When you look at a forest, the variety of trees you see above ground is only part of the story. Beneath the soil, vast networks of fungi influence which trees thrive, which coexist, and how forests respond to the challenges of climate and geography.



A new study led by researchers from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> and <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/">Peking University</a> has revealed how these underground fungal allies shape tree diversity across the globe. Their influence varies depending on latitude, moisture, and environmental stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-hidden-beneath-forests">Fungi hidden beneath forests</h2>



Jingjing Liang, an associate professor of quantitative forest ecology at Purdue, co-led the study with Zhiheng Wang from Peking University.



“What we can see above ground is governed to a large extent by what is happening belowground,” said Liang.



The experts analyzed data from over 442,000 forest plots worldwide and focused on two main groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/">mycorrhizal fungi</a>: ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. 



Both form partnerships with tree roots, trading nutrients for carbohydrates, but they do so in different ways that profoundly influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">forest diversity</a>.



“The loss in tree species diversity may damage the ecosystem services provided by forests," Wang said. "Understanding the mechanisms driving the maintenance of tree species forest diversity is fundamental for the conservation of tree species diversity.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-forest-diversity-puzzle">Solving a forest diversity puzzle</h2>



For years, scientists have debated how fungal partnerships impact tree species diversity, proposing three competing hypotheses. This comprehensive global study found that all three are valid, depending on environmental context.



“Our findings reconcile inconsistencies regarding how mycorrhizal symbiosis influences tree species diversity,” Wang said.



Using precise forest inventory data collected worldwide, the team applied advanced statistical methods to filter noise from complex ecological data, revealing hidden patterns.



“With this data, we were able to very accurately capture this relationship between different types of mycorrhizal fungi and forest tree species diversity,” Liang explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-effects-shift-with-climate">Fungal effects shift with climate</h2>



<a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> ecologist Peter Reich, a senior co-author, highlighted the value of the study’s comprehensive approach. 



“This insight would have been impossible to detect without the comprehensiveness of this dataset, which allows us to test across large gradients of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-temperature-in-66-of-tropical-forests/">temperature</a>, moisture, and latitude,” he said.



Reich explained that ectomycorrhizal fungi often dominate in cold, nutrient-poor regions that naturally have fewer tree species. Without a broad dataset, this dominance could obscure the fungi’s more nuanced effects.



“But by being able to tease apart temperature and moisture, we can see that when conditions are generally good," he said. "The more abundant the ectomycorrhizal are, the more they do to reduce tree richness.”



The process is complex. While dominant tree species naturally suppress less competitive species, root <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/">pathogens</a> usually check the dominance, allowing diversity. 



Ectomycorrhizal fungi suppress these pathogens, enabling dominant trees to thrive unchecked, which can reduce species diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harder-climates-stronger-alliances">Harder climates, stronger alliances</h2>



The study also found that under stressful conditions - such as low moisture or cold climates - the combination of both fungal types fosters greater diversity.



In these environments, resource-sharing partnerships help more tree species survive, while pathogen suppression plays a smaller role.



“Both ways of influencing tree diversity are real, but their relative balance and magnitude of impacts vary with environmental context,” Reich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-forests-from-below">Healing forests from below</h2>



Liang emphasized that understanding the hidden fungal networks in forests is akin to treating a patient holistically. 



“We should not just look at the surface symptoms. We should look deep down, literally to the roots of the problems, and that is belowground mutualism,” he said.



This work, supported by the <a href="https://www.gfbinitiative.org/">Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative</a> and its Science-i platform, demonstrates how global collaborations can untangle complex ecological questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-conservation-and-fungal-networks">Forest conservation and fungal networks</h2>



The findings open pathways for further research: How do these underground alliances affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/">carbon storage</a> in forests? Can fostering specific fungal partnerships enhance forest resilience in a changing climate?



&nbsp;“And what can we do to enhance the health of our forest ecosystem by not just seeing what is on the surface, but what is belowground?” Liang asked.



By revealing the profound influence of underground fungal networks on forest diversity, this research underscores that the key to healthier forests - and perhaps a healthier planet - may lie hidden beneath our feet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt5743">Science Advances</a>.



