For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men.



Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. 



The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys and girls start off nearly equal in math. But just four months into formal math instruction, a small gap appears - and it keeps growing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nationwide-study-tracks-the-math-gap">Nationwide study tracks the math gap</h2>



The research draws on a French government testing program that was launched in 2018. This nationwide effort tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reminiscing-can-boost-language-development-in-preschoolers/">language</a> and math skills of young students from first through sixth grade. 



Over five years and across four student cohorts, the program gave researchers an unmatched view of early math development.



At school entry, French girls scored slightly better than boys in language. Math scores, though, were essentially the same. 



"The headline conclusion is that the gender gap emerges when systematic instruction in mathematics begins," Spelke explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-gender-differences">Looking for gender differences </h2>



Spelke had already spent decades studying how young children understand numbers and shapes. Back in 2005, she wrote a major review for American Psychologist. The piece challenged the notion that boys are biologically wired for better math performance than girls.



"My argument was, 'OK, if there really were biological differences, maybe we would see them in the infancy period,'" said Spelke. 



She and her team always tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/">gender</a> in their studies, but they never found infant boys outperforming girls in math, or vice versa. Still, Spelke admitted that something could be happening later in development.



"The fact that there are no differences in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conscious-awareness-when-does-our-sense-of-purpose-emerge/">infants</a> could be because the abilities that show gender effects actually emerge during preschool," she proposed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-instruction-for-boys-and-girls">Math instruction for boys and girls</h2>



In recent years, Spelke has turned her attention to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-better-way-for-kids-to-learn-math/">children learn counting</a> and numbers in real classrooms. 



Spelke partnered with Nobel Prize-winning MIT economist Esther Duflo to advise the Delhi office of the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). The team is helping four Indian states create and test math lessons for children in preschool through first grade.



In France, she works alongside her longtime collaborator, neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene. Together, they serve on the French Ministry of Education's Scientific Council, which helped develop the EvalAide testing program. 



The idea was simple: measure where every child stands in math and language and use that data to guide better teaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-gap-emerges-in-math">Gender gap emerges in math</h2>



For this study, the team analyzed data from four full cohorts of first-graders entering school between 2018 and 2021. 



What they found was consistent: no math gap at the time of school entry, a small but significant gap favoring boys after four months, and a steadily widening gap by second, fourth, and even sixth grade.



"It was even bigger in fourth grade," Spelke said. "And in sixth grade it was bigger still."



Interestingly, the gender gap in language shrank slightly after the first few months of school and stayed relatively stable in later years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruling-out-old-explanations">Ruling out old explanations</h2>



So why does the math gap grow with time in school? The researchers ruled out several familiar theories.



"If there was really a pervasive social bias, and the parents were susceptible to it, we would expect boys to be more oriented toward spatial and numerical tasks when they first got to school," said Spelke.



But that didn’t happen. At school entry, there was no math gap. This points away from both biological and early social bias explanations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-experiment-during-the-pandemic">An experiment during the pandemic </h2>



The EvalAide dataset offered other insights. French first-graders can be nearly a year apart in age, depending on when their birthday falls. 



The team wondered if the older students were skewing results. They weren’t. The widening gender gap aligned more closely with time spent in school than with age.



Then came an unusual variable: COVID-19. The 2019 cohort missed the final 2.5 months of first grade due to lockdowns. That gap year created a natural experiment.



"With less time in school, the amount of the gender gap grew by less than it did in the other years where there wasn't a long school closure," said Spelke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-math-gender-gap">Confirming the math gender gap</h2>



The cohort also began school just after a national education crisis. In early 2019, French students had scored <a href="https://www.polytechnique-insights.com/en/braincamps/society/how-to-improve-the-relationship-between-education-and-employment/maths-an-essential-subject-whose-level-is-falling-in-a-majority-of-countries/#:~:text=In%202003%2C%2015%25%20of%20French,European%20average%20of%20527%20points.">lowest</a> among 23 European countries in math, according to international rankings. 



In response, the French Education Ministry - guided by its Scientific Council - called for more math teaching in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-pandemic-setbacks-reduced-kindergarten-readiness/">kindergarten</a>.



Sure enough, a tiny math gender gap appeared in fall 2019 among new first-graders. That gap hadn’t shown up in 2018 but was still present in 2020 and 2021.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problems-in-early-math-instruction">Problems in early math instruction </h2>



The study doesn't pinpoint a single cause, but its message is clear: differences in math achievement between boys and girls seem to grow as a result of what happens in early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schools-are-in-a-battle-with-cell-phones-to-keep-students-engaged/">school</a> instruction.



