in air. In water, the speed of sound is four times greater, and the time differences are much smaller,” explained Dr. Christensen-Dalsgaard.&nbsp;



“The results tell us that humans have a reduced ability to determine the direction of sounds underwater, thus confirming that human hearing is not adapted to work well underwater,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2022.108484">Hearing Research</a>.&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



----



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Can humans hear as well as seals underwater?

While millions of years ago, all mammals lived on land,...

The effects of global warming can be seen across a multitude of measures, usually as gradual, incremental changes, such as more frequent extreme weather events, heatwaves, wildfires, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-world-is-at-a-crossroads-in-managing-severe-droughts/">droughts</a>. However, the cumulative impact of such changes can lead to the emergence of “tipping points,” or thresholds where tiny changes can push an entire system into a radically new state.&nbsp;



At this year’s <a href="https://lps22.esa.int/frontend/index.php">Living Planet Symposium</a> – an international event organized by the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> (ESA) in Bonn, Germany – researchers from a variety of institutions gathered to present the latest scientific evidence for climate tipping points. The experts also set out to identify the opportunities and challenges of using remote sensing data provided by state-of-the-art satellites to understand these phenomena.



“Successive IPCC Assessment Reports have revised upwards the risks posed by climate tipping points,” said Tim Lenton, a professor of Climate Change and Earth System Science at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.



“Tipping points have already informed climate mitigation targets, including the Paris Agreement’s goal to limit warming to well below two degrees Celsius. If the risk of tipping is still underestimated, it would provide a reason to strengthen such pledges and action to meet them. That’s why it’s so important to understand the proximity of tipping points and their impact on society.”



As <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/assessment-report/ar6/">IPCC’s sixth climate Assessment Report</a> warns, the risk of high impact climate tipping points at regional scales has already increased substantially and is set to rise even more in the near future. For instance, human activities such as deforestation - together with rising temperatures - are making more likely that the Amazon rainforest will tip into a savannah state before the end of the century.



“Researchers have been making progress on resilience indicators in conceptual models as well as models of Arctic sea ice, ice sheets, the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, and other potential Tipping Elements,” explained keynote speaker Sebastian Bathiany, a climate expert at the <a href="https://www.tum.de/">Technical University of Munich</a>. However, such models are insufficient to identify how and when abrupt changes can occur. “In order to understand what is going on in the real world, we need to work toward a meaningful interpretation of resilience indicators in Earth observation records. This is why discussions across scientific communities and disciplines are so important.”



Thus, to better understand climate dynamics and make more reliable predictions of any potential rapid changes, conceptual and computational models should be coupled to Earth observation datasets provided by satellites, and further interpreted by interdisciplinary teams of experts. Methodological and disciplinary diversity are absolutely necessary to advance our climate knowledge and build a more sustainable future.



Image Credit: European Space Agency 



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellite data needed to identify climate tipping points

The effects of global warming can be seen across a...

As global warming brings higher temperatures to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-extreme-weather-impact-marine-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> around the world, it is likely that some animal species will need to move to cooler areas in order to remain functional. This could mean moving towards higher latitudes or towards higher altitudes. The problem with moving up a mountain side, however, is that it brings a decrease in oxygen availability along with the cooler temperatures. For animals with high metabolic rates, such as hummingbirds, this combination of factors may make life at high altitudes impossible.



To find out what the impact of higher altitude living is on Anna’s hummingbirds (Calypte anna), Austin Spence from the University of Connecticut, USA, and Morgan Tingley from the University of California, Los Angeles, USA, transported some of these birds to sites at various heights up mountainsides. The birds occur naturally over a range of altitudes, from sea level to around 2,800 meters, so the researchers predicted that the birds would show a range of adaptations to living at altitude, and that those already comfortable at 2,400 meters would cope better when transported to 3,800 meters.



