In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



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Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp; Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries. Controlling the heart with light The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest. The external controller detects...

The Amazon rainforest, known as "the lungs of the Earth," faces continuous threats from deforestation. 



The Amazon's unique biodiversity, extensive carbon storage capabilities, and significant role in regulating the Earth's climate highlight the urgent need to fully understand the consequences of deforestation.



Scientists, activists, and global citizens have been increasingly concerned about changes in rainfall patterns. However, emerging research challenges previously held assumptions about rainfall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a> in this vital ecosystem.



The concept of a "tipping point" - a threshold beyond which the Amazon could irreversibly degrade into savannah - has dominated environmental discussions. 



But now, recent studies have begun to question the accuracy of this alarming scenario, bringing new insights into the resilience of the region's rainfall patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-the-amazon-rainforest-stable">Is the Amazon rainforest stable?</h2>



Scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology (<a href="https://mpimet.mpg.de/en/homepage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPI-M</a>) have made a significant breakthrough, revealing that the Amazon may sustain its rainfall even in extreme cases of deforestation. 



Published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters, the findings challenge earlier scientific consensus about the region’s vulnerability to rainfall disruption.



Previously, researchers emphasized the critical role of vegetation in maintaining Amazonian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-40-of-climate-critical-amazon-rainforest-is-unprotected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> through evapotranspiration - the process where plants transfer moisture from soil to the atmosphere.



This cycle, scientists warned, would weaken dramatically if widespread deforestation occurred, significantly reducing rainfall and destabilizing the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oversimplified-climate-models">Oversimplified climate models</h2>



These earlier predictions, however, depended heavily on models that oversimplified or overlooked key atmospheric processes. 



Most relied on global climate models that inadequately represented convection, the atmospheric mechanism crucial for rainfall. Alternatively, regional models were unable to account for how large-scale atmospheric circulation might adapt to deforestation.



Such limitations cast doubt on earlier predictions, necessitating a more sophisticated approach to better understand the complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-will-boost-methane-emissions-in-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a> involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-modeling-approach">A new modeling approach</h2>



Experts at MPI-M, including Arim Yoon and Cathy Hohenegger, adopted an advanced approach using the global storm-resolving ICON model.



This model directly resolves atmospheric convection with extraordinary precision. They conducted their simulation globally over three years, operating at an exceptionally detailed resolution of five kilometers, a significant methodological advancement over previous research.



The findings revealed that rainfall in the Amazon isn't predominantly determined by evapotranspiration, as previously believed. Instead, large-scale atmospheric circulation substantially compensates for any loss of moisture due to deforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-winds-maintain-moisture-levels">Ocean winds maintain moisture levels</h2>



"The wind at about three kilometers altitude carries enough moisture from the ocean into the region to make up for the decline in evapotranspiration," said Yoon.



The calculations demonstrated little to no change in annual rainfall, even under conditions of complete deforestation, contrasting sharply with earlier findings.



This unexpected resilience suggests that earlier assessments of deforestation impacts may have overstated the Amazon’s vulnerability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-a-more-stable-amazon">Signs of a more stable Amazon </h2>



"Precipitation over land seems more tightly coupled to the large-scale circulation than to evapotranspiration in our global storm-resolving simulation if compared to state-of-the-art climate models currently used in the IPCC assessment reports," noted Hohenegger.



"This fact is exciting as it asks for the revisitation of some of the things we thought we knew about precipitation over land and its sensitivity."



This research shifts scientific understanding towards a more nuanced view of rainfall dynamics in the Amazon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-patterns-and-seasonal-variability">Rainfall patterns and seasonal variability</h2>



Despite the optimistic findings regarding total annual precipitation, significant changes remain in rainfall distribution throughout the year.



"Just using one indicator to assess the future of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a> isn't enough. The details of the rainfall patterns can make a big difference," said Yoon.



Seasonal variability could profoundly impact the ecosystem, agriculture, and communities dependent on predictable rainfall patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-deforestation">Consequences of deforestation </h2>



The MPI-M scientists aim to further refine their analysis by examining whether extreme rainfall events or prolonged droughts might increase in frequency or intensity under conditions of deforestation. 



Understanding these patterns will provide critical insights into the real-world impacts of deforestation on Amazonian ecosystems and human livelihoods.



Although total rainfall might remain stable in the Amazon, deforestation inevitably disrupts ecological balance and climate stability. 



Changes in rainfall distribution, coupled with habitat loss and climate shifts, remain a threat to biodiversity, ecosystem health, and human communities relying on the Amazon.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL110503" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.&nbsp;



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Amazon rainforest may be much more stable than we thought

The Amazon rainforest, known as "the lungs of the Earth,"...

This bright blue creature might look like a single jellyfish drifting on the water, but it is actually a community of specialized polyps all working in unison. This <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/hydrozoa" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrozoan</a>, known as the Blue Button jellyfish or Porpita porpita, appears delicate but displays a cunning strategy for survival.



Its float usually measures only a few inches across, yet it hosts an impressive mini-collective where each polyp plays a unique role. 



Some feed, some defend, and others handle reproduction - all of which contribute to the colony’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-jellyfish-day-2024-protecting-the-health-of-our-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">success</a>.



Marine biologist Dr. Shi from the <a href="https://www.ysfri.ac.cn/ENGLISH.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute</a> has <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39591675/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> notable appearances of these organisms in new locations along coastal regions.



Studies have suggested that changes in ocean temperatures and currents may explain why this small floater is popping up in places where it once was rare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-floating-colony-not-a-jellyfish">A floating colony, not a jellyfish</h2>



The upper part of the colony looks like a thin disk that can be a brilliant blue or sometimes greenish-brown. This disk is a gas-filled float that keeps the group on the water’s surface as currents move it around.



Circling beneath the float are hundreds of tentacle-like structures that are actually bundled <a href="https://sussexwildlifetrust.org.uk/news/hydroids-and-bryozoans-the-weird-and-wonderful">polyps</a>. They branch off in different lengths, forming a fringe that does much of the colony’s work.



Some polyps specialize in gathering food from the water. Others focus on warding off would-be predators with stinging cells called nematocysts that are designed to deter an attacker.



This layered teamwork sets Porpita porpita apart from most solitary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-more-than-just-a-snack-for-predatory-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jelly-like creatures</a>. Its structure is so integrated that it can function almost like a single being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-porpita-have-a-mild-sting">Porpita have a mild sting</h2>



Most casual swimmers who brush up against this floating cluster feel little more than a mild irritation. The sting is gentle compared to that of more notorious marine animals, yet those with sensitive skin might notice some redness or itching.



The sting is still a defense that helps the colony survive. Small fish and other drifting animals think twice before nibbling on those tentacles!



Many beachgoers mistake the Blue Button for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comb-jellyfish-can-fuse-with-a-friend-and-become-one-creature-after-injury/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jellyfish</a> because of its overall shape and bright hue. Careful observers soon realize, however, that this is a colonial hydrozoan rather than a single organism.



A separate <a href="https://www.lajar.cl/index.php/rlajar/article/view/vol51-issue4-fulltext-3070" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> suggests that sightings along the Mexican Atlantic have increased as more people venture into coastal areas. 