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How an invisible fungal alliance helps forests thrive

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees you see above ground is only part of the story. Beneath the soil, vast networks of fungi influence which trees thrive, which coexist, and how forests respond to the challenges of climate and geography. A new study led by researchers from Purdue University and Peking University has revealed how these underground fungal allies shape tree diversity across the globe. Their influence varies depending on latitude, moisture, and environmental stress. Fungi hidden beneath forests Jingjing Liang, an associate...

A large variety of animal species eat fruit – from toucans and fruit bats to maned wolves and humans. However, most fruit-bearing plants evolved relatively recent in our planet’s history, during the Cretaceous Period (145.5 to 65.5 million years ago). Now, by comparing the skull shapes and stomach contents of fossil birds, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> has tracked down the first fossil evidence of fruit consumption. They found that the earliest-known fruit-eating animal was a long-tailed, raven-sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-severely-impact-birds-by-2080/">bird</a> called Jeholornis, which lived 120 million years ago. According to the experts, this bird may have helped contribute to the spread of plants that dominate the world today.



“This is the oldest evidence of fruit-eating in any animal,” said study co-author Jingmai O’Connor, an associate curator of fossil reptiles at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> in Chicago. “Fruits are an incredible resource that everybody’s familiar with, and the plants that produce them are everywhere, but it wasn’t always that way. This discovery about how and when birds started exploiting this resource could help explain why these kinds of plants are so dominant in our landscape today.”



According to O’Connor, the fist Jeholornis fossil – described in 2002 – had plant remains scattered around it, as if they exploded out of its stomach cavity. At the beginning, researchers thought these were only seed and argued that the bird was feeding on seeds, rather than whole fruits. However, by examining dozens of Jeholornis specimens preserved at the <a href="http://www.tynhm.com/">Shandong Tianyu Museum of Nature</a> in China, the scientists discovered that, although the birds had more traits similar to dinosaurs than to modern birds, some features of their mouths and beaks – such as reduced teeth – could potentially hint at a “modern” diet including fruit.



Moreover, since birds which eat seeds have a “gastric mill” consisting of gizzard stones in their stomachs – which they ingest to help them crush seeds - the researchers examined also the stomach cavities of the fossils. The analysis revealed that, while some Jeholornis had gizzard stones, and others preserved seed in their stomachs, no specimen with both of these features was found. This suggests that the bird was eating different types of foods at different times of the year, including fruits when available. “Birds can drastically change the proportions of their digestive system to adapt to whatever their diet is for a particular season,” O’Connor explained. “This is the first evidence of that plasticity in dinosaurs.”&nbsp;



Thus, not only was Jeholornis the first known fruit-eating animal, but it may also have contributed to the evolution of the first fruit-producing plants. “Birds may have been recruited for seed dispersal during their earliest evolutionary stages,” said study lead author Han Hu, an expert in Paleobiology at Oxford. “As highly-mobile seed dispersers, early frugivorous birds might therefore indicate a potential role of bird-plant interactions during the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution.”



“Our research will hopefully inspire the research of paleontologists, ecologists, zoologists, and botanists who are interested in bird ecology, trophic interactions, and the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.74751">eLife</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

First fruit-eating animal in Earth’s history identified

A large variety of animal species eat fruit – from...

Scientists have long observed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-everywhere/">fungi</a> come in an assortment of shapes and sizes. However, these differences – referred to in the scientific community as the “disparity” of a group – had never been thoroughly analyzed. Now, a research team from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has found that the vast anatomical variety of fungi stems from evolutionary bursts in multicellular complexity.



“Prior to our analyses, we didn’t know how this variety was distributed across the different types of fungi,” said study lead author Thomas Smith, who conducted the research while at Bristol’s&nbsp;<a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/earthsciences/">School of Earth Sciences</a>. “Which groups are the most varied when considering all parts of the fungal body plan? Which are the least? How has this variety accumulated and diminished through time? What has shaped these patterns in disparity? These are the questions we sought to answer.”



Their investigation revealed that fungal disparity has evolved episodically through time, with the evolution of multicellularity in different types of fungi opening the door for greater morphological variety. The researchers found increases in diversity linked to both the emergence of the first multicellular fungi, and later on with the evolution of complex fruiting bodies such as mushrooms or saddles in dikaryotic species, which contain cells with two separate nuclei.



