For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men.



Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. 



The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys and girls start off nearly equal in math. But just four months into formal math instruction, a small gap appears - and it keeps growing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nationwide-study-tracks-the-math-gap">Nationwide study tracks the math gap</h2>



The research draws on a French government testing program that was launched in 2018. This nationwide effort tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reminiscing-can-boost-language-development-in-preschoolers/">language</a> and math skills of young students from first through sixth grade. 



Over five years and across four student cohorts, the program gave researchers an unmatched view of early math development.



At school entry, French girls scored slightly better than boys in language. Math scores, though, were essentially the same. 



"The headline conclusion is that the gender gap emerges when systematic instruction in mathematics begins," Spelke explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-gender-differences">Looking for gender differences </h2>



Spelke had already spent decades studying how young children understand numbers and shapes. Back in 2005, she wrote a major review for American Psychologist. The piece challenged the notion that boys are biologically wired for better math performance than girls.



"My argument was, 'OK, if there really were biological differences, maybe we would see them in the infancy period,'" said Spelke. 



She and her team always tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/">gender</a> in their studies, but they never found infant boys outperforming girls in math, or vice versa. Still, Spelke admitted that something could be happening later in development.



"The fact that there are no differences in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conscious-awareness-when-does-our-sense-of-purpose-emerge/">infants</a> could be because the abilities that show gender effects actually emerge during preschool," she proposed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-instruction-for-boys-and-girls">Math instruction for boys and girls</h2>



In recent years, Spelke has turned her attention to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-better-way-for-kids-to-learn-math/">children learn counting</a> and numbers in real classrooms. 



Spelke partnered with Nobel Prize-winning MIT economist Esther Duflo to advise the Delhi office of the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). The team is helping four Indian states create and test math lessons for children in preschool through first grade.



In France, she works alongside her longtime collaborator, neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene. Together, they serve on the French Ministry of Education's Scientific Council, which helped develop the EvalAide testing program. 



The idea was simple: measure where every child stands in math and language and use that data to guide better teaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-gap-emerges-in-math">Gender gap emerges in math</h2>



For this study, the team analyzed data from four full cohorts of first-graders entering school between 2018 and 2021. 



What they found was consistent: no math gap at the time of school entry, a small but significant gap favoring boys after four months, and a steadily widening gap by second, fourth, and even sixth grade.



"It was even bigger in fourth grade," Spelke said. "And in sixth grade it was bigger still."



Interestingly, the gender gap in language shrank slightly after the first few months of school and stayed relatively stable in later years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruling-out-old-explanations">Ruling out old explanations</h2>



So why does the math gap grow with time in school? The researchers ruled out several familiar theories.



"If there was really a pervasive social bias, and the parents were susceptible to it, we would expect boys to be more oriented toward spatial and numerical tasks when they first got to school," said Spelke.



But that didn’t happen. At school entry, there was no math gap. This points away from both biological and early social bias explanations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-experiment-during-the-pandemic">An experiment during the pandemic </h2>



The EvalAide dataset offered other insights. French first-graders can be nearly a year apart in age, depending on when their birthday falls. 



The team wondered if the older students were skewing results. They weren’t. The widening gender gap aligned more closely with time spent in school than with age.



Then came an unusual variable: COVID-19. The 2019 cohort missed the final 2.5 months of first grade due to lockdowns. That gap year created a natural experiment.



"With less time in school, the amount of the gender gap grew by less than it did in the other years where there wasn't a long school closure," said Spelke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-math-gender-gap">Confirming the math gender gap</h2>



The cohort also began school just after a national education crisis. In early 2019, French students had scored <a href="https://www.polytechnique-insights.com/en/braincamps/society/how-to-improve-the-relationship-between-education-and-employment/maths-an-essential-subject-whose-level-is-falling-in-a-majority-of-countries/#:~:text=In%202003%2C%2015%25%20of%20French,European%20average%20of%20527%20points.">lowest</a> among 23 European countries in math, according to international rankings. 



In response, the French Education Ministry - guided by its Scientific Council - called for more math teaching in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-pandemic-setbacks-reduced-kindergarten-readiness/">kindergarten</a>.