Researchers are using open-access data and field surveys to keep tabs on the spread of the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-but-tough">Tiny but tough</h2>



This group of polyps may look fragile on the surface, yet it handles varied conditions surprisingly well. The float’s gas chamber helps the colony remain buoyant even during moderate waves.



It drifts passively, riding the currents without any directed swimming. Some ocean wanderers break apart easily if disturbed, but Porpita porpita remains intact unless hit by rough surf or beached.



It appears that this species adapts to changing waters by relying on wind and sea flows. Despite its delicate look, the colony endures journeys over wide stretches of ocean.



Scientists have found that population size can fluctuate with seasonal shifts in temperature. During certain months, cooler water encourages healthy growth, while extreme heat might reduce their numbers in shallower areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-porpita-grows-and-reproduces">How Porpita grows and reproduces</h2>



Porpita porpita individuals have both male and female reproductive structures, making them hermaphrodites that are capable of different forms of reproduction. 



Some references describe an intriguing developmental process where larvae transform into floating colonies without a typical polyp stage.



This means new generations can appear if conditions are right, causing occasional clusters to show up unexpectedly on sunny beaches. 



The young start off as tiny forms, then expand into an enchanting blue disk with busy polyps attached.



These polyps may adopt distinct tasks almost immediately. In many cases, protective tentacles appear early, ensuring the colony has a built-in guard system even in its youth.



Studying early developmental stages offers clues about how these colonies adapt to diverse temperatures and salinity levels. More work is underway to map their genetic makeup and clarify potential regional differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



While Porpita porpita itself poses little harm to people, its presence can indicate shifts in local ecology. 



Changes in temperature or currents can carry these creatures beyond their usual routes, raising questions about broader marine health.



They also serve as food for certain sea slugs, snails, and sea turtles, linking them to larger food webs. Observing their distribution can reveal patterns in how smaller marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-invasion-jellyfish-are-moving-north-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> and grazers behave.



Some researchers believe continued sightings of the Blue Button in unfamiliar waters may reflect oceanic warming trends. Analyzing these subtle movements becomes a way to understand broader environmental influences.



Effective monitoring hinges on both academic efforts and everyday beachgoers who spot unusual clusters near shorelines. 



Citizen science projects are increasingly vital for gathering valuable data and strengthening the record of occurrences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-porpita-studies">What's next for Porpita studies?</h2>



Porpita porpita will likely keep surprising those who stroll along the beach and catch sight of a vivid blue disk washed ashore. Although harmless for most, its mild sting and unusual look cause many to marvel at what it really is.



Future investigations will show whether increased frequency of sightings correlates with patterns of warming seas and shifting currents. 



Understanding these drifting colonies may help scientists see how oceans are responding to constant environmental change.



Marine scientists who study the Blue Button view it as a subtle biological indicator of the world’s changing waters. 



They aim to gather more details about its genetic variations and possible global distribution patterns.



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This 'blue button jellyfish' isn't actually a jellyfish, so what is it?

This bright blue creature might look like a single jellyfish...

Memory plays a critical role in learning and survival across species. Particularly in primates, social interaction significantly shapes how memory develops and functions. 



Primates, from monkeys to great apes, spend substantial time in social environments, making it crucial for them to observe and learn from others effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-interactions-among-primates">Social interactions among primates</h2>



Primates live closely together in groups. They rely heavily on noticing social signals from others, like facial expressions and gestures.



From birth, primates naturally focus more on interacting with each other than with objects or things.



This strong preference for social interaction helps them develop important skills, especially in how they learn and remember information. 



Paying attention to others is crucial for their brain development and memory formation, influencing how primates learn and adapt throughout life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-interactions-boost-ape-memory">Social interactions boost ape memory</h2>



A team of researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, examined how social interactions affect memory in great apes.



They presented both young and adult apes with videos showing a human hand (social model) or a mechanical claw (non-social model) constructing a tower.



"We found that apes better remembered a tower when they saw a hand building it rather than a mechanical claw. This is because they paid more attention to the actions of a social being rather than a machine," noted Marie Padberg, the first author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attention-improves-social-memory">Attention improves social memory</h2>



To understand this better, the researchers partnered with the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of South Australia</a>. They used artificial intelligence (AI) to analyze regular video recordings of the apes. 



The AI technology measured the apes' heart rates to determine their attention levels during the experiment.



The results showed that apes paid more attention during social demonstrations. Higher attention was directly linked to better memory, showing how closely attention and memory are connected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-processing-social-stimuli">Processing social stimuli</h2>



Interestingly, improved memory for social events was evident only in adult apes. Younger apes, including juveniles and infants, did not show memory enhancement when viewing social models. 



This outcome differs from humans, who exhibit superior social memory from infancy. These findings suggest a developmental difference between humans and other apes in processing social stimuli.



Study senior author Daniel Haun is the director of the Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.



"Non-human ape infants and juveniles did not show superior memory for social events. There could be several reasons for this, including the nature of the objects, the complexity of the task, or the duration of the videos," noted Haun.



"Further research is needed to determine whether superior social memory at younger ages is truly a uniquely human phenomenon."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developmental-timing-and-memory">Developmental timing and memory</h2>



This study highlights how important the timing of cognitive development is in primates. It suggests that non-human primates, like apes, might only show improved memory from social interactions as they grow older.



Younger apes do not experience this benefit early in life, unlike human infants who show strong social memory from birth. 



By understanding these differences in developmental timing, scientists can better distinguish how human thinking differs from that of other primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-memory-across-apes">Social memory across apes</h2>



The research took place at the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/comparative-cultural-psychology/studying-non-human-primates/wolfgang-koehler-primate-research-center/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wolfgang Köhler Primate Research Center</a> in Leipzig, Germany. 



The scientists studied 42 great apes, including chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans. These apes ranged in age from as young as 3 months to as old as 47 years.



This study is the first to investigate how social memory develops as apes grow older. The results represent an important step forward in understanding similarities and differences between human and ape psychology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The detailed results are published in the journal Animal Behaviour. They show how paying attention to social interactions helps improve memory in different species.



Future research may explore how the difficulty of tasks, familiarity with objects, and interactions within social groups affect memory. These studies will help scientists understand more clearly how both humans and other primates develop and use social memory.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347225000089?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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Social interactions have a surprising influence on memory in great apes

Memory plays a critical role in learning and survival across...

The natural environment is repeatedly reinventing itself with dynamic processes which have a tendency to continue on for millions of years. Extinction events are among the strongest forces which not only kill specific life forms but also offer the basis for fresh avenues of evolution. 



A recent study evokes a fascinating image of the process, revealing how the death of the largest dinosaurs indirectly created the fruit-rich habitats which were so important to our primate ancestors.



The research was led by Christopher Doughty, an ecoinformatics professor at <a href="https://nau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-prehistoric-legacy">A prehistoric legacy</h2>



Sauropods, the long-necked, plant-munching dinosaurs of the ancient world, had a massive influence on the world around them. These hulking dinosaurs knocked over trees on a routine basis and munched through tons of plant matter. 



When Sauropods went extinct some 66 million years ago, their loss profoundly changed ecosystems. Forests rebounded and closed up, which decreased the amount of sunlight on the ground and paved the way for an impressive evolutionary shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sauropods-and-ecological-change">Sauropods and ecological change</h2>



The extinction of Sauropods enabled trees to evolve without interruptions. The forests became denser, and tree competition for light intensified. 