According to the scientists, these results align with those of previous studies analyzing animal disparity: both animals and fungi are characterized by clumpy distributions of anatomical variety that have evolved intermittently through time. “The world of fungi is defined by bright colors, strange shapes, and stranger anatomies. Our analyses demonstrate that this breath-taking anatomical variety has evolved in bursts, driven by evolutionary increases in multicellular complexity,” Smith said.



These findings bring scientists closer to characterizing, visualizing, and analyzing the disparity of all multicellular life. In future studies, by starting with in-depth analyses of plants and algae, they aim to combine the datasets characterizing the disparity of the fungus, plant, and animal kingdoms in order to further expand and fine-tune their taxonomy.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Fungal variety shaped by evolutionary bursts in complexity

Scientists have long observed that fungi come in an assortment...

Scientists are finding an ecological and economic balance between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-loss-weakens-ecosystem-functioning/">biodiversity</a> and vanilla cultivation in Madagascar. A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html">University of Göttingen</a> has found a way to cultivate a cash crop while preserving biodiversity in Madagascar.&nbsp;



Although the vanilla industry in Madagascar brings positive and negative outcomes to the local Malagasy, it cannot be denied that the enterprise is a significant source of income for those fortunate enough to have the land to grow vanilla and resources to protect it.



"In northeastern Madagascar, the export of vanilla is an important source of income for tens of thousands of smallholder farmers and the widespread cultivation is a way to escape from poverty," explained study first author Dr. Annemarie Wurz.



The research team found vanilla cultivated on fallow land (agricultural land left unworked for some time) was better for biodiversity than vanilla cultivated in forests. For example, the experts found that vanilla grown in the forest led to a 47 percent decrease in endemic species. This number is depressing, especially considering that Madagascar is known for its unique species.&nbsp;



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-30866-8">Nature Communications</a>, was focused on biodiversity in Madagascar's northeastern area, a region known to be the world's largest vanilla producer. Wildlife examined for the study included trees, herbaceous plants, birds, amphibians, reptiles, butterflies, and ants.



The researchers discovered that growing vanilla on fallow land does not sacrifice economic gain since fallow land production and forest cultivation produce similar yields.



"The good news is that farmers do not have to clear land to achieve high yields. In fact, they can add value for biodiversity to fallow land by cultivating vanilla there," said Dr. Annemarie Wurz.



However, it should be noted that the density and length of the vanilla plants themselves could harm some aspects of biodiversity. The study found that denser and longer plants were better for crop yields but harmed tree and reptile species.



Nevertheless, the findings of this study could be crucial in conserving the biodiversity and economy of this delicate country.&nbsp;



"Promoting vanilla cultivation on fallow land is ecologically and economically significant," said study co-author Professor Ingo Grass. "This contributes to the current UN Decade for Ecosystem Restoration. In addition, this study illustrates possibilities for promoting and conserving biodiversity outside protected areas."



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vanilla cultivation can boost biodiversity in Madagascar

Scientists are finding an ecological and economic balance between biodiversity...

Charles Darwin found remarkable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-expanded-into-quieter-cities-during-covid-lockdowns/">birds</a> on the Galápagos Islands when he visited on the HMS Beagle in 1835. They became known as “Darwin’s finches,” even though they were not finches at all. The remarkable thing about them, however, was that the 18 species all seemed to inhabit different islands in the archipelago. Over time they had developed different lifestyles, fed on different foods and had beaks that varied in form and function, despite the fact that they all arose from a single ancestral species.&nbsp;



The finches illustrate that populations may become adapted to environmental conditions found on specific islands and that, over time, the adaptations may make then so different that they can be considered separate species. They also support the island syndrome hypothesis that predicts the repeated and pronounced changes that some species undergo after colonizing islands. 



Animal species that become isolated on islands often show changes in body size (may become dwarfs or giants), locomotion (may become flightless), coloration and behavior. But what is the genetic basis for these changes, and does island syndrome apply to plants as well? 



A team of 30 scientists from four different continents has now tackled these questions using plants from the genus Scalesia. Known as giant daisies, they are found on the Galápagos Islands and were also encountered there by Darwin during his visit. There are 15 different species and, as you might guess, the remarkable thing about them was that, according to Darwin, “not one of these species grows on any two islands” – each species had adapted to the conditions on its own island. Scalesia is in the same family as daisies and sunflowers but the plants grow to the size of trees on the Galápagos Islands.