Sure enough, a tiny math gender gap appeared in fall 2019 among new first-graders. That gap hadn’t shown up in 2018 but was still present in 2020 and 2021.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problems-in-early-math-instruction">Problems in early math instruction </h2>



The study doesn't pinpoint a single cause, but its message is clear: differences in math achievement between boys and girls seem to grow as a result of what happens in early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schools-are-in-a-battle-with-cell-phones-to-keep-students-engaged/">school</a> instruction.



"We still don't know what that is exactly," Spelke said. "But now we have a chance to find out by randomized evaluations of changes to the curriculum."



The findings put pressure on education systems to ask hard questions about how math is taught in the early years - and what needs to change to make it fair for everyone.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09126-4">Nature</a>.



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Early math instruction may unintentionally favor boys

For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men. Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from Harvard University and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys...

Pterosaurs were flying archosaurs that used bat-like leathery wings to take to the skies. Since no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-grow-more-down-feathers-in-higher-elevations/">feathers</a> were necessary for pterosaurs to fly, scientists have long debated whether they had them at all. Some dinosaurs have been found with feathers,&nbsp; so it has always been a possibility - but pterosaurs aren’t dinosaurs.&nbsp;



Now, a new discovery not only confirms that pterosaurs had feathers, but also suggests that these feathers were colorful. The study was a collaboration between paleontologists in Ireland, Belgium and Brazil.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed the findings of the 115 million year old head crest of a Tupandactylus imperator. This animal lived in Brazil from 230 to 66 million years ago and is known for its strange head crest. Along the bottom of this particular head crest, the paleontologists discovered fuzzy feathers. There were also shorter wiry feathers and branched feathers.     



“We didn’t expect to see this at all," said Dr. Aude Cincotta of <a href="https://www.ucc.ie/">University College Cork</a>. “For decades palaeontologists have argued about whether pterosaurs had feathers. The feathers in our specimen close off that debate for good as they are very clearly branched all the way along their length, just like birds today."



The scientists examined the feathers with an electron microscope and found something even more interesting. The feathers were complete with melanosomes, granules of the pigment melanin. Across various types of feathers, the melanosomes had different shapes, suggesting that the feathers were made up of different colors.&nbsp;



“In birds today, feather colour is strongly linked to melanosome shape.” said Professor Maria McNamara. “Since the pterosaur feather types had different melanosome shapes, these animals must have had the genetic machinery to control the colours of their feathers. This feature is essential for colour patterning and shows that coloration was a critical feature of even the very earliest feathers.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mystery solved: Pterosaurs had colorful feathers

Pterosaurs were flying archosaurs that used bat-like leathery wings to...

On Tuesday, April 19, 2022, the White House announced that it has restored key protections to an important environmental law governing the construction of pipelines, roads, and other infrastructure that Donald Trump had swept away during his presidency. These new rules will require federal agencies to thoroughly assess the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-could-make-earth-inhospitable-by-2500/">climate</a> impacts of major infrastructure projects – such as the construction of highways, bridges, plants, or oil and gas pipelines – according to the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/nepa/what-national-environmental-policy-act">National Environmental Policy Act</a> (NEPA), a 1970 law aiming to mitigate the impact of human activities on the natural environment.



The Trump-era changes to the implementation of this law - such as the exemption of many projects from review in order to speed up the approval process, or the sidestepping of co-called “indirect” climate impacts during project assessment - made it more difficult for environmental agencies and community activists to challenge federal infrastructure projects that could negatively impact the environment and increase global warming.



Under the <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2022/04/20/2022-08288/national-environmental-policy-act-implementing-regulations-revisions">new regulations</a> approved by President Biden this week, infrastructure projects will need to account for how their actions may increase greenhouse gas emissions, fragment wildlife habitat, or impose new burdens on communities that have already faced disproportionate amounts of pollution, such as those from poor or minority neighborhoods. Moreover, agencies and businesses will need to take into consideration not only “direct,” but also “indirect” and “cumulative” climate impacts of their actions.



“I’m glad this administration recognizes how egregiously wrong those actions were and is moving forward to restore the protections that have helped protect our environment while promoting sustainable development for decades,” said Raúl M. Grijalva, the chair of the <a href="https://naturalresources.house.gov/">House Committee on National Resources</a>.



Although Biden Administration’s new regulations are seen as a positive development by many individuals and organizations, several business groups are more critical, arguing that these changes are likely to raise costs and slow construction.