Trees developed larger fruits and seeds to dominate others, and these provided their offspring with an advantage over others by supplying them with additional energy and greater survival chances in shaded conditions.



"At first glance, the darker forest understory caused by dinosaur extinctions may seem unimportant, but it could have directly led to the evolution of our fruit-eating primate ancestors," said Professor Doughty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dinosaur-fruit-connection">The dinosaur-fruit connection</h2>



Before the dinosaurs went extinct, fruits were scarce, and seeds were small. But with the ecological niche left open by the sauropods, plants evolved immediately. 



Stronger seedlings, with larger seeds, were able to compete for limited sunlight. In addition, fleshy fruits evolved as an incredibly efficient way of enticing animals to scatter seeds and reproduce.



Even though this evolution scenario was previously theorized, no fossil records existed to conform the hypothesis.



To investigate, Professor Doughty and his team developed a cutting-edge model of seed and fruit size evolution after the dinosaurs became extinct. The model precisely replicated fossil records for the last 65 million years and decisively substantiated the hypothesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversal-of-dinosaur-driven-fruit-trends">Reversal of dinosaur-driven fruit trends</h2>



Interestingly, the model also forecasted a future reversal of seed evolutionary patterns. 



Seeds began to shrink about 35 million years ago. This coincided with the appearance of new large mammals that were successful in duplicating, though on a smaller scale, the forest-clearing behavior previously shown by sauropods.



"Our model predicted these animals would open the forest enough that sufficient light began to enter the understory, and larger seeds were no longer successful over smaller seeds," explained Doughty. 



"The evolutionary pressure for seed size to increase began to diminish. Thus, we were able to explain the trends in seed size over time without resorting to external influences such as climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megafauna-extinction-and-ecological-reset">Megafauna extinction and ecological reset</h2>



About 50,000 years ago, large mammals like mammoths went extinct. These animals previously opened forests by knocking down trees and clearing vegetation. Their extinction allowed forests to become dense and dark again. 



With less sunlight reaching the forest floor, plants adapted by producing larger seeds. This highlights how big animals shape their environment, influencing the evolution of plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-as-ecosystem-shapers">Humans as ecosystem shapers </h2>



Modern human activity mimics the prehistoric impacts of the giants. Current selective forest harvesting mimics the prehistoric pressure imposed by dinosaurs on seed size and dispersal.



But if humans stop modifying forest structure and are not substituted by other megafauna, forests will shift back to more dense, dark structures, and this may trigger another evolutionary adjustment towards larger seeds. 



"These results provide a striking example of how large dinosaurs - and their eventual extinction - not only shaped their contemporary environment but also triggered cascading effects on ecosystems for millions of years," said Benjamin Wiebe, an NAU researcher.



"The next time you're eating fruit or pondering, 'why am I here,' consider the impact of the dinosaur extinctions."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/pala.70002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



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How dinosaur extinction influenced fruit evolution

The natural environment is repeatedly reinventing itself with dynamic processes...

Gas,Methane,Bubbles,Frozen,In,Winter,Ice,Of,Lake,Baikal,

These frozen bubbles of methane gas are eerily beautiful, but don't let appearances fool you. Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas that is often overshadowed by carbon dioxide in discussions on climate change, even though the impact of methane is far more serious.



The effects of industrial pollution, car emissions, deforestation and agriculture are usually central when we consider the forces driving climate change. 



However, researchers have now uncovered an unexpected and significant source of methane emissions, hidden beneath the icy landscapes of the Arctic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-is-a-potent-climate-driver">Methane is a potent climate driver</h2>



As powerhouse greenhouse gas, methane doesn’t get as much attention as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a>. However, it’s way more potent - about 80 times more effective at trapping heat in the atmosphere over 20 years. 



Methane comes from natural sources like wetlands and termites, but human activities crank up emissions big time. 



Livestock, landfills, and oil and gas operations release massive amounts of methane into the air. Cows, for example, burp out methane as they digest food (yep, cow burps are a real climate problem). 



Meanwhile, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-methane-emissions-threaten-earths-habitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaks from fossil fuel</a> extraction and pipelines quietly pump methane into the atmosphere, making the issue even worse.



The problem? Methane doesn’t stick around as long as CO₂ - only about 12 years - but in that short time, it does serious damage. 



Cutting methane emissions could quickly slow global warming, making it one of the fastest ways to fight climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-methane-leaks-from-glaciers">Investigating methane leaks from glaciers</h2>



Gabrielle Kleber and Leonard Magerl, postdoctoral researchers from <a href="https://ic3.uit.no/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UiT</a>, The Arctic University of Norway’s iC3 (Centre for Ice, Cryosphere, Carbon, and Climate), have discovered that Arctic glaciers are not as innocent as they may seem.



Beneath their icy veneer, these glaciers are leaking substantial amounts of methane into the atmosphere. 



This revelation stems from studies conducted at Vallåkrabreen, a small valley glacier that is situated in central Svalbard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glaciers-and-methane-levels">Glaciers and methane levels</h2>



The researchers measured methane levels in groundwater springs and the melt river that drains from the glacier. The findings were remarkable.



The methane levels in the melt river were found to be up to 800 times higher than the equilibrium level in the atmosphere, hitting a peak concentration of 3,170 nanomolar early in the melt season.



"We expected to see some methane in the meltwater, but the concentrations we measured were surprisingly high," explained Gabrielle, highlighting the unexpected magnitude of the problem.



"Our isotopic analysis showed that this methane is geologic in origin and is released as the glacier retreats and glacial meltwater flushes through fractures in the rock." 



Interestingly, the source of this methane was not microbial activity beneath the ice, which had been suspected in research in other glacial settings.



Instead, the methane originated from ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/knipovich-ridge-new-hydrothermal-field-arctic-intense-geological-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geological formations</a>, and had been trapped in the region for millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-and-glacial-fracking">Methane and "glacial fracking"</h2>



The further the researchers ventured into their investigation, the more they discovered about the role of glaciers in methane emissions. 



The scientists have likened the process to a natural form of fracking, coining the term "glacial fracking" to describe this phenomenon, whereby the glaciers essentially act as colossal covers that bury methane under the ground. 



However, as they melt, the water flushes the gas through cracks in the bedrock, ushering the methane above ground and into the atmosphere.



This process is not limited to just one glacier. 



The researchers estimated that similar mechanisms could be in effect at hundreds of other glaciers across Svalbard, with over 1,400 land-terminating glaciers situated on the archipelago, many of which overlie methane-rich bedrock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-feedback-loop">Climate feedback loop</h2>



The implications of this research extend far beyond Svalbard as well, to the broader Arctic region and, indeed, the whole planet.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-warming-four-times-faster-than-global-average/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic is experiencing warming</a> at a rate four times the global average, and its glaciers are retreating at an alarming pace.



As they shrink, more methane could be released, setting up what scientists call a positive feedback loop, where warming accelerates glacial melting, setting free more methane, which then intensifies warming and further melting.