"We still don't know what that is exactly," Spelke said. "But now we have a chance to find out by randomized evaluations of changes to the curriculum."



The findings put pressure on education systems to ask hard questions about how math is taught in the early years - and what needs to change to make it fair for everyone.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09126-4">Nature</a>.



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Early math instruction may unintentionally favor boys

For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men. Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from Harvard University and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys...

A team of researchers and doctors have tested whether participating in an online kindness training program affected preschoolers' social behavior and parents' resilience during the coronavirus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardening-got-a-major-boost-from-the-covid-19-pandemic/">pandemic</a>.&nbsp;



Experts from the <a href="https://brainhealth.utdallas.edu/">Center for Brain Health</a> at the University of Texas at Dallas analyzed 38 mothers and their 3- to 5-year-old children. The subjects participated in a program entitled "Kind Minds with Moozie," which describes different activities parents can do with their children to teach them kindness.&nbsp;



The researchers had parents survey their own resilience and their kids' empathy before and after the training. The scientists discovered that the parents were more resilient, and the preschoolers were more empathetic after the training. Since cognitive abilities are needed for these traits, they determined that kindness can improve cognitive function, affecting overall brain health.&nbsp;



“We aim to encourage parents to engage in practical, brain-healthy interactions with their children that aid in a better understanding of one another, especially during times of stress,” said BrainHealth researcher Maria Johnson. “Research shows that kindness is a strong potentiator of vibrant social engagement, which in turn is a critical component of overall brain health."



Interestingly, the experts also found that despite the kindness training, childrens' empathy levels were still below average. They believe this is due to the isolation the children suffered due to COVID-19 restrictions.&nbsp;



Still yet, the study suggests that kindness is good for parents and children. Fellow BrainHealth researcher Julie Fratantoni explains,



"In times of stress, taking a moment to practice kindness for yourself and model it for your children can boost your own resilience and improve your child's prosocial behaviors," said Johnson. "Do not underestimate the power of kindness, because it can ultimately change and shape brain health."



Johnson believes this benefit can move beyond the nuclear family, "Kindness can be a powerful brain health booster that raises resilience, not only for parents and families, but for society as a whole."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology">Frontiers in Psychology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Practicing kindness can improve your brain health

A team of researchers and doctors have tested whether participating...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL) has found that microbial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-shed-new-light-on-the-origins-of-life-on-earth/">life</a> most probably existed on Earth at least 3.75 billion years ago – about 300 million years earlier than scientists previously estimated that biological organisms first emerged on our planet.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed a fist-sized rock found in Quebec, Canada, dating between 3.75 and 4.28 billion years ago. This is one of the oldest sedimentary rocks known on Earth, and was originally laid down near a system of hydrothermal vents, where cracks in the seafloor let through waters heated by magma that contained large quantities of iron. In a previous <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature21377">study</a>, the researchers found tiny filaments, knobs, and tubes in this rock that seemed to have been made by bacteria. However, many scientists have argued that these structures may not necessarily be of biological origin, or signs of early life on Earth.&nbsp;



Now, after extensive further analysis of the rock, the researchers have discovered a larger and more complex structure consisting of a one-centimeter-long stem with parallel branches on one side, as well as hundreds of ellipsoids alongside the tubes and filaments. According to the scientists, while some of these structures could have been created by random chemical reactions, the tree-like stem with parallel branches is most likely to be biological in origin. 



Moreover, traces of mineralized chemical by-products also found in the rock appear to be consistent with the hypothesis that ancient microbes lived off iron, sulphur, and possibly carbon dioxide and light through a form of photosynthesis not involving oxygen.



The structure and composition of this rock resembles modern-day equivalents discovered close to the Loihi undersea volcano near Hawaii and other hydrothermal vent systems in the Arctic and Indian Oceans. The fact that the wavy and twisted filaments of the ancient rock contained organic carbon is another sign that biological forms similar to contemporary iron-eating microbes have probably resided there almost four billion years ago.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Using many different lines of evidence, our study strongly suggests a number of different types of bacteria existed on Earth between 3.75 and 4.28 billion years ago,” said study lead author Dominic Papineau, an expert in Precambrian Biogeochemistry at UCL.