“It should never take longer to get federal approval for an infrastructure project than it takes to build the project, but that very well may be the result of the administration’s changes,” said Marty Durbin, senior vice president of policy at the <a href="https://www.uschamber.com/">U.S. Chamber of Commerce</a>. In his view, with supply chain disruptions, “the last thing our country needs is unnecessarily extensive and duplicative bureaucratic red tape.”



Nevertheless, White House officials remained adamant in their decision to reverse the Trump-era regulations, and insisted that concerns about delays are misplaced. “Patching these holes in the environmental review process will help projects get built faster, be more resilient, and provide greater benefits — to people who live nearby,” concluded Brenda Mallory, chair of the White House’s <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/ceq/">Council on Environmental Quality</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Biden administration restores a key environmental law

On Tuesday, April 19, 2022, the White House announced that...

Although an increasing body of scientific evidence is showing that time spent in nature (TSN) is associated with greater physical and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-linked-to-mental-health-issues/">mental health</a>, most American adults spend little time in green or natural environments. In order to predict people’s probability of spending more time in nature, a new study led by the <a href="https://public-health.tamu.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University School of Public Health</a> has outlined two scales created to measure factors related to TSN.



According to the scientists, two strong predictors of health behaviors are self-efficacy and intentions. “Self-efficacy” was defined as “a person’s confidence in his or her ability to take action and to persist in that action despite obstacles or challenges pertaining to spending time in nature,” and “intention”&nbsp;as “planning to engage in certain nature-related behaviors over the next three months.” After defining these terms, the researchers created a survey aiming to measure them, and administered it to a nationwide sample of over 2,000 respondents.



The survey results revealed that spending more time in nature correlates with both self-efficacy and intention, suggesting that future public health interventions to improve TSN should have increasing confidence to spend time in nature as a major goal.&nbsp;



Both self-efficacy and intention were negatively correlated with age, indicating a decrease in confidence in older adults, which could be related to mobility or safety concerns that generally increase with age. Male participants shown higher self-efficacy than female respondents, a finding that was confirmed by previous research showing that women are less likely to participate in recreational activities in natural environments.



The development of these scales is a first step in what the scientists hope will be a series of studies aiming to find ways of improving physical and mental health through increased TSN. “We’re working on developing a whole suite of measures,” said study lead author Jay Maddock, an expert in social-ecological approaches to increase physical activity at Texas A&amp;M. “Once those are done, we’re going to be looking to develop theory-based interventions to increase time spent in nature.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40359-022-00764-1">BMC Psychology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Spending time in nature improves physical and mental health

Although an increasing body of scientific evidence is showing that...

Non-biting midge flies (Chironomus riparius) are common in North America and Europe where they are often known as blood worms due to the red coloration of the larvae. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-insects-will-kill-more-than-a-million-street-trees-by-2050/">insects</a> lay their eggs in bodies of fresh water and the larvae develop in the sediment at the bottom. When they metamorphose into adult midges, they leave the water and continue their life cycle on land.



The aquatic life stages of these insects may take place in water bodies that are polluted by pesticides, fungicides and herbicides that run off from agricultural lands. Mixtures of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides are applied to farms, forests, yards and gardens and, when it rains, the contaminants may be washed into nearby streams, lakes and dams.&nbsp;



The larvae of many aquatic insects are known to accumulate these pollutants, particularly legacy pesticides that remain in the environment long after they were banned from use. Moreover, once in the bodies of the larvae, the contaminants are retained and passed from larvae to pupae to adults, as the life cycle progresses. The levels of contaminants carried in the bodies of male and female midges has not yet been compared, and it is also not known whether these insects accumulate currently used pesticides and carry them into adulthood.&nbsp;



Researchers Alexis Roodt and Ralf Schulz from the University of Koblenz-Landau in Germany, and their colleagues, tracked a range of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides throughout the life cycle of female and male non-biting midges. They also estimated the potential consequences for terrestrial insectivorous birds and bats that eat the contaminated flies. The results are published today in <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>, the journal of the American Chemical Society.&nbsp;



The researchers kept midge larvae in containers with sediment and water, and exposed them to sub-lethal doses of a mixture of nine different pesticides. The exposure was at three different concentrations that were related to levels recorded in the field. They then assessed the extent to which the contaminants accumulated in the bodies of the insects over their full aquatic-terrestrial life cycle.&nbsp;