"Methane is a much more powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> than carbon dioxide over short timescales. Even though these emissions are seasonal, they could add up as more glaciers retreat," warned the research team, emphasizing the potential global climate repercussions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-glaciers-and-methane">What's next for glaciers and methane?</h2>



These findings highlight the importance of understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-waters-are-emitting-more-carbon-as-they-continue-to-warm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic carbon cycle</a> and the impact climate change has on it. 



Future research will aim to reassess methane budgets in the Arctic, incorporating glacial emissions alongside permafrost thaw and wetland methane fluxes. 



While this study represents a significant first step, more research is needed in order to discern the full scale of the problem.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/22/659/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biogeosciences</a>.



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Massive new source of leaking methane gas emissions discovered

These frozen bubbles of methane gas are eerily beautiful, but...

Nature’s fury is most vividly displayed in hurricanes - powerful storms that can devastate coastal communities. As climate patterns shift and environmental changes accelerate, these storms pose an increasing threat.



Effective forecasting and preparedness remain critical tools to safeguard vulnerable populations, infrastructure, and economies from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-next-big-solar-storm-could-plunge-us-into-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">devastating impacts</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hurricane-activity-is-set-to-increase">Hurricane activity is set to increase</h2>



A recent study from the University of Reading concludes that hurricanes will strengthen and become more frequent in the Atlantic and the eastern Pacific within the next decade.



The coasts of North and Central America, which have already experienced severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hurricane-helene-a-glimpse-into-the-future-of-natural-disasters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather conditions</a>, must prepare to face more dangers. This means that accurate long-term forecasts are essential for timely precautionary measures.



Using sophisticated forecasting computer programs developed by the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Met Office</a>, scientists were able to successfully predict hurricane activity ten years ahead. The findings indicate tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic would be over twice that of the 1970s.



At the same time, hurricane counts in the eastern Pacific would increase by over a third, leading to a dramatic surge in storm threats to coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storm-energy-will-double">Storm energy will double</h2>



Apart from frequency, the researchers indicated an increase in the total storm energy predicted. Storm energy, with consideration to frequency, intensity, and hurricane duration, captures the full view of hurricane risks. 



The experts predict that storm energy in the North Atlantic will double compared to the 1970s, creating more powerful and devastating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-amplified-hurricane-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a>.



Paul-Arthur Monerie, the lead scientist at the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>'s National Centre for Atmospheric Science, emphasized the value of enhanced forecasting.



"Until now, hurricane predictions have been like trying to see through a dense fog as we could only make out what was directly ahead of us," he noted.



"Better forecasting clears that fog away, revealing patterns years into the future. This advancement gives coastal communities precious time to prepare. Our study shows hurricane activity is set to increase through 2030, giving everyone more time to prepare and protect themselves."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warmer-oceans-fuel-hurricane-activity">Warmer oceans fuel hurricane activity</h2>



The researchers approached the study in a direct fashion by monitoring specific hurricanes through climate model simulations.



Previous long-range hurricane prediction relied on indirect measures like sea surface temperature or atmospheric pressure trends. Real-time storm monitoring maximizes precision and offers valuable data regarding impending hurricane <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-cities-are-increasingly-vulnerable-to-hurricanes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



Higher ocean surface temperatures, particularly in the Atlantic, are driving the increase in hurricane activity. Higher temperatures provide the additional energy needed for storms to form and intensify.



With warmer ocean water, the hurricanes intensify faster and produce more powerful and destructive storms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-winds-and-coastal-infrastructure">Changing winds and coastal infrastructure</h2>



Another important factor in the projected rise in hurricane activity is changing atmospheric wind patterns. Variations in wind speed and direction at different altitudes of the atmosphere are conducive to the formation and strengthening of hurricanes.



Changes in the atmosphere are governed by natural climate variability and longer-term climate trends associated with global warming.



The projected increase in hurricane activity poses catastrophic threats to coastal infrastructure. Greater storm intensity and frequency have the potential to result in widespread damage to homes, roads, power lines, and critical services.



Planned infrastructure adaptation, including resilient building techniques and enhanced drainage, will increasingly play a vital role in reducing future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-hurricanes-are-intensifying-faster-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storm effects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emergency-management-strategies">Emergency management strategies </h2>



Societies exposed to heightened hurricane threats need to enhance their emergency management strategies. 



This involves well-established evacuation procedures, strong emergency communication systems, and comprehensive public education campaigns.



Proper management and preparedness can significantly minimize casualties and economic losses despite heightened hurricane threats. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-immediate-action">Call for immediate action</h2>



The research offers valuable information to communities to inform planning. Long-term forecasts enable communities to establish metrics for improving resilience and reducing damage.



Integrating science research into community planning enables local governments to manage and reduce hurricane hazards. 



With the urgent forecasts, governments, policymakers, and communities should take immediate action. Investments must be made in disaster preparedness, climate resilience, and adaptation.



With reliable forecasting now serving as unmistakable warning, communities have a rare opportunity to anticipate and prepare to safeguard themselves from increasingly menacing hurricane and storm threats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-025-00919-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Climate and Atmospheric Science</a>.



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How hurricane activity will change over the next decade

Nature’s fury is most vividly displayed in hurricanes - powerful...

A newly identified version of a gene in the human genome appears to have influenced our capacity for complex speech, distinguishing our species from close relatives like Neanderthals and Denisovans.&nbsp;



This finding could help explain why Homo sapiens alone developed sophisticated language, an ability that underpins much of our culture and technology.



A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rockefeller University</a> has pinpointed a particular protein variant - found only in modern humans - that alters vocalization.&nbsp;



When introduced into mice, this version of a gene called NOVA1 changed the ultrasonic calls the animals produce, hinting at its potential role in the evolutionary roots of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human speech</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-behind-complex-speech">Genetics behind complex speech</h2>



Modern humans have long been known to possess numerous adaptations in their anatomy and nervous system that enable speech, including specialized vocal tracts and brain regions devoted to language processing. Yet the genetics behind this capacity remains poorly understood.&nbsp;



One candidate gene, FOXP2, has been linked to speech and language disorders in people, but evidence suggests <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-evolution-was-more-complex-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> also possessed the same FOXP2 variant - leaving open questions about what truly sets humans apart.



The team behind the current study focused on NOVA1, first identified in the early 1990s for its essential contribution to brain function.&nbsp;



“Such changes may have played important roles in the acquisition of characteristics that have contributed to the emergence, expansion, and survival of Homo sapiens,” said first author Yoko Tajima, a postdoctoral associate at Rockefeller University.&nbsp;



Researchers have found that variants of NOVA1 are associated with language and motor difficulties, underlining the gene’s profound influence on neural development.



Unlike the versions of NOVA1 that appear in other mammals, birds, and even archaic humans, the form carried by modern humans contains a single amino acid substitution referred to as I197V. This difference, though seemingly small, may have had outsized consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surprising-twist-nbsp">A surprising twist&nbsp;</h2>



To explore the functional impact of I197V, scientists used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR editing</a> to replace the standard NOVA1 gene in mice with the human-specific variant. They then examined how this change altered the animals’ brain activity.&nbsp;



Initially, there was no detectable shift in the genes responsible for motor control or overall neural development - implying the mice developed normally in most respects.