All 15 species evolved from a single species that, at some point in the distant past, arrived on the archipelago. The original species spread to neighboring islands and became adapted to the specific environmental conditions there. The descendants developed different characteristics and gradually turned into more specialized species, just like the finches. In fact, the giant daisies are commonly referred to as “Darwin’s finches of the plant world”. Today the different species are adapted to life in the dry lowlands, humid highlands and dry volcanic summits of Galápagos Islands.



The researchers chose to carry out DNA analysis of a single species of giant daisy, Scalesia atractyloides, in order to investigate the genetic basis of the plant’s adaptability. This species is a critically endangered dwarf tree found only on the island of Santiago in the Galápagos. Santiago is one of the four islands that Darwin visited during his trip to the archipelago.



“We sequenced and described the genome of the plant,” said José Cerca, a researcher in NTNU’s (The Norwegian University of Science and Technology) Department of Natural History at the NTNU University Museum. Cerca worked with Michael D. Martin, a professor and genetic expert in the Department of Natural History.



The results of the analysis, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>, show many genetic variants in the plant’s genome that could have explained the original species’ ability to adapt and spread into distinct niches on the different islands.



“These variations are associated with vascular development, growth, adaptation to salinity and flowering time,” said Cerca. In other words, they reflect adaptability when faced with new environmental conditions on the islands.



In total, the researchers identified 920 genes in the genome that are under positive selection, meaning that they confer some form of advantage on the plant. These include genes that regulate leaf morphology, lead to rapid plant growth, promote tolerance of arid conditions and cause the closure of stomata.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In addition, the methods used by the researchers enabled them to infer what the genome of the original colonizing plant might have looked like. “We found that the common ancestor of all the species in the&nbsp;Scalesia&nbsp;genus was an allotetraploid,” says Cerca. An allotetraploid is a variant that has twice as many chromosomes in its cells, and therefore also genes, as a normal plant. This came about because two different plants had crossbred sometime in the history of the species, and had created a hybrid.



The crossbreeding, along with the extra sets of chromosomes and genes, also provides a large variety of genetic material for different traits that can be present in the offspring. This situation means that offspring have a better chance of being able to adapt to conditions in a new environment. Such crossbreeding is probably more common in plants than believed a few years ago, but for researchers it is still a big deal.



“We’re beginning to understand the genetic basis for how this one original plant species might have evolved into several species,” said Cerca.



The researchers also found that certain genes under selection, such as large body size, supported the island syndrome hypothesis, indicating that it is possible for some species on islands to show different phenotypes from their mainland counterparts.&nbsp;



“We’ve found irrefutable evidence of the island syndrome in the genes of Darwin's giant daisies,” said Cerca.



The group's work provides valuable insights into how species are able to adapt to different environments. This is perhaps especially important at a time when the environment in numerous places on the planet is changing faster than it has for a long time.



Image Credit: Sara Santacruz



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals how Darwin’s giant daisies spread into distinct niches

Charles Darwin found remarkable birds on the Galápagos Islands when...

While scientists have known that self-pollination can jeopardize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungus-renders-corn-plants-defenseless-with-surgical-precision/">plant</a> species' long-term survival, they did not understand the mechanism behind the threat or how quickly it became detrimental. To investigate, a team of researchers led by Jeremiah Busch of <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> conducted a genetic study.&nbsp;



"We found that in a very short amount of time, there were major consequences on the genomes of the plants when they had to adopt selfing," said Busch.



The team compared a group of self-pollinating monkeyflower plants to a group of bumble bee-pollinated monkeyflowers. They determined that the "selfing" plants lost between 13 and 24 percent of their genetic variation, and substantial loss occurred within nine generations.&nbsp;



We already know that genetic variation is a major factor in determining how species adapt to changing environments, so this loss could seriously hinder a plant's ability to survive.&nbsp;



Busch explained that in selfing populations, particular genotypes might be selected for if they are shown to be advantageous. However, some harmful mutations may "hitchhike" as well. This "genetic hitchhiking" is less likely in bee-pollinated populations due to the mixing of genetic material.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Strong inbreeding fundamentally altered the consequences of adaptation," explained Busch. The findings are especially tragic considering the global bee decline.&nbsp;