“This means life could have begun as little as 300 million years after Earth formed.&nbsp;In geological terms, this is quick – about one spin of the Sun around the galaxy. These findings&nbsp;have&nbsp;implications for the possibility of&nbsp;extraterrestrial&nbsp;life.&nbsp;If life is relatively quick to emerge, given the right conditions, this increases the chance that&nbsp;life&nbsp;exists on other planets,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abm2296">Science Advances</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Life emerged on Earth earlier than previously thought

A new study led by the University College London (UCL)...

A new study led by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a> (UPenn) in the US, and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sbri.fr/">Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute</a>&nbsp;at Inserm in France has examined the connection between social interactions and brain structure in rhesus macaque <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkey-sperm-cells-could-treat-human-infertility/">monkeys</a>. The experts discovered that the number of grooming partners an individual animal had predicted the size of brain areas responsible for empathy and social decision-making, such as the mid–superior temporal sulcus (STS) and the ventral-dysgranular insula.



The scientists recorded the detailed interactions of a social group of 68 rhesus macaques on Cayo Santiago, an island off the coast of Puerto Rico, focusing on five factors: social status, number of grooming partners, physical distance with other monkeys, connectedness to the most popular monkeys in the group, and “betweenness,” or the ability to act as a bridge between largely disconnected areas of a social network. Moreover, the research team also performed brain scans for every monkey in the group, including 35 juveniles and infants.



The brain scans revealed that the more grooming partners monkeys had, the larger their mid-STS and ventral-dysgranular insula were. Other factors, such as social status, did not seem to influence these brain structures. “For the first time, we’re able to relate the complexity of social lives of a group of living primates with brain structure,” said study lead author Camille Testard, a doctoral student in Neuroscience and Primatology at UPenn.



&nbsp;“It was very interesting to find these regions, as their importance is known for social cognition in humans,” added study co-author Jérôme Sallet, a neurobiologist at Inserm. “We also identified the mid-STS region in another study showing that activity in this region is modulated by the predictability of others’ behaviors.”



Interestingly, the study results suggest that infants are not born with these differences in brain structure, but rather form them through the patterns of social interactions that they engage in.



“There’s something about the skills it takes to make and maintain a lot of friendships that you get from parents. You’d think it would be written into your brain when you’re born, but it seems more likely to emerge from the patterns and interactions that you have. The modulation [in brain structures] we observe is strongly driven by our social environments, maybe more than by our innate predisposition,” explained study senior author Michael Platt, a professor of Neuroscience at UPenn.&nbsp;&nbsp;



According to Professor Platt and his team, although these findings relate specifically to free-ranging rhesus macaques, they may have future applications to the study of human cognition and behavior, particularly in the understanding of neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abl5794">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brain structure of rhesus macaques is shaped by social interactions

A new study led by the&nbsp;University of Pennsylvania (UPenn) in...

Stingrays are on the decline. Overfishing is the main cause, but climate change and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-in-tropical-cities-linked-to-180000-excess-deaths/">pollution</a> aren’t doing them any favors either.&nbsp;



For now, stingrays are still plentiful in the Seychelles, with its clear blue waters, white sand beaches and biodiverse coral reefs. Scientists from the <a href="https://saveourseas.com/sosf-darros-research-centre/">Save Our Seas Foundation D’Arros Research Centre</a> (SOSF-DRC) and the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity have been investigating the lives of stingrays in the Seychelles.&nbsp;



In a new research paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>, researchers looked at the importance of diverse habitat for stingray survival. Sixty individual stingrays from three species were tracked for an average of a year. During the tracking, environmental data such as temperature and tides were also recorded.&nbsp;



The research was carried out on St. Joseph Atoll, where both shallow reefs and a deep enclosed lagoon can be found. The atoll is also a nursery for the three study species - the cowtail stingray, mangrove whipray and the porcupine whipray.&nbsp;



Twenty of each species of stingray were tagged and tracked via passive acoustic telemetry. Forty receivers were placed throughout the different habitats and set to receive sounds from each of the transmitter tags fitted to the rays.&nbsp;



The researchers found that stingrays generally like safer, shallow water, but can be driven by factors like high temperatures to deeper water where they are more vulnerable to predators.&nbsp;



“Stingrays are really important for keeping oceans healthy, especially in tropical places like Seychelles,” said study lead author Chantel Elston, an SOSF project leader. “This research helps to present further evidence that the isolated St Joseph Atoll provides suitable habitat for threatened stingrays and that the newly announced marine protected area will have real conservation benefits.”