Soon, however, a critical clue emerged: many of the transcripts affected by the human NOVA1 variant were tied to vocalization.&nbsp;



Study leader Robert B. Darnell is head of the Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology at Rockefeller.&nbsp;



“We found that when we ‘transliterated’ the squeaks made by mice with the human-specific I197V variant, they were different from those of the wild-type mice. Some of the ‘letters’ had changed,” said Darnell. “It was one of those really surprising moments in science.”



When the team tested how adult male mice “spoke” to female mice during mating attempts, they discovered that the engineered mice produced distinct vocal patterns.&nbsp;



“They ‘talked’ differently to the female mice,” Darnell noted. “One can imagine how such changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baleen-whales-cannot-escape-human-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocalization</a> could have a profound impact on evolution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-archaic-humans-and-complex-speech">Archaic humans and complex speech</h2>



To determine whether this genetic alteration was unique to Homo sapiens, the researchers compared modern human NOVA1 to the genomes of Neanderthals and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-denisovan-species-humans-lived-undisturbed-tibetan-plateau-160000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Denisovans</a>, human relatives who lived tens of thousands of years ago.&nbsp;



Both archaic lineages possessed the older NOVA1 form seen in other species - lacking the I197V substitution. A further check of over 650,000 modern human genomes revealed that nearly everyone carries the I197V version of NOVA1, solidifying its status as a widespread and defining feature of our species.



“This gene is part of a sweeping evolutionary change in early modern humans and hints at potential ancient origins of spoken language,” Darnell said. “NOVA1 may be a bona fide human ‘language gene,’ though certainly it’s only one of many human-specific genetic changes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While NOVA1’s impact on speech is not yet fully understood, these findings open important research paths. Future work could examine how this human-specific variant contributes to developmental disorders, including those affecting language.&nbsp;



“Our discovery could have clinical relevance in many ways, ranging from developmental disorders to neurodegenerative disease,” Darnell said.



NOVA1’s neural pathways might help explain why some conditions prevent speech or hamper vocal communication.&nbsp;



The gene has been associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-diagnoses-have-almost-tripled-in-the-us-over-the-past-ten-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autism</a> spectrum disorder, and earlier studies from the same group reported a patient with mutations in NOVA1 who presented speech delays, among other neurological issues. Investigating how I197V influences brain circuitry could yield insights into such disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-and-human-uniqueness">Language and human uniqueness</h2>



The capacity for complex speech, coupled with advanced cognitive functions, has propelled humans to remarkable achievements - from passing down knowledge orally to building global civilizations. 



This study highlights that our linguistic edge may be rooted in subtle but pivotal genetic differences - differences that evolved after our lineage diverged from archaic humans.



Though the NOVA1 variant alone does not explain why humans can speak while other hominids could not, it highlights one of the many genetic innovations underlying our species’ linguistic abilities.&nbsp;



With further work, scientists hope to piece together more of the molecular puzzle behind language, offering a glimpse into what truly made Homo sapiens the world’s great storytellers.



The study is published in the journal Nature Communications.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-oncology at The Rockefeller University



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How did humans start talking? Scientists may have found the answer

A newly identified version of a gene in the human...

A new study has revealed that wild fish can recognize and follow specific human divers, distinguishing between individuals based on visual cues such as colors on wetsuits and gear.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that fish, like some other animals, may form differentiated relationships with humans, challenging long-standing assumptions about their cognitive abilities.



The research was conducted by scientists at the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> (MPI-AB) in Germany. It builds on years of anecdotal observations from scientific divers who noticed that local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-can-recognize-themselves-in-the-mirror/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> in the Mediterranean would follow and steal food from the same divers, while ignoring others.&nbsp;



“Nobody has ever asked whether wild fish have the capacity, or indeed motivation, to recognize us when we enter their underwater world,” said Maëlan Tomasek, a doctoral student at MPI-AB and the <a href="https://www.uca.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Clermont Auvergne</a>, France.



Now, the researchers have confirmed that fish do recognize individual humans - and more than that, they remember which ones provide rewards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wild-fish-learn-to-identify-divers">Wild fish learn to identify divers</h2>



The study took place at a research site eight meters underwater in the Mediterranean Sea, where fish have become accustomed to the presence of scientists. Unlike lab experiments, the tests were conducted in the open sea, meaning fish were free to participate or leave at any time.



Katinka Soller, a bachelor student at MPI-AB and co-first author of the study, designed the training phase to test whether wild fish could learn to follow an individual diver. Wearing a bright red vest, she swam a set 50-meter route while feeding the fish.&nbsp;



Over time, she gradually removed the red vest, concealed the food, and eventually wore only standard dive gear - yet the fish continued to follow her, anticipating a reward.



Two species of seabream were particularly eager participants. “Once I entered the water, it was a matter of seconds before I would see them swimming towards me, seemingly coming out of nowhere,” Soller said.&nbsp;



She soon recognized certain individuals who returned day after day and even gave them names, such as “Bernie” and “Alfie.”



After 12 days of training, about 20 fish were consistently following Soller on her swims, proving that they had learned to associate her with food. This set the stage for the next phase of the experiment: testing whether they could distinguish her from another diver.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-presenting-fish-with-a-second-diver-nbsp">Presenting fish with a second diver&nbsp;</h2>



To investigate whether the fish were following Soller specifically or simply any diver, the researchers introduced a second diver, Tomasek, who had different-colored gear.&nbsp;



The two divers started at the same point and swam in opposite directions. On the first day, the fish split evenly between them, unsure of whom to follow. "You could see them struggling to decide who to chase,” Soller said.



However, only Soller provided <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-show-distinct-personalities-when-foraging-for-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food</a>. By the second day, the fish overwhelmingly chose to follow her instead of Tomasek. To confirm that they were actively learning to recognize the divers, the researchers focused on six individual fish, four of which showed strong learning patterns over the experiment.



“This is a cool result because it shows that fish were not simply following Katinka out of habit or because other fish were there,” Tomasek explained. “They were conscious of both divers, testing each one, and learning that Katinka produced the reward at the end of the swim.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-fish-recognize-human-divers">How fish recognize human divers</h2>



To further investigate what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-cues-initiate-the-brains-decision-to-cooperate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visual cues</a> the fish were using to distinguish between divers, the team repeated the test - this time with both divers wearing identical wetsuits and fins. With no distinguishing features, the fish could no longer tell them apart.



For the researchers, this was strong evidence that the fish were associating specific colors or patterns on the divers' gear with food.&nbsp;



“Almost all fish have color vision, so it is not surprising that the seabream learned to associate the correct diver based on patches of color on the body,” Tomasek said.



This ability is similar to how human divers recognize one another underwater. “Faces are distorted by diving masks, so we usually rely on differences between wetsuits, fins, or other parts of the gear to recognize each other,” Soller noted.&nbsp;



With more time, the researchers believe the fish might have learned to recognize subtler details, such as hand shapes or body movements.



“We already observed them approaching our faces and scrutinizing our bodies,” Soller added. “It was like they were studying us, not the other way around.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-and-human-recognition">Fish and human recognition</h2>



This study supports anecdotal accounts of animals recognizing individual humans but goes further by providing controlled experimental evidence in a completely natural environment.&nbsp;



The ability to distinguish specific people suggests that fish may have more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-sizes-itself-up-in-a-mirror-before-going-into-combat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive abilities</a> than previously thought.