Larvae that lived in the contaminated environment for 14 days accumulated all of the nine different pesticides, fungicides and herbicides studied, and the adult flies retained most of these compounds after emergence. The process of metamorphosis did, however, lower the levels of the contaminants, except for the herbicide propyzamide which showed up in similar concentrations in larvae and recently emerged adult flies.&nbsp;



Adult female midge flies had higher concentrations of the contaminants, when compared to the males. But, as females mated and died, their contaminant levels generally decreased, which the researchers saw as a consequence of laying eggs and thereby transporting the compounds along to the next generation of midges. By contrast, contaminant levels remained steady for adult males from the time they emerged as flies to the end of their adult lives.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The researchers say that non-biting midge flies are thus a potential source of pesticides, herbicides and fungicides to terrestrial food webs when they are eaten by predators such as birds and bats. They estimated that tree swallow nestlings and two threatened bat species consume low to moderate levels of these contaminants&nbsp; daily, when they forage on adult-stage midges.&nbsp;



This means that current-use pesticides add to the diverse range of organic contaminants already known to be in the diets of tree swallows and insectivorous bats, some of which are already present at high concentrations.



“Considering the declines in bird and bat populations coinciding with increased pesticide use in recent decades, a better understanding of the potential dietary exposure to organic pesticides is of great relevance," concluded the study authors.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Birds and bats are eating midge flies that contain pesticides

Non-biting midge flies (Chironomus riparius) are common in North America...

Wolves used to be widely distributed throughout Europe, Asia and North America, but persecution and conflict with expanding human populations led to their extermination in many regions. They now only occupy approximately one-third of their original range. However, in recent decades wolves have been reintroduced to wilderness areas in many parts of the US, and their numbers are increasing. This development has not been greeted with enthusiasm by everyone, as these mammals can pose a threat to humans, livestock and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pets-are-exposed-to-toxic-chemicals-in-our-homes/">pets</a>.



Biologists know that predators help to keep prey population numbers in check by preying on older and more vulnerable individuals. Reducing the numbers of moose, deer or elk, for example, leads to less pressure on vegetation and is therefore beneficial for the ecosystem in general. In addition, carcasses left behind after wolf kills provide food for scavenging animals and birds.&nbsp;



It is also widely accepted that predators keep prey populations healthy by selectively removing individuals that are old, weak, sick or injured. This assumption, however, is seldom tested scientifically. In a new study, published today in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>, researchers from Michigan Technological University report that predation by wolves may be beneficial to prey populations in another, more unexpected way.&nbsp;



“Wolf biologists have in the past assumed that wolves play an important role in regulating the health of prey populations by selectively removing old or diseased animals,” said Dr Sarah Hoy, of Michigan Technological University. “However, a rigorous assessment of that idea has not been tested until now.”



The researchers assessed the extent to which wolves in the Isle Royale National Park, near Michigan’s border with Canada, select moose (Alces alces) on the basis of their age and the presence of osteoarthritis in their joints. Osteoarthritis is a chronic, non-communicable disease that affects the ability of an individual to move with ease. Its presence can be detected by analysis of skeletal remains.



“Osteoarthritis is a progressively crippling disease caused by deterioration of cartilage on the surfaces of moveable joints (for example, knees and hip joints),” explained Hoy.&nbsp;“As individuals get older, they are more likely to develop osteoarthritis and develop more severe forms of the disease.”



The researchers found, as expected, that wolves preyed preferentially on elderly moose and avoided prime-aged adults. “When it comes to wolves and moose, it makes a lot of sense that wolves would preferentially target moose that are in poorer condition because adult moose weigh between 800 and 900lbs which is between eight and 10 times as heavy as a wolf,”&nbsp;said Hoy.



However, among the prime-aged individuals that were killed by wolves, many showed evidence of severe osteoarthritis. The presence of severe osteoarthritis symptoms, but not mild or moderate symptoms, increased the vulnerability of prime-aged moose to predation.



“But the situation is different for older moose. While older moose are more vulnerable to predation, that vulnerability does not strongly depend on whether an old moose has osteoarthritis,” explained Hoy.