The scientists hope that this research can benefit stingrays with more effective protection techniques. This is especially important as those unusually high temperatures that drive rays into deeper water are set to become more and more common.&nbsp;



“When you know what the priority habitats for vulnerable species are and how and when they move around, management plans can be developed for their conservation," said Helena Sims, SOSF Seychelles Ambassador.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change may cause stingrays to move toward danger

Stingrays are on the decline. Overfishing is the main cause,...

A group of international astronomers has just made a momentous discovery. The study, published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/0004-637X">Astrophysical Journal</a>, describes the sighting of the most distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-object-detected-in-our-galactic-backyard/">object</a> ever, some 13.5 billion light years away. An accompanying article in the journal Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters, speculated what the object, a galaxy, may be like.&nbsp;



Naming the galaxy HD-1, the scientists proposed two hypotheses. First, the galaxy could be creating stars at breakneck speed, possibly even Population III stars, the universe’s first stars. Secondly, the scientists suggest that HD-1 could be a massive blackhole, roughly 100 million times the mass of the sun.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Fabio Pacucci is the lead author of the MNRAS study, co-author in the discovery paper on ApJ, and an astronomer at the <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/">Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics</a>.



“Answering questions about the nature of a source so far away can be challenging,” said Fabio Pacucci. “It’s like guessing the nationality of a ship from the flag it flies, while being faraway ashore, with the vessel in the middle of a gale and dense fog. One can maybe see some colors and shapes of the flag, but not in their entirety. It’s ultimately a long game of analysis and exclusion of implausible scenarios.”



The amount of ultraviolet light means that “some energetic processes are occurring there or, better yet, did occur some billions of years ago,” explained Pacucci.



Initially, the scientists suspected that HD-1 was a normal starburst galaxy, which creates stars at a fast pace. However, the sheer number of stars being created - 100 every year, is 10 times higher than the normal rate. This suggests something more primeval.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The very first population of stars that formed in the universe were more massive, more luminous and hotter than modern stars,” said Pacucci. “If we assume the stars produced in HD1 are these first, or Population III, stars, then its properties could be explained more easily. In fact, Population III stars are capable of producing more UV light than normal stars, which could clarify the extreme ultraviolet luminosity of HD1.”&nbsp;



The supermassive blackhole also fits the evidence, even as a blackhole sucks in even light, photons are emitted around the blackhole itself. Further research is needed for the scientists to confirm exactly what’s going on.&nbsp;&nbsp;



&nbsp;---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A galaxy far, far away: scientists observe the most distant object ever

A group of international astronomers has just made a momentous...

Most research studies that investigate the potential effects of climate change on animal and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-industry-is-not-threatened-by-plant-based-alternatives/">plant</a> species do this by considering one species at a time. The ecological needs of a species, and how these will be met as the climate changes, give important information about what we might expect in terms of biodiversity in the future. Few studies, however, consider how food web interactions will affect the pace of change.



A new study, published today in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, investigated how trophic relationships (the feeding of one species on another) will be affected by the poleward shift in distribution of marine species. As the ocean warms, species are expected to move in search of more suitable conditions, and this will affect not only their distributions, but also the dynamics of entire food webs. This will be particularly important for large species and commercially important fisheries on which people depend for food and a livelihood.&nbsp;



Using sophisticated computer models, the researchers determined that predator-prey interactions cause many marine species, especially large predators,&nbsp;to shift their ranges more slowly than the climate changes would suggest. They developed a “spatially explicit food-web model” that included parameters such as metabolism, body size and optimal temperature ranges for species, and this model revealed that dynamic trophic interactions limit a species’ ability to react quickly to warming temperatures.&nbsp;



For example, larger-bodied top predators stay longer than smaller prey in their tried and trusted habitats, partly because new sources of prey arrive in the predators’ historical ranges and this leads to the establishment of new food webs. One of the results of climate change in the ocean will therefore be a mixing and reshuffling of marine biodiversity.&nbsp;



“The model suggests that over the next 200 years of warming, species are going to continually reshuffle and be in the process of shifting their ranges,” said lead author&nbsp;<a href="https://ewtekwa.weebly.com/">E. W. Tekwa</a>, a former Rutgers postdoctoral student who is now at the University of British Columbia. “Even after 200 years, marine species will still be lagging behind temperature shifts, and this is particularly true for those at the top of the food web.”