If wild fish can learn to recognize and follow certain individuals, it raises the possibility that pet fish - or even fish in other natural environments - use similar strategies to identify familiar humans.&nbsp;



Finding that wild fish can quickly learn to use specific cues to recognize individual divers suggests that many other fish species - our pets included - are able to recognize certain patterns to identify us.



Senior author Alex Jordan, who leads a research group at MPI-AB, finds the results unsurprising.&nbsp;



“It doesn’t come as a shock to me that these animals, which navigate a complex world and interact with myriad different species every minute, can recognize humans based on visual cues,” said Jordan.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“I suppose the most surprising thing is that we would be surprised they can. It suggests we might underestimate the capacities of our underwater cousins.”



Tomasek noted that it might be strange to think about humans sharing a bond with an animal like a fish that sits so far from us on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-group-of-snakes-has-a-new-evolutionary-tree/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary tree</a>, that we don’t intuitively understand.&nbsp;



“But human-animal relationships can overcome millions of years of evolutionary distance if we bother to pay attention. Now we know that they see us, it’s time for us to see them.”&nbsp;



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0558" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Wild fish and human divers: An unexpected bond

A new study has revealed that wild fish can recognize...

Generic drugs are often promoted as identical to their brand-name equivalents - cheaper, yet equally safe and effective. However, a recent study challenges this widely held belief.



Study co-author John Gray is a professor in The Ohio State University’s <a href="https://www.osu.edu/giving/explore/support-a-college/fisher-college-business" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fisher College of Business</a>. He pointed out that disparities in manufacturing standards exist worldwide.



“Drug manufacturing regulation, and therefore quality assurance practices, differ between emerging economies like India and advanced economies like the United States. Where generic drugs are manufactured can make a significant difference,” said Professor Gray.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-generic-drugs-from-the-u-s-and-india">Generic drugs from the U.S. and India</h2>



The researchers uncovered a concerning link. They discovered that users of generic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/americans-have-a-shocking-dependency-on-prescription-drugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drugs</a> manufactured in India reported substantially more "severe adverse events" than users of equivalents made in the United States.



These adverse events included instances of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hospitalization-rates-for-the-flu-and-covid-19-are-strikingly-similar-among-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hospitalization</a>, disability and, in a few tragic cases, even death.



George Ball is an associate professor of operations and decision technologies at Indiana University’s Kelley School of Business.



“The FDA assures the public that all generics patterned after the same original drug should be equivalently safe and effective, however, this is not necessarily the case when it comes to generic drugs made in India,” said Professor Ball.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-generic-drugs-to-their-factories">Tracing generic drugs to their factories </h2>



This study stands out not only for its findings but also for its exceptional methodology. Although the FDA was hesitant to disclose information about the manufacturing locations of the drugs, the researchers found a workaround. 



By leveraging the Structured Product Labeling dataset, they successfully traced the drugs back to their factories of origin.



“Overcoming this lack of transparency of drug manufacturing location is one of the major accomplishments of our study,” said Professor Gray.



To ensure a fair comparison, the researchers matched those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nanorobots-built-with-folded-dna-could-revolutionize-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medicines</a> made in India with identical drugs produced in the United States.



These drugs were perfectly alike in every measure – active ingredients, dosage form, and administration route. Therefore, it would be an accurate interpretation to say, they were comparing "apples to apples."



The study considered 2,443 drugs from the United States and emerging economies. Significantly, 93% of these generic drugs were Indian-made. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adverse-events-and-comparative-analysis">Adverse events and comparative analysis</h2>



The researchers used the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) to identify events reported for people using generic drugs from India and those using their matched counterparts that were manufactured in the United States. 



Only those reports listing the most severe outcomes like hospitalization, disability, and death were considered.



The number of severe adverse events associated with the use of generic drugs manufactured in India was 54% higher than the number for equivalent generic drugs that were manufactured in the United States.



The results were largely driven by drugs that have been on the market for longer. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daily-dose-finasteride-magic-pill-regrows-hair-heals-prostate-boosts-heart-health/">Older drugs</a> were often found to have poorer quality.



“In the pharmaceutical industry, the older drugs get cheaper and cheaper and the competition gets more intense to hold down costs. That may result in operations and supply chain issues that can compromise drug quality,” explained Professor Gray.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loopholes-in-the-inspection-process">Loopholes in the inspection process </h2>



Despite these findings, the researchers caution against interpreting the results as a blanket indictment of offshore drug production.



“There are good manufacturers in India, there are bad manufacturers in the U.S., and we’re not advocating for ending offshore production of drugs or bashing India in any way. We believe this is a regulatory oversight issue that can be improved,” explained Professor Gray.



One of the major regulatory loopholes lies in the inspection process of these plants. While inspections of U.S.-based plants are unannounced, those in overseas locations such as India are prearranged.



This potential loophole may allow manufacturers to conceal problems, making it harder for the FDA to detect these issues. 



Professor Gray suggested that making all inspections unannounced, worldwide, could significantly improve the situation. He also called for product labeling to give information about the country of manufacture.



"A key recommendation we make in this study is for the FDA to make drug manufacturing location, such as the country of manufacture, and drug quality, transparent for consumers. This can help create a market in which drug quality is incentivized more than it is today,” concluded Professor Ball.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/10591478251319691" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Production and Operations Management</a>.



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Generic drugs are not created equal, and a new study reveals why

Generic drugs are often promoted as identical to their brand-name...

Fossils newly unearthed in southeastern Australia have upended long-held assumptions about dinosaur evolution, revealing the world’s oldest known megaraptorid and the first confirmed evidence of carcharodontosaurs on the continent.&nbsp;



These discoveries paint a vivid picture of an unusual predator hierarchy that once roamed the region during the Early Cretaceous, adding a crucial piece to the puzzle of dinosaur history.



The research was carried out by a team led by <a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/research-institute/">Museums Victoria Research Institute</a> and <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a> PhD student Jake Kotevski.&nbsp;



The study focused on five <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/">theropod</a> fossils found along Victoria’s coastline. They were collected in the upper Strzelecki (Bass Coast, dating back roughly 121.4–118 million years) and the Eumeralla Formation (Otway Coast, about 113–108 million years old).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-thriving-in-australia-nbsp">Dinosaurs thriving in Australia&nbsp;</h2>



The newly studied remains suggest an unexpected arrangement of carnivorous dinosaurs. They indicate that large megaraptorids - measuring between six and seven meters long - coexisted alongside smaller carcharodontosaurs that reached only two to four meters in length, as well as the agile, meter-long unenlagiines (nicknamed “southern raptors”). 



This stands in stark contrast to better-known ecosystems where carcharodontosaurs typically surpassed other predatory dinosaurs in size.



“The discovery of carcharodontosaurs in Australia is groundbreaking,” Kotevski said. “It’s fascinating to see how Victoria’s predator hierarchy diverged from South America, where carcharodontosaurs reached <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>-like sizes up to 13 metres, towering over megaraptorids. Here, the roles were reversed, highlighting the uniqueness of Australia’s Cretaceous ecosystem.”