Using net traps, the researchers trapped hummingbirds from sites of different altitudes ranging from 10 metersabove sea level (Sacramento, CA) up to 2,400 meters (Mammoth Lakes, CA).&nbsp; Spence and team member Hannah LeWinter of Humboldt State University then transported the birds to an aviary in western California at an altitude of 1,215 meters. The birds were given a few days to acclimatize in these new conditions.



The scientists then measured their oxygen consumption by enticing each bird to insert its head into a tiny funnel to sip a sugary solution. The consumption of O2 indicates metabolic rate since oxygen is used to produce the energy that is used during metabolism. Spence and LeWinter also measured each hummingbird’s carbon dioxide (CO2)&nbsp;production overnight, which is also a measure of metabolic rate.&nbsp;



After collecting this data, the birds were moved again, this time to aviaries at a nearby research station close to the peak of Mount Barcroft, CA, which is at an altitude of 3,800 meters. At this site there is around 39 percent less oxygen in the air and the ambient temperatures are around 5°C lower. After acclimatizing for four days, the birds’ metabolic rates were again measured while they hovered and while they slept.&nbsp;



Their results, published today in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/225/10/jeb243294/275376/Anna-s-hummingbird-Calypte-anna-physiological">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>, show that the hummingbirds exhibit a 37 percent decrease in metabolic rate at an altitude of 3,800 meters. Instead of working harder to hover in the thin air, 1,000 meters above their natural range, the birds suffered a large drop in their metabolic rates. And the energy used by birds that had originated at higher altitudes was no different from the energy used by those that had lived close to sea level – they all struggled equally on the mountain top.&nbsp;



“Overall, these results suggest low air pressure and oxygen availability may reduce hovering performance in hummingbirds, when exposed to the acute challenge of high-elevation conditions,” explained Spence.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In addition, the birds fell into a state of deep torpor each night, when they slept. This is a form of overnight hibernation, where the metabolic rate is lowered significantly in order to conserve energy. Although the birds showed this behavior at the lower experimental altitude (1,215 meters), it was more extreme in the colder conditions at 3,800 meters. Here they were torpid for more than 87.5 percent of the chilly, high-altitude night.



“It means that even if they’re from a warm or cool spot, they use torpor when its super-cold, which is cool,” said Spence.&nbsp;



The researchers hypothesized that hummingbirds originally from higher altitude habitats may have larger lungs to compensate for the lower oxygen availability in the air at those sites, but this was not so. However, these birds did have larger hearts, which would help to circulate oxygen more rapidly around their bodies.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, the results from this experimental research indicate that hummingbirds will probably not be able to relocate up mountainsides to find more suitable environments as climate change makes conditions uncomfortable for them.&nbsp;



“Our results suggest lower oxygen availability and low air pressure may be difficult challenges to overcome for hummingbirds,” said Spence, meaning that the birds will instead have to shift northward or southward in search of cooler climes.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hummingbirds cannot maintain an energetic lifestyle at high altitudes

As global warming brings higher temperatures to ecosystems around the...

Offshore wind farms generate much-needed renewable energy that is environmentally friendly and cost-efficient. In the early stages of construction, there is usually noise and disturbance as the turbines are erected, but this is well regulated and of short duration. After completion, the only disturbance that remains is due to the low-level sound emissions of the turbines. But this constant noise pollution may have an impact on marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greater-risk-of-extinction-for-large-bodied-mammals-in-the-past/">mammals</a> that produce their own sounds in order to communicate with one another.



At the 182nd Meeting of the <a href="https://acousticalsociety.org/">Acoustical Society of America</a>, to be held at the Sheraton Denver Downtown Hotel this week, Frank Thomsen of DHI will discuss how this constant noise may impact marine wildlife. His presentation is titled “Operational underwater sound from future offshore wind turbines can affect the behavior of marine mammals,” and it will take place on May 26.