This scenario has implications for commercial fishermen and fisheries all over the world. The researchers suggest that, while commercially harvested fish species will probably still occur in their usual ranges to some extent, their density is likely to be significantly reduced as many individuals will have moved to different regions.&nbsp;



Not only will large species and commercially important fisheries shift out of their historical ranges as climate warms, but they will likely not be as abundant even in their new geographic ranges. For instance, a cod fisherman in the Atlantic might still find fish 200 years from now but in significantly lower numbers.



“What that suggests from a fisheries perspective is that while the species we fish today will be there tomorrow, they will not be there in the same abundance. In such a context, overfishing becomes easier because the population growth rates are low,” said study co-author&nbsp;<a href="https://pinsky.marine.rutgers.edu/people/malin-pinsky/">Malin Pinsky</a>, an associate professor in Rutgers’ Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources. “Warming, coupled with food-web dynamics, will be like putting marine biodiversity in a blender.”



The changes in trophic relationships and food webs in marine systems will lead to different communities of animals and plants interacting with each other. The model predicts that, as temperatures warm, predator-prey interactions will prevent species from following environmental conditions that would be most suitable to them because they will be hanging back “at home,” attempting to feed on the newly arriving prey species instead of following their traditional prey as they become established in new and more suitable geographical locations.&nbsp;



“These dynamics will not only be in one place but globally,” Pinsky said. “That does not bode well for marine life, and this is not an effect that has been widely recognized.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change restructures marine food webs in unexpected ways

Most research studies that investigate the potential effects of climate...

Archerfish – a small group of fishes that live in Southeast Asia, Australia, and many regions in between - are famous for their amazing ability to shoot down land-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-insects-will-kill-more-than-a-million-street-trees-by-2050/">insects</a> with highly accurate streams of water that they project from their mouths. Until recently though, not much has been known about these peculiar aquatic creatures.&nbsp;



Questions regarding the number of archerfish species, how they are related to one another, and what is their evolutionary history have remained shrouded in mystery. However, a recent study led by the <a href="https://biodiversity.ku.edu/">University of Kansas (KU) Biodiversity Institute &amp; Natural History Museum</a> has now provided the most thorough examination of the evolutionary history and anatomical variation of archerfishes.



“There are other fish that eat insects and some that will jump out of water, but I would say there’s nothing really like this,” said study co-author Dr. Leo Smith, an evolutionary biologist and associate curator at KU’s Biodiversity Institute &amp; Natural History Museum. “There’s a potentially apocryphal story, which is that back in the mid-1800s in India, archerfishes would shoot out the colonizers’ cigarettes, just like if there was like a lightning bug. They would shoot them out and drive people crazy.”



In order to understand how this amazing behavior evolved, the researchers collected tissue samples and specimens of archerfish from various institutions and museums around the world, and analyzed their structures and genetic features. Their analyses revealed that, although the oral structures of archerfishes support a blowpipe mechanism that is common in many fish species, several unique soft-tissue oral structures may also play a fundamental role in shooting, distinguishing them from related types of fishes.



“Just because other fish can move water, it’s not anything like this,” Dr. Smith explained. “I equate it to, 'I could put a trumpet in my mouth, and I suppose I could make noise come out of it, but not like Miles Davis.' It’s like a fundamentally different thing, too, a really remarkable specialization for catching insects.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



According to Dr. Smith and his colleagues, archerfishes have a closely related “sister group” of fishes – the beach salmon – which have similar oral structures used to shoot water towards prey, suggesting that this capacity could be what evolutionary biologists call a co-opted or exapted trait.



“We think of adaptations like, for example, a sailfish that has this really beautiful sail on their dorsal fin - but a lot of fishes have dorsal fins and what they’ve done is kind of modify that dorsal fin to fit some other need,” said study lead author Matthew Girard, a postdoctoral fellow at the <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/">National Museum of Natural History</a>.



“If we look at the group that’s most closely related to archerfish, it’s already eating hard-body things. So, archerfish must have had all the structures that would allow that to happen, and all they had to do was kind of modify those to be able to shoot. So that’s what that co-option is - it’s really a nuance saying that the necessary parts were already there and all they did was modify a few things to allow this to happen.”