When the researchers examined how temporal variation in kill rates was associated with the subsequent incidence of osteoarthritis in the moose population, they found that, over a 33-year period, osteoarthritis in the moose population decreased following years with higher kill rates. This indicates that predation by wolves was resulting in an overall healthier moose population, in terms of osteoarthritis in particular.



“The decline in osteoarthritis following years with more predation is – we think – because wolves preferentially removed moose with osteoarthritis from the population,” said Hoy.&nbsp;



Furthermore, because osteoarthritis is influenced by genetic factors, these results highlight how wolf predation may be acting as a selective force against genes associated with developing severe osteoarthritis as a prime-aged adult. This finding supports the idea that predation can regulate the health of prey populations, and has implications for the management and conservation of wolf populations.&nbsp;



“The management and conservation of wolves is controversial among the public. Yet our results suggest wolves might be an effective, natural, and more ethical way of regulating the health of deer and moose populations – as opposed to using culls or recreational hunting to reduce the incidence of diseases or parasites of concern,” explained Hoy.



“The results are also relevant for policy-related arguments about reasons to refrain from intensively hunting wolf populations,” continued Hoy.



“When deciding whether to hunt wolves it is important to not only consider issues that may be caused by wolves (e.g., occasional predation of livestock) but to also consider the important ecological benefits that wolves may provide by removing old and diseased animals from the populations.”



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wolves improve the genetic fitness of moose populations

Wolves used to be widely distributed throughout Europe, Asia and...

Antarctic sea ice has reached its lowest extent since satellite records began in 1978, according to a new study from the&nbsp; <a href="http://english.iap.cas.cn/">Institute of Atmospheric Pyschics</a>. The experts report that while many of the causes have been identified, there are still mysteries that remain.



In recent decades, the Arctic has been experiencing a rapid decline in sea ice as a result of global warming. Antarctic sea ice, on the other hand, has been showing an overall increase during the same time period.



In 2017, the southern hemisphere reached a record minimum extent of sea ice. Now, five years later, the same downward trend has been found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-are-arriving-with-ships-in-antarctica/">Antarctica</a>.



A new record minimum in Antarctic sea ice extent was set on February 25, 2022, marking the first time in more than four decades that it has hit under two million square kilometers. Throughout the region, sea ice extent was about 30 percent lower than the average extent documented during the three decades of 1981 to 2010.



To investigate the causes of this phenomenon, the experts analyzed sea ice records from 1979 to 2022 from the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC).



The study revealed that in the summertime, ice loss is predominantly driven by thermodynamics, or the transfer of heat across Earth's oceans. The experts also identified an increase in overall infrared radiation and visible light.



“Sea ice is whiter than the dark unfrozen sea, thus there is less reflection of heat and more absorption,” said study co-author and climatologist Qinghua Yang. “which in turn melts more sea ice, producing more absorption of heat, in a vicious cycle.”



In the spring, both thermodynamics and other dynamics contribute to the status of sea ice extent, the researchers found. They noted that according to data from the US National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the new record Antarctic sea-ice extent minimum occurred at the same time as a combination of La Niña and a positive Southern Annular Mode (SAM).&nbsp;



Despite the breakthrough findings, there are questions to be answered.



“If tropical variability is having such an impact, it’s that location that needs to be studied next,” said study co-author Jinfei Wang.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/376">Advances in Atmospheric Sciences</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Antarctic sea ice extent has reached a record low

Antarctic sea ice has reached its lowest extent since satellite...

Macro,Close,Up,Of,Fresh,Steamed,Blue,Sea,Mussels.

New research from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> has found further evidence of microplastics in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-food-chains-threatened-by-ocean-acidification/">food chain</a>.&nbsp;In southern Australia’s most popular and remote beaches, microplastics were found in blue mussels and the surrounding water. 



The research team considers this a warning that our food chains are now polluted with plastic waste. From wild-caught fish and ocean-farmed seafood, microplastics are polluting the Southern Ocean and gulf waters of South Australia.



The world’s oceans are littered with plastic waste that breaks down into smaller fragments, known as microplastics. The highest concentration of microplastics have been reported in the shallow sea floor in the Maldives and lowest reported in the surface waters of the Antarctic Southern Ocean.



To measure concentrations of microplastics, the researchers analyzed samples from 10 beaches in South Australia's coastline. These areas are important for shipping, fishing and tourism, along with other industries and local communities.