He will report on research that he and his colleagues did by reviewing published studies on the sound levels emanating from operational wind farms. They were interested in the effects of turbine size on noise emissions and found that, in general, larger turbines produced higher levels of noise. The long-term consequences of this noise on marine wildlife are largely unknown, but it is hypothesized that constant background noise can interfere with the communication patterns and behavior of mammals at sea.&nbsp;



However, turbine size is not the only important factor to consider. The disruptive impact may also be influenced by the number of turbines and the ways in which their sound patterns overlap. In addition, the gearbox technology used in older turbines produces disruptive nose for a distance of up to 6.3 kilometers while newer, direct-drive turbines may only affect animal behavior within a 1.4-kilometer radius.&nbsp;



“It is very unlikely that operational noise will lead to any injury or even hearing impairment, but behavioral changes could be a concern, as our study shows,” Thomsen said. “It's possible that impact zones of individual turbines overlap, but that still does not mean that the wind farm is a no-go area for marine life. We see harbor porpoises frequently swimming in the vicinity of turbines.”



In theory, the underwater sound could lead to behavior changes in marine mammals and mask calls from whales, but harbor porpoises are frequently seen swimming in the vicinity of wind farms in Europe, so it may not be as simple as it seems.



“Since offshore wind farms have a relatively long lifespan, and there will be many of them, the potential impacts should not be overlooked,” said Thomsen. “The point of our work is to raise awareness.”



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Noise from wind farms could affect marine mammal behavior

Offshore wind farms generate much-needed renewable energy that is environmentally...

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) compiles the Red List of Threatened Species, the most comprehensive assessment of the extinction risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-500-animal-species-are-lost-but-are-they-extinct/">species</a>. This list informs conservation policy around the world. 



The process for categorizing species however, is laborious and dependent on human experts which often leads to bias. Because of this, many species have never been evaluated, which has caused gaps in protective measures for potential species at risk.&nbsp;



A new study presents a machine learning tool to resolve this challenge by assessing extinction risk. The tool was used to identify the unlisted reptile species that are more likely to be threatened than assessed species.&nbsp;



There are 4,369 reptile species that were previously unable to be prioritized for conservation. Using the machine learning model, the study assigned IUCN extinction risk categories to the 40 percent of the world’s reptiles that lacked assessments or were classified as data deficient (DD).



The researchers found that the number of threatened reptile species is much higher than what is represented on the IUCN Red List. Surprisingly, unassessed and data deficient reptiles were more likely to be threatened than species that had been assessed. 



According to the researchers, the findings show that reptile conservation is much worse than estimated. Immediate action is critical to support reptile biodiversity. The study identifies specific regions and taxa that are most likely to be threatened. The experts argue that these areas should be prioritized for conservation planning. The study's methodology can also be used to help bridge the gap of other, lesser known species.&nbsp;



“Importantly, the additional reptile species identified as threatened by our models are not distributed randomly across the globe or the reptilian evolutionary tree," said study co-author Shai Meiri. "Our added information highlights that there are more reptile species in peril – especially in Australia, Madagascar, and the Amazon basin – all of which have a high diversity of reptiles and should be targeted for extra conservation effort."



"Moreover, species rich groups, such as geckos and elapids (cobras, mambas, coral snakes, and others), are probably more threatened than the Global Reptile Assessment currently highlights, these groups should also be the focus of more conservation attention.”



Study co-author Uri Roll said the research could be very important in helping the global efforts to prioritize the conservation of species at risk.



"Our world is facing a biodiversity crisis, and severe man-made changes to ecosystems and species, yet funds allocated for conservation are very limited," said Roll.



"Consequently, it is key that we use these limited funds where they could provide the most benefits. Advanced tools- such as those we have employed here, together with accumulating data, could greatly cut the time and cost needed to assess extinction risk, and thus pave the way for more informed conservation decision making.”



To better understand the factors that are contributing to reptile extinction risk, further studies are needed to ensure that conservation plans include newly identified threatened species.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Number of endangered reptiles is much greater than estimated

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) compiles the...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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