An in-depth description of archerfish and their evolutionary history is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/iob/advance-article/doi/10.1093/iob/obac013/6551314?login=false">Integrative Organismal Biology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How did the fascinating behavior of archerfish evolve?

Archerfish – a small group of fishes that live in...

As plastics enter the environment, they often break down through natural processes into microplastics, which are particles less than 5 millimeters in length. These microplastics end up in rivers, lakes and the ocean. There is growing concern about the impact of microplastics on the environment as well as wildlife and human health, yet little is still known about the effect of these plastic particles on fish.



Recent research, carried out in Professor Dong-Fang Deng’s lab at the <a href="https://uwm.edu/">University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee</a>, looked at the impact of microplastics on farm raised yellow perch.&nbsp;



The fish were given food contaminated with high density polyethylene (HDPE). The scientists found that although the perch could expel the microplastics, it came at the cost of lower nutritional value in the fish as well as changed liver function, and different microbiomes in their gut.&nbsp;



Yellow perch were used in this study because of their popularity as a food item. This is especially true as they are becoming increasingly raised in farms as wild caught fish become less common in the Great Lakes region, where the study was carried out.&nbsp;



“What we found is that the yellow perch not only survived the nine-week exposure, they also expelled all the microplastics from their bodies," said Professor Deng. "However, the nutritional quality of the fish was reduced – we saw lower body protein and mineral (ash) levels than in fish fed the control diet with no HDPE added."&nbsp;



"We also discovered that exposure to HDPE altered their liver function – they had a heavier liver enriched with glycogen (sugar) and bile acids, but lower lipid (fat) levels and enlarged hepatocytes, the cells involved in metabolism, detoxification and nutrient synthesis.&nbsp; We also saw some disturbance in the gut structure and microbiota community associated with immunity, nutrient digestion and absorption.”



The researchers emphasized that these results were from one particular type and size of microplastic, while various sizes, shapes and types of plastics could yield different results.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/animal-nutrition">Animal Nutrition</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Yellow perch can eject microplastics, but it comes at a cost

As plastics enter the environment, they often break down through...

These days, plant-based alternatives to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-industry-is-not-threatened-by-plant-based-alternatives/">meat</a> can be found on supermarket shelves and freezers, and in restaurants in many places in the world. Vegan burgers, sausages, nuggets, mince and a variety of other food types are common-place and modern biotechnology, food technology, and process engineering makes these products look, taste and smell remarkably similar to their animal counterparts.&nbsp;



However, it remains that proteins from animal muscle are very different from plant proteins and this inevitably impacts the chemical interactions between ingredients as well as some of the physical and mechanical properties once the plant protein enters the mouth.



In&nbsp;research published today by the <a href="https://www.aip.org/">American Institute of Physics</a>, scientists from Germany – where consumers can choose from more than 1,200 different types of sausage – investigate the molecular function and effects of vegetable proteins of different origins to identify what makes plant-based meat substitutes different once they are being chewed.&nbsp;



“We use direct comparisons of meat-based, vegetarian with egg white, and pure vegan versions to show the differences in bite, chewing, mouthfeel, bolus formation, and associated enjoyment characteristics of the sausages,” said co-author Thomas A. Vilgis, from the Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research.



In particular, the researchers considered differences in tensile strength between the types of sausages. They say that muscle proteins emulsify fats and oils in a very different way to plant proteins and this makes plant-based sausages feel different when we bite and chew them.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The ‘crunch’ or ‘crack’ of meat sausages is inevitably different than that of vegan sausages, simply because the molecular properties of the proteins are markedly different,” said Vilgis.



In addition, the researchers also tested the sausages in terms of their rheology (flow of matter), and tribology (friction) while in the mouth. This allowed greater insight into the differences between the three types of sausage than is gained from sensory comparisons alone.&nbsp;



“We're looking much deeper than what is usually done in food technology, by taking into account the molecular properties of ingredients as much as possible,” Vilgis said.



“We are taking a closer look at the proteins as well as the sequence of amino acids, which we understand as a ‘code’ from which we can read certain properties to better understand the behavior of the sausages in the mouth when they are consumed. Thus, fundamental differences in the molecular structure and mouthfeel become immediately apparent.”



Building on the authors’ previous research of soft matter theory and theoretical polymer physics, the study represents an entirely new approach to experimental food science.



“We're working directly at the interface between basic science and technological application,” said Vilgis. “With these methods, it is possible to make predictions in how the physical properties of an alternative sausage can be improved – and make targeted developments.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://aip.scitation.org/journal/phf">Physics of Fluids</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Who says there’s no difference between meat and plant-based sausages?