"If pollinators are lost, it's not just going to be a problem for the pollinators: plant populations will lose genetic variation in tens of generations - not thousands, but tens."&nbsp;



Busch would be interested to see long-term studies determining if and when population collapse occurs due to a lack of pollinators and loss of genetic variation.&nbsp;



"A really important next step is to see how fast highly inbred groups will have their viability decline over time – to know how quickly those populations will go extinct," said Busch. "We need to really understand what the consequences are from pollinator loss. It will matter for wild populations of plants and crops. A lot of crops depend on bees."



This study can be found in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/evo.14572">Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bees do it better: self-pollinating plants lose genetic diversity

While scientists have known that self-pollination can jeopardize plant species'...

A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/en/university">University of Bonn</a> has examined the ways in which a harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-everywhere/">fungus</a> – Ustilago maydis – reproduces in the aerial parts of the corn plant and renders it defenseless. According to the experts, huge tumor-like tissue growth, known as galls, form at the site of the infection after being triggered by molecules released by the fungus - called effectors - which manipulate the plant’s metabolism and suppress its immune defenses. These effectors are also promoting cell growth and division in the corn by interfering with a plant signaling pathway regulated by the hormone auxin.



“The fungus uses this auxin signaling pathway for its own purposes,” said study senior author Armin Djamei, an expert in Plant Pathology at the University of Bonn. “This is because the huge growth of the tissue devours energy and resources that are then lacking for defense against&nbsp;Ustilago maydis. In addition, the fungus finds an ideal supply of nutrients in the growths and can multiply well there.”



“We therefore wanted to find out how the fungus promotes these proliferation processes. To do this, we searched for genetic material in the fungus that enables it to control the auxin signaling pathway of its host plant and thus its cell growth.”



The investigation revealed a cluster of five genes – called Tip1 to Tip5 – that the fungus uses to manipulate corn’s auxin signaling pathway. “The proteins encoded by the five Tip genes can bind to a protein in the corn plant known to experts as Topless,” explained lead author Janos Bindics, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.oeaw.ac.at/imba/home">IMBA Institute of Molecular Biotechnology</a> in Vienna.



Topless is a central switch that suppresses various signaling pathways in the plant. The fungal effectors produced by the cluster of Tip genes override this suppression, specifically for signaling pathways that benefit the fungus, such as the auxin one. “Figuratively speaking, the fungus acts with surgical precision. It accomplishes exactly what it needs to accomplish to best infect the corn plant,” said Dr. Djamei.



Since there are various pathogens that interfere with the auxin signaling pathways of the host plants which they infect, further research is needed to better understand the infection process in different plant diseases. By using this study’s findings, “it will be possible for the first time to influence specific effects of the auxin signaling pathway in a very targeted manner and thus to elucidate the effect of these important plant hormones even more precisely,” as Dr. Djamei put it.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.18315">New Phytologist</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;

Fungus renders corn plants defenseless with surgical precision

A team of researchers led by the University of Bonn...

Growth of the Amazon rainforest in our increasingly carbon-rich atmosphere could be significantly limited by a lack of phosphorus in the soil, according to a new study led by Brazil’s <a href="https://www.gov.br/inpa/pt-br">National Institute of Amazonian Research</a> (INPA) and the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.



Although higher concentrations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-dioxide-has-a-minimal-impact-on-tropical-vegetation/">carbon dioxide</a> cause plants to grow faster to store more of this greenhouse gas – and thus help mitigating climate change – plants also need nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus to grow. As a consequence, reduced availability of such nutrients could limit the Amazon rainforest’s ability to increase its productivity, or growth rate, as CO2 rises, and make it less resilient to climate change.



“Our results question the potential for current high rates of carbon uptake in Amazonia to be maintained,” said study lead author Hellen Fernanda Viana Cunha, a doctoral student in Tropical Forest Science at INPA. “About 60 percent of the Amazon basin is on old soils with low phosphorus content, but the role of phosphorus in controlling productivity was unclear because most fertilization experiments in other parts of the world have been in more phosphorus-rich systems.”