Two of the newly identified fossils rank among the earliest megaraptorids known worldwide, prompting experts to reconsider their evolutionary timeline.&nbsp;



Because these megaraptorids thrived in Australia at such an early date, they may have played a more pivotal role in Gondwanan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/">predator</a> communities than previously recognized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-clues-about-dinosaur-migration-nbsp">New clues about dinosaur migration&nbsp;</h2>



According to Dr. Thomas Rich, senior curator of vertebrate palaeontology at Museums Victoria Research Institute, the fossils also hint at broader patterns of dinosaur dispersal in the Southern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



He noted that the findings not only expand Australia’s theropod fossil record but offer compelling evidence of faunal interchange between Australia and South America through Antarctica during the Early Cretaceous.&nbsp;



“The findings also challenge previous assumptions about body-size hierarchies in Gondwanan predator ecosystems highlighting Victoria’s unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-dinosaur-fossils-discovered-from-the-end-of-cretaceous-era/">Cretaceous</a> fauna,” xplained Dr. Rich.



These links to other Gondwanan regions bolster the theory that dinosaurs and other animals migrated between connected landmasses before shifting continents isolated certain populations.&nbsp;



Over time, such isolation could have led to distinct paths of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/">evolutionary development</a>, explaining why Australian megaraptorids, rather than carcharodontosaurs, occupied the apex predator niche.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-museum-collections">Significance of museum collections </h2>



Beyond revealing hidden chapters of Australia’s dinosaur history, the study demonstrates the significance of museum collections in fueling new scientific breakthroughs. 



Researchers often depend on carefully preserved fossils that can remain unclassified for decades, awaiting fresh analytical methods or new comparative specimens before their true importance is revealed.



“Museum collections are crucial to advancing our understanding of prehistoric life,” said Tim Ziegler, the vertebrate palaeontology collection manager at Museums Victoria Research Institute.&nbsp;



“Specimens preserved in the State Collection for decades - unidentifiable until now - are providing new insights into the evolution of dinosaur ecosystems.”



The project also illustrates a longstanding tradition of mentorship, continuity, and collaboration among palaeontologists. Senior curator Dr. Rich, at Museums Victoria since 1974, has worked with multiple generations of researchers.&nbsp;



These efforts culminate in cutting-edge studies like Kotevski’s PhD research, forming a chain of inquiry that steadily advances what we know about ancient life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volunteers-in-the-field">Volunteers in the field</h2>



Three of the fossils in this study were first identified between 2022 and 2023 by a Museums Victoria volunteer, Melissa Lowery, demonstrating the critical role that community members play in paleontology.&nbsp;



With an eye for intriguing shapes and textures, volunteers often detect clues that lead to major discoveries.



Kotevski and his colleagues continue to search for additional remains at key sites, including the location where the large megaraptorid was found.&nbsp;



These expeditions form part of the long-running <a href="http://dinosaurdreaming.monash.edu/">Dinosaur Dreaming project</a>, responsible for uncovering over 10,000 fossils - from dinosaurs and birds to mammals and marine reptiles - since it began.&nbsp;



Each new bone or tooth refines scientists’ understanding of the richly varied ecosystems that existed on Australia’s ancient coastlines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-of-cretaceous-australia">Dinosaurs of Cretaceous Australia</h2>



Unusual for reversing the roles typically observed in other continents, Victoria’s predator lineage helps paleontologists envision a world where megaraptorids reigned supreme while smaller carcharodontosaurs prowled in their shadow.&nbsp;



By confirming that early megaraptorids inhabited the region and that carcharodontosaurs were present yet less dominant, these fossils challenge orthodox views on predator size hierarchies and evolutionary pathways within Gondwana.



As fieldwork continues, each new fragment of bone has the potential to reshape our perspective on how dinosaurs spread across the prehistoric southern supercontinent, adapted to different environments, and carved out ecological niches.&nbsp;



Together, the fossils detail a singular evolutionary story that sets Cretaceous Australia apart, forever changing how we see the era’s predatory power dynamics - and offering fresh directions for future discoveries.



Image Credit: Artwork by Jonathan Metzger. Source: Museums Victoria



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Fossils discovered in Australia rewrite dinosaur history

Fossils newly unearthed in southeastern Australia have upended long-held assumptions...

Male fruit flies buzzing around in a small, contained arena sounds like a pretty ordinary science experiment. Yet one group of researchers noticed something unusual about how some of them reacted to a spinning disk.



They observed that while many flies stayed away from the disk, a select few hopped onto it and stayed for surprising amounts of time. 



<a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/2253355" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Wolf Huetteroth</a> from the <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leipzig</a> notes that these findings could open new questions about how body awareness develops in living creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-spin-with-purpose">Flies spin with purpose</h2>



Many people think of fruit flies as tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> flitting around fruit bowls. Yet a recent study suggests that they might show optional behavior patterns that fit the definition of play. This observation challenges old assumptions about insects.



“Using several carousels, we generated and analyzed a total of around seven years of film data,” says Dr. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tilman-Triphan" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tilman Triphan</a>, the first author of the study. 



Researchers used several rotating platforms placed under a thin glass cover. Some flies dashed to the edge, but others returned to the carousel again and again.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-preferences">Individual preferences</h2>



A fraction of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> sought the disk and rode it in repeated sessions. Those individuals spent extended periods on the spinner, while their peers avoided it altogether. The behavior looked deliberate, rather than forced or random.



One aspect was the difference in how these seekers got onto the spinning surface. 



“However, we were able to distinguish whether the flies had deliberately walked onto the carousel or jumped onto it in an uncoordinated way. This allowed us to show that unplanned visits to the carousel were rather atypical for the playing flies,” says co-author <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/our-staff/f/clara-ferreira/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Clara H. Ferreira</a>, an assistant Professor at <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northumbria University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-value-of-body-sense">Possible value of body sense</h2>



The repeated interaction with the moving disk seems to involve <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00048.2011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proprioceptive feedback</a>, which refers to the body’s sense of position and motion.



If some flies are actively seeking the extra sensation, it might be fulfilling a hidden benefit. This is reminiscent of how certain mammals, like <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9861614/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a>, engage in rough-and-tumble routines that refine their coordination.



Some insects ended up swapping mealtime for more spins on the carousel. That trade-off hints at a possible reward gained from the turning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-develop-waxy-coating-to-withstand-warmer-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motion</a>. 



The interesting part is that these insects showed no direct advantage other than what seems to be playful amusement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-spin-by-choice-not-force">Flies spin by choice, not force</h2>



Natural curiosity is often observed in higher animals, but insects rarely get credit for it. 



Here, the setting was calm, with continuous observation over days to capture genuine conduct. There were no artificial triggers that forced the flies onto the disk.



The team set up the environment to ensure no threat forced the flies to remain. If the spinning platform caused anxiety, they could easily walk away. 



Instead, some made a personal choice to return. This self-directed action adds weight to the suggestion of a real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-are-more-vulnerable-to-climate-change-than-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">playful attitude</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-it-matter-for-humans">Why does it matter for humans?</h2>



“This could help us to find out how we humans also develop efficient self-awareness of our bodies,” says Huetteroth. 



The clue lies in how the spinning motion may sharpen the brain’s ability to map physical space. Because the flies appear to seek out extra movement, they might be training themselves to adapt and respond to unexpected motion.



Similar responses appear in many species that enjoy roller coasters or spinning rides. Researchers believe the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-brain-connects-unrelated-concepts-through-reasoning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain learns</a> from these experiences, reinforcing internal models of balance and orientation.