These days, plant-based alternatives to meat can be found on...

Although medical advances are causing an increase in average life expectancy, the human brain begins to perform worse with age. At the neuronal level, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-reverse-the-aging-process-in-middle-aged-mice/">aging</a> manifests itself through anatomical changes in the grey and white matter in specific brain regions, while at the cognitive level, short- and long-term memory deteriorates, information-processing speed decreases, and control over linguistic, visuospatial, and executive skills declines.&nbsp;



However, the speed of aging varies, depending upon a person’s cognitive reserve – the brain’s ability to maintain optimal performance while coping with age-related changes. This reserve is built up over the course of life, as the brain strengthens various neural networks in response to different stimuli.&nbsp;



According to previous studies, the more complex these neural networks are, the greater a person’s cognitive reserve and thus capacity to cope with aging. While it is already well-known that cognitive reserve is influenced by various factors, such as physical activity, nutrition, level of education, career path, or socio-economic status, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.hse.ru/en/">HSE University</a> in Russia and <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/">Northumbria University</a> in the UK has found for the first time that bilingualism is another strongly beneficial factor for cognitive reserve, and could help slow down and mitigate the course of age-related changes in the brain.



By conducting an experiment that measured the speed of cognitive functioning of 63 healthy older adults (aged 60 or above), the scientists found that the more fluent the participants were in a second language, the faster they were in solving the tasks they were presented with.



“Unlike other factors that shape cognitive reserve, bilingualism is unique in that it is constantly present in our lives. We can take up and give up physical exercise, go on one diet or another, or change jobs, but language remains with us all the time. We communicate, watch movies, and read books, and the language centers are constantly working in our mind,” explained study lead author Federico Gallo, a Junior Research Fellow at HSE.&nbsp;



“We witnessed an interesting phenomenon in this experiment: with a high level of language proficiency, the correlation between successful conflict resolution and other components of cognitive reserve disappeared. This suggests that bilingualism’s benefits on cognitive reserve might be stronger than those of other known factors.”



According to Dr. Gallo and his colleagues, proficiency in two or more languages improves brain functioning not only in healthy people, but also in those with various neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, bilingualism seems to improve not only the executive functioning of the brain, but also episodic, working, and semantic memory, together with overall intelligence.



“There are no really effective drugs available today to prevent or slow down brain ageing. It takes enormous financial resources to develop pharmaceutical treatments. Therefore, finding and researching alternative, non-drug ways to slow down cognitive ageing should become a priority in science. In the long term, we plan to study how the benefits of bilingualism on ageing may vary with different language pairs,” Dr. Gallo concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.780261/full#B42">Frontiers in Psychology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Speaking multiple languages slows down brain aging

Although medical advances are causing an increase in average life...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> and <a href="https://www.mq.edu.au/">Macquarie University</a> in Australia has found that sharks’ response to the smell of food declined if not sufficiently rewarded by the promise of eating. These findings suggest that sharks can learn to avoid wasting time and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-burn-energy-during-speedy-swims-for-survival/">energy</a> on food sources that are inaccessible. Since wildlife tourism often uses food or smell to attract sharks to the proximity of visitors, understanding sharks’ habituation to food-related olfactory cues is necessary to help this type of tourism run smoothly.



The scientists used three groups of captive Port Jackson sharks to study their response to smell across different reward frequencies. While the first group was rewarded with food each time they reached a target and the second one was rewarded every other day, the third one was never rewarded.&nbsp;



The sharks that were always rewarded learned quickly the task and became faster and better at reaching the target. In the case of the un-rewarded sharks though, the scientists observed a reduction of their natural response to the smell of potential food, with some sharks not even leaving their starting position after a few trials.



“Our study revealed that while shark behavior can change when frequently rewarded with food, the learnt response diminishes when reward frequency is decreased and even disappears when no reward is provided,” said study lead author Dennis Heinrich, a recent PhD graduate from Flinders University.



“The observed decline in response to a repeated stimulus, or habituation, may act as a driver of optimal foraging strategies, enabling sharks to quickly abandon low-yielding foraging patches in search of more productive sites.”



In future research, the scientists want to test these findings with species that are more commonly targeted by wildlife tourism, such as white sharks, and investigate whether habituation can be detected at tourist locations.