The results showed that microplastic concentrations in the intertidal water are low to moderate compared to global levels. Microplastic concentrations in mussels are also within the range reported globally.&nbsp;



Blue mussels were studied because they are directly affected by ecosystem conditions. This allowed the research team to investigate the types of pollution that are affecting the local environment, “and single use plastics was the main offender” said study senior author Professor Burke da Silva.



Microplastics are usually abundant in mussel samples near large towns and cities. The experts found that concentration levels were four times higher at Semaphore Beach compared to the more remote beaches.



“By investigating microplastic load in the mussel, we call attention to the implications of microplastic pollution on South Australia’s unique marine ecosystems and on the local human food chain,” said study first author Janet Klein.



The types of plastics found in these beaches were synthetic, suggesting they came from single-use, short-life cycle products, fabrics, ropes and cordage from the fishing industry.&nbsp;



“The areas examined include some biodiversity hotspots of global significance – including the breeding ground of the Great Cuttlefish in the Northern Spencer Gulf and marine ecosystems more diverse than the Great Barrier Reef (such as Coffin Bay), so cleanup and prevention measures are long overdue,” said Professor da Silva.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Apart from the harvesting of blue mussels, we also need to consider the impact of microplastic particles entering other parts of the human food chain with microplastic pollution expected to increase in the future.”



The findings demonstrate the urgent need to prevent plastic pollution. The research team concludes that this can only be done by working with the industries that produce these products, local communities, and government to best protect our ocean ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/science-of-the-total-environment">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study confirms: microplastics have entered our food chain

New research from Flinders University has found further evidence of...

Vaccine,Against,Coronavirus,For,Kids,During,Outbreak,Concept.,Little,Girl

A new study published in the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2202826">New England Journal of Medicine</a> has evaluated the effectiveness of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pfizer-antibodies-decline-faster-than-those-induced-by-moderna/">Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine</a> in children ages 5-11 during the Omicron wave, and in adolescents ages 12-18 during both the Delta and the Omicron periods. The scientists found that vaccination with a primary series of Pfizer shots reduced the risk of COVID-19-related hospitalizations in children by two-thirds during the Omicron wave. 



Among vaccinated adolescents, protection against hospitalization was lower during the Omicron period than during the Delta period (as it happened in the case of adults too). However, levels of protection against highly severe cases remained high in vaccinated adolescents during both waves.



“Our study results are reassuring that COVID-19 vaccination in eligible children and adolescents continues to protect against the most severe outcomes associated with COVID-19, regardless of variant type,” said study co-author Bria Coates, a critical care physician at the <a href="https://www.luriechildrens.org/">Ann &amp; Robert H. Lurie Children’s Hospital of Chicago</a> and assistant professor of Pediatrics at Northwestern University.&nbsp;



“It is difficult to predict whether the vaccine will be as effective against the current subvariant of Omicron, but most likely the level of protection would be similar. Our results reinforce the importance of COVID-19 vaccination, including receiving a booster dose for those ages 12 years and older, to protect against critical illness.”



According to Dr. Coates and her colleagues, during the Omicron period (December 19, 2021 – February 17, 2022), vaccination reduced the risk of hospitalization by 68 percent in children between 5 and 11. Since vaccination for this age group was not available during the Delta period, no comparative studies could be performed. 



However, for adolescents ages 12-18, protection against hospitalization declined from 92 percent during the Delta period (July 1, 2021 - December 18, 2021) to only 40 percent during the Omicron wave. Yet, protection against critical cases of COVID-19, requiring life-supporting interventions, remained high for adolescents during both Delta (96 percent) and Omicron (79 percent).



During the Delta period, protection against hospitalization in adolescents remained consistent for over six months after receipt of a primary vaccination series. Although they were lower, the levels of protection against Omicron also stayed consistent over time after vaccination.



“This consistency in vaccine effectiveness during each variant suggests that the decline in protection among adolescents between the Delta and Omicron periods might be because the Omicron variant is more likely to escape control by the immune system, rather than waning immunity since vaccination,” explained Dr. Coates. “However, more data are needed to answer this question.”&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pfizer protects children and adolescents against severe COVID

A new study published in the&nbsp;New England Journal of Medicine...