If a small insect displays a version of this, it might show that the drive to engage in such activity evolved long ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-spin-despite-easy-alternatives">Flies spin despite easy alternatives</h2>



The flies had easy access to food and water. They also had corners to rest without interruption. Despite these calmer options, some crawled over for a spin. 



That behavior did not enhance survival, which points toward a motivational factor besides hunger or fear.



Scientists have used <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5787388/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">open-field tests</a> to measure caution or stress in animals. 



Usually, creatures stay near edges when anxious. The carousel-seeking flies, however, went to the center and stayed. This breaks usual fear-driven patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



So far, scientists have only glimpsed how fruit flies pick between exploration, feeding, and spinning. The genetic tools available in fruit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemicals-are-changing-insects-in-subtle-yet-deadly-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> might shine more light on the neural wiring behind this playful bent. 



Perhaps targeted genetic studies will uncover exactly which circuits reward them for spinning.



In time, deeper understanding could reveal ways that controlled motion shapes a creature’s internal map. 



That concept might prove relevant to other animals, including humans learning how to handle complex movement or interactive environments.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00055-7?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225000557%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Flies like to play and have fun like other animals, according to a fascinating new study

Male fruit flies buzzing around in a small, contained arena...

Scientists have devised an affordable way to permanently remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by converting common minerals into highly reactive substances that spontaneously lock away CO2. 



This breakthrough could play a critical role in curbing global warming by addressing one of its primary causes.



The new technique was developed by chemists at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> Matthew Kanan, a professor of chemistry and senior author of the paper, explained the motivation behind the carbon capture research.



“The Earth has an inexhaustible supply of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinas-rare-earth-jackpot-1-15-million-tons-of-minerals-uncovered/">minerals</a> that are capable of removing CO2 from the atmosphere, but they just don’t react fast enough on their own to counteract human greenhouse gas emissions. Our work solves this problem in a way that we think is uniquely scalable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-carbon-removal-with-new-chemistry">Rapid carbon removal with new chemistry </h2>



In nature, silicate minerals gradually bind with CO2 through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-rock-weathering-is-a-co2-source-comparable-to-volcanoes/">weathering</a>, forming stable carbonates over hundreds or thousands of years.&nbsp;



Researchers worldwide have long sought methods to accelerate this slow process, often referred to as enhanced weathering. 



Kanan and Stanford postdoctoral scholar Yuxuan Chen found a way to make silicates rapidly absorb carbon, thanks to what Chen describes as a “new chemistry.”



“We envisioned a new chemistry to activate the inert silicate minerals through a simple ion-exchange reaction,” said Chen, who led the lab work. “We didn’t expect that it would work as well as it does.”



By speeding up mineral reactions that would otherwise unfold over centuries, this approach has the potential to remove significant amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/">carbon dioxide</a> from the air in a fraction of the time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-efficient-mineral-transformation">More efficient mineral transformation</h2>



Existing carbon removal strategies - such as direct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capturing-carbon-directly-from-the-air-is-now-much-more-efficient-thanks-to-new-material/">air capture</a> - often rely on energy-intensive equipment, including large fans, chemicals, and other methods to filter out CO2. They can be both costly and difficult to scale. In contrast, the Stanford scientists point to the energy savings of their approach.



“Our process would require less than half the energy used by leading direct air capture technologies, and we think we can be very competitive from a cost point of view,” said Kanan, who is also a senior fellow at the <a href="https://energy.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Precourt Institute for Energy</a> in the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability.



In their experiments, the team heated limestone (calcium carbonate) in a kiln to produce calcium oxide, then combined this material with silicate minerals containing magnesium.&nbsp;



When the two substances were heated together, they exchanged ions and yielded magnesium oxide and calcium silicate - both of which readily take up carbon from the air.



“The process acts as a multiplier,” Kanan noted. “You take one reactive mineral, calcium oxide, and a magnesium silicate that is more or less inert, and you generate two reactive minerals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trapping-carbon-with-simple-chemistry">Trapping carbon with simple chemistry </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-crack-resistant-cement-material-inspired-by-nature/">Cement</a> manufacturers have used kilns for centuries, processing limestone at high temperatures to create key ingredients for concrete. The Stanford method adapts this time-tested approach but substitutes part of the cement mixture with magnesium silicates.



When these newly formed minerals are exposed to water and carbon dioxide - even at the relatively low concentrations found in ambient air - they spontaneously convert CO2 into stable carbonates.&nbsp;



Laboratory tests showed that wet samples of magnesium oxide and calcium silicate could trap carbon in weeks to months, far outpacing natural weathering.



“You can imagine spreading magnesium oxide and calcium silicate over large land areas to remove CO2 from ambient air,” Kanan said.&nbsp;



“One exciting application that we’re testing now is adding them to agricultural soil. As they weather, the minerals transform into bicarbonates that can move through the soil and end up permanently stored in the ocean.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-benefits-for-farmers">Potential benefits for farmers</h2>



Soil treatments commonly include calcium carbonate (lime) to raise pH when it is too acidic. In principle, farmers could switch to these new reactive minerals instead of conventional lime.&nbsp;



“Adding our product would eliminate the need for liming, since both mineral components are alkaline,” Kanan explained.&nbsp;



“In addition, as calcium silicate weathers, it releases silicon to the soil in a form that the plants can take up, which can improve crop yields and resilience. Ideally, farmers would pay for these minerals because they’re beneficial to farm productivity and the health of the soil - and as a bonus, there’s the carbon removal.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-up-for-global-impact">Scaling up for global impact</h2>



According to Kanan’s team, ramping up production to a meaningful scale would require converting millions of tons of silicate minerals each year.&nbsp;



“Each year, more than 400 million tons of mine tailings with suitable silicates are generated worldwide, providing a potentially large source of raw material,” Chen said.&nbsp;



“It’s estimated that there are more than 100,000 gigatons of olivine and serpentine reserves on Earth, enough to permanently remove far more CO2 than humans have ever emitted.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-carbon-solution">Nature's carbon solution</h2>



After factoring in emissions from heating kilns using natural gas or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biofuels-may-eliminate-90-of-black-smoke-emissions-from-cars/">biofuel</a>, the researchers estimate that each ton of their final material can remove one ton of CO2 from the atmosphere.&nbsp;



For context, fossil fuel emissions of carbon dioxide surpassed 37 billion tons in 2024, demonstrating the pressing need for large-scale solutions.



“Society has already figured out how to produce billions of tons of cement per year, and cement kilns run for decades,” Kanan said. “If we use those learnings and designs, there is a clear path for how to go from lab discovery to carbon removal on a meaningful scale.”



Work is also underway to develop electric-powered kilns in collaboration with electrical engineering associate professor Jonathan Fan. 



If successful, this innovation could reduce or eliminate the carbon footprint of the heating process, further boosting the climate benefits.



By combining well-established industrial methods with a novel chemical reaction, this approach could offer a promising and relatively low-cost way to draw down billions of tons of CO2 from the atmosphere - and help mitigate the accelerating effects of climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08499-2">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: Renhour48 via Wikimedia



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Common rocks turned into great carbon trappers with new technology

Scientists have devised an affordable way to permanently remove carbon...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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