“The knowledge gained from this study can help account for learnt behaviors and habituation when managing wildlife tourism moving forward,” said study senior author Charlie Huvenaars, a marine biologist at Flinders University. “A balance needs to be found between attracting sharks for tourism purposes and minimizing behavioral response and possible learnt behaviors.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S000334722200063X?via%3Dihub">Animal Behavior</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sharks learn to stop wasting time on prey they can't catch

A new study led by Flinders University and Macquarie University...

Headaches are a common human affliction that affect people all over the world. They can be debilitating and result in loss of function in some people. But there are several different types of headaches and the causes are often not well understood. In addition, the methodology used to study headache prevalence has varied considerably in the past, which makes it challenging to estimate the global incidence of headache episodes.&nbsp;



In recent research, scientists from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) reviewed 357 publications, published between 1961 and the end of 2020, in an effort to estimate the global prevalence of headaches. The majority of publications considered in the review reported on headache incidence in adults between 20 and 65, but some also included adolescents and children down to the age of five, as well as elderly people over the age of 65.&nbsp;



Lars Jacob Stovner, professor of neurology at NTNU, and colleagues, quantified the differences in methods between the studies they reviewed. For example, while most studies reported headache prevalence in participants during the past year, some considered headache occurrence across the whole lifetime. And yet others reported headache prevalence over much shorter time periods, even within the previous day only. The researchers modelled these differences in methods and assessed how they may have impacted estimates in headache prevalence.



Based on the 357 publications reviewed, the authors estimate that 52 percent of the global population experience a headache disorder within a given year, with 14 percent reporting a migraine, 26 percent reporting a tension-type headache and 4.6 percent reporting a headache for 15 or more days per month. From the 12 studies that reported whether participants had experienced a headache the previous day, the authors estimate that 15.8 percent of the world’s population have a headache on any given day, and almost half of those individuals (7 percent) report having a migraine.



“We found that the prevalence of headache disorders remains high worldwide and the burden of different types may impact many," said study lead author Lars Jacob Stovner. "We should endeavor to reduce this burden through prevention and better treatment. To measure the effect of such efforts, we must be able to monitor prevalence and burden in societies. Our study helps us understand how to improve our methods.”



Further findings from the study, published today in <a href="https://thejournalofheadacheandpain.biomedcentral.com/">The Journal of Headache and Pain</a>, include the fact that all types of headaches were more common in females than males, most markedly for migraines (17 percent in females compared to 8.6 percent in males) and headaches that lasted for 15 or more days per month (6 percent in females compared to 2.9 percent in males).



When trying to interpret the effects that study methods had on headache estimates, the researchers calculated the amount of variation in migraine prevalence that was explained by various methodological factors, such as screening questions, sample size, publication year, and how diagnostic criteria were applied. These variables explained a total of 29.9 percent of the differences in migraine estimates and even less for other headache disorders. This suggests that there may be other methodological factors accounting for the greater variations across the studies.&nbsp;



Interestingly, the researchers found that year of publication accounted for six percent of the variation in headache estimates, with more recent studies being associated with higher estimates of headache prevalence. The publication year did not account for the variation in other headache types, leading the authors to propose that this might reflect a real increase in migraine occurrence over the past three to four decades. Alternatively, this finding could indicate that the diagnosis of migraines has improved during this time.&nbsp;



The study authors acknowledge that the majority of studies they reviewed came from high-income countries with good healthcare systems so the findings may not reflect the situation in all countries. Further investigation into the situation in middle and low-income countries would help present a more accurate global estimate. However, the authors did use a wide range of studies for their review, thus obtaining data from as many countries as possible. These studies sampled participants within and outside of clinical settings, including employees of a company, university students and hospital staff, amongst others.



“Compared to our previous report and global estimates, the data does suggest that headache and migraine rates may be increasing," said Lars Jacob Stovner. "However, given that we could explain only 30 percent or less of the variation in headache estimates with the measures we looked at, it would be premature to conclude headaches are definitively increasing. What is clear is that overall, headache disorders are highly prevalent worldwide and can be a high burden. It may also be of interest in future to analyze the different causes of headaches that varied across groups to target prevention and treatment more effectively.”



The researchers conclude that this study provides a baseline for how to estimate headache rates across the world and future research could build on this to improve methods for measuring the success of interventions and treatment.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Headaches impact more than 50 percent of people

Headaches are a common human affliction that affect people all...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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