A team of paleontologists led by the <a href="https://www.swinburne.edu.au/">Swinburne University of Technology</a> in Melbourne has recently described the smallest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sauropod-dinosaurs-lived-only-in-earths-warmer-regions/">sauropod</a> dinosaur ever discovered in Australia. Measuring 11 meters in length and weighting about 4.2 tons at its time of death, the juvenile Diamantinasaurus matildae, nicknamed “Ollie,” is the third of its species to be discovered. Its fossils – which included several thoracic vertebrae and ribs, together with a humerus, a scapula, a thumb claw, and a femur - were found on a sheep station near Winton in western Queensland in 2012.



Ollie roamed the Earth around 95 million years ago and, like his sauropod relatives, was an herbivorous dinosaur, feeding exclusively on plants such as&nbsp;conifers, angiosperms, ginkgoes, cycads, ferns, or horsetails. Since most other sauropods measured between 20 and 30 meters in length, researchers believe that Ollie was a juvenile dinosaur that died before reaching adulthood, most likely by getting stuck into the mud and sinking near a watering hole. The fact that Ollie’s bones were not completely fused confirm the hypothesis that the fossils belonged to a juvenile sauropod.



According to study lead author Samantha Rigby, a graduate student at Swinburne University, the discovery of these fossils will likely help researchers better understand the patterns of growth characterizing this dinosaur species. “I spent a really long time comparing Ollie with all of the adult specimens&nbsp;here in Winton and we found that Ollie is not an exact copy of the adult,” she said.&nbsp;



“The limb bones of this juvenile titanosaur grew at a more rapid rate than its back and shoulder bones. The bones are also narrower in width when compared with the robust limb bones of an adult Diamantinasaurus. Ollie's limbs were a lot more overgrown and, as he grew up, he grew into his limbs. He would have looked a bit weird with really long legs and a small body.”



Ollie’s bones are now part of the sauropod collection at the <a href="https://www.australianageofdinosaurs.com/">Australian Age of Dinosaurs</a>, a museum of Paleontology in Winton, Australia. These fossils will likely boost “dino-tourism,” by drawing many visitors from Australia and perhaps even abroad.



A detailed description of this dinosaur is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2021.2047991">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The smallest sauropod has been found in Australia

A team of paleontologists led by the Swinburne University of...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> and <a href="https://www.indiana.edu/">Indiana University Bloomington</a> has found that the&nbsp;legalization of recreational <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marijuana-changes-mens-sperm/">marijuana</a> in various American states has significantly reduced the demand for prescription drugs that are used to treat conditions such as pain, depression, anxiety, psychosis, seizures, or insomnia.&nbsp;



While most previous research focused on the impact of medical marijuana on prescription drugs demand, or on the impact of recreational use legalization solely on opioid consumption, this is among the first studies to systematically investigate the impact of recreational marijuana legalization on the use of a wide range of prescription drugs.



The researchers based their study on an analysis of data collected from the <a href="https://www.cms.gov/">Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services</a> in all 50 states from 2011 to 2019 – a period in which the number of states allowing personal use of marijuana increased substantially, to about 20 (the use of medical marijuana prescribed by doctors is legalized in roughly twice as many states). This analysis revealed a significant change in the demand for prescription drugs, particularly those used to treat anxiety or sleep disorders (no strong impact was noticed on the demand for drugs used to combat nausea).



“These results have important implications,” said study lead author Shyam Raman, an expert in Health Economics at Cornell University. “The reductions in drug utilization that we find could lead to significant cost savings for state Medicaid programs. The results also indicate an opportunity to reduce the harm that can come with the dangerous side effects associated with some prescription drugs.”



However, as Raman and his colleagues warn, marijuana use is not completely harmless. For instance, many studies have shown that this drug can easily trigger anxiety, and even stronger mental disturbances, such as psychosis and schizophrenia. Moreover, patients who use marijuana to treat their various medical conditions tend to visit their doctors less often, thus creating discontinuities in primary care.&nbsp;



“The data used in this study does not capture patient-level wellness and as such, the long run effects of substitution away from pharmaceuticals to cannabis is still unknown. Hopefully, as newer data and more robust econometric methods become available, future researchers will be able to fully decompose the costs and benefits associated with the legalization of cannabis at the state level,” concluded the authors.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/hec.4519">Health Economics</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Marijuana use reduces demand for prescription drugs

A new study led by Cornell University and Indiana University...

A research team led by <a href="https://vt.edu/">Virginia Tech</a> has recently identified and described a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-acidification-reduces-the-hatching-success-of-a-keystone-fish-species/">species</a> of millipede from the Appalachian Mountains in the United States. The researchers named this species Nannaria swiftae, after famous musician Taylor Swift - an artist deeply admired by study lead author and entomologist Derek Hennen.



“Her music helped me get through the highs and lows of graduate school, so naming a new millipede species after her is my way of saying thanks,”&nbsp;explained Hennen.



Scientists have long suspected that twisted-claw millipedes include many more species than formally described until now. In order to expand our understanding of these creatures’ biodiversity, Hennen and his colleagues embarked on a multi-year project to collect new millipede specimens throughout the eastern United States. They travelled through 17 states, searching new millipedes under rocks, logs, or leaf litter.&nbsp;



By investigating over 1,800 specimens collected on their field trips or found in university and museum collections, the researchers have managed to describe 17 new species, including Nannaria marianae, which was named after Hennen’s wife. Most of these species preferred to live in forested habitats near streams, and were often found buried under the soil, thus exhibiting more cryptic behavior than many of their relatives.



Nannaria swiftae is between 18 and 38 millimeters long, has a shiny, caramel-brown to black body with white, red, or orange spots, and white legs. The males have small, twisted and flattened claws on their anterior legs (hence the common name “twisted-claw millipedes”). Together with the other species of millipedes discovered in the Appalachian Mountains, N.swiftae have a valuable role as decomposers. They feed on decaying leaves and other plant matter, and, by breaking down leaf litter, they release precious nutrients into the ecosystem.&nbsp;



According to the scientists, even more species of millipedes are expected to be discovered in the southern Appalachian Mountains in further expeditions.



A detailed description of this new species can be found in the open-source journal <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/73485/">ZooKeys</a>.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Dr Derek Hennen



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Millipede discovered in the Appalachian Mountains named after Taylor Swift

A research team led by Virginia Tech has recently identified...

Fires across North America have become larger and more intense as a result of increased development, poor land-use policies, and climate change. A new paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a> sought to look more closely at how this change in fire intensity affects air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-is-a-growing-issue-for-migratory-birds/">pollution</a>.&nbsp;



A research team led by the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu/">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> (NCAR) discovered that harmful pollutants from fires in the Pacific Northwest affect places far away, like Colorado.&nbsp;



The fires in the Pacific Northwest are changing the seasonal air pollution pattern, causing a pollution spike in August.&nbsp;



“Wildfire emissions have increased so substantially that they’re changing the annual pattern of air quality across North America," said study lead author and NCAR scientist Rebecca Buchholz. "It’s quite clear that there is a new peak of air pollution in August that didn’t used (sic) to exist.”



Global inventories of wildfires and satellite-based observations of atmospheric chemistry enabled scientists to follow wildfire emissions in the Pacific Northwest, the central United States, and the Northeast from 2002 through 2018.



To measure the level of pollution, the researchers calculated carbon monoxide levels because this gas is an indicator of other air pollutants. They discovered that carbon monoxide increased in August, which is the peak burning season in the Pacific Northwest.&nbsp;



The experts also determined that the increase in carbon monoxide was not because of pollution blowing in from Asia, fires in other regions of North America, or an increase in fossil fuel emissions.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Multiple lines of evidence point to the worsening wildfires in the Pacific Northwest as the cause of degraded air quality,” said Buchholz. “It’s particularly unfortunate that these fires are undermining the gains that society has made in reducing pollution overall.”



The increase in fires in the Pacific Northwest could impact people all over the United States. The research shows the pollutants could affect four million people in the Pacific Northwest, 23 million in the Central U.S., and 72 million in the Northeast.



Moreover, the team found that from 2012 to 2018, deaths due to respiratory illness in Colorado increased when fires in the Pacific Northwest, not Colorado, created more emissions in August.&nbsp;



“It’s clear that more research is needed into the health implications of all this smoke," concluded Buchholz. "We may already be seeing the consequences of these fires on the health of residents who live hundreds or even thousands of miles downwind.”



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fires in the Pacific Northwest have altered air pollution patterns

Fires across North America have become larger and more intense...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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