To examine the effects of adding phosphorus, nitrogen, and other key nutrients in an old-growth, low-phosphorus area of the rainforest, the researchers conducted a longitudinal empirical study - the&nbsp;<a href="https://amazonfertilisationexperiment.wordpress.com/">Amazon Fertilisation Experiment</a>&nbsp;(AFEX) – and found that only phosphorus led to increased productivity in the first two years of the experiment. “Having such rapid and strong responses to phosphorus, both above and below ground, is an indication that the whole system was functioning under severe phosphorous limitation,” Cunha explained.



While other nutrients such as nitrogen can be absorbed from the atmosphere by micro-organisms associated with certain soils and plants, phosphorus is not available as an atmospheric gas. Thus, once it becomes depleted, there are little opportunities for phosphorus levels to increase.&nbsp;



The experiments revealed that two years with extra phosphorus led to a significant increase in fine root growth (29 percent) and canopy productivity (19 percent), but not in stem growth. According to Cunha, this may be because roots and leaves require more phosphorus than stem. However, since stem growth is also a much slower process, long-term monitoring is necessary to determine whether stem wood productivity will later on increase.



This study has major implications not only for the rainforest’s carbon storage capacity, but also for its resilience to climate change. “To cope with and recover from increased threats such as droughts, we need the forest to be growing better than it used to,” said&nbsp;Iain Hartley, a professor of Geography at Exeter.



“CO2 fertilization could increase the forest’s resilience, but our findings suggest phosphorus availability will limit that effect – and therefore the risks caused by climate change become increasingly important. In short, parts of the rainforest growing in low-fertility soils may be more vulnerable than is currently recognized,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05085-2">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Lack of phosphorus will limit growth of the Amazon rainforest

Growth of the Amazon rainforest in our increasingly carbon-rich atmosphere...

Dry,Drought,Stricken,Farm,Corn,Field,Dirt

Scientists have identified an “exquisite” natural mechanism that helps plants limit their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/transforming-sunlight-and-water-into-renewable-energy/">water</a> loss with little effect on carbon dioxide (CO2) intake. The study, led by <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/">Australian National University</a> (ANU), touches on an essential process for photosynthesis, plant growth and crop yield.&nbsp;



The discovery is expected to help agricultural scientists and plant breeders develop more water-efficient crops that are resilient to extreme weather events such as drought.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Plants continuously lose water through pores in the ‘skin’ of their leaves. These same pores allow CO2 to enter the leaves and are critical to their survival,” said study co-author Dr Marquez.&nbsp; “For every unit of CO2 gained, plants typically lose hundreds of units of water. This is why plants require a lot of water in order to grow and survive."



“The mechanism we have demonstrated is activated when the environment is dry, such as on a hot summer day, to allow the plant to reduce water loss with little effect on CO2 uptake."



The researchers believe this water preserving mechanism can be manipulated to breed more water-efficient crops.&nbsp;&nbsp;



According to study lead author Dr. Chin&nbsp; Wong, the ANU team’s findings are a “dream discovery” from a scientific and agricultural perspective. The agricultural industry has long waited for a way to deliver crops that use water efficiently.&nbsp;



Although the researchers have confirmed there is a system in place that is working to limit the amount of water being lost from the leaf, they still do not know what’s causing it.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our main target now is to identify the structures inside the plant that allow this control. We think that water conduits, called aquaporins, located in the cell membranes are responsible,” said Dr. Marquez.&nbsp;



Once this can be confirmed, the team will continue to explore how these systems can become an asset for the agriculture industry.



Dr. Wong first alluded to this water preserving mechanism 14 years ago, but the research team has only now been able to officially confirm its existence thanks to years of experimentation and corroboration of their results.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nplants/">Nature Plants</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

"Exquisite" mechanism will help plants survive drought

Scientists have identified an “exquisite” natural mechanism that helps plants...

Synthetic cannabinoids are “designer drugs” that mimic the effects of cannabis and are popularly used as an alternative to natural cannabis. Typically synthetic cannabinoids are sprayed onto plant leaves and then smoked; they are often marketed as “herbal smoking blends” and sold under such common names as K2, spice or synthetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/legalization-of-marijuana-linked-to-rise-in-traffic-crashes/">marijuana</a>. In fact, they are not cannabis at all, but have been designed to bind to the same brain receptors that are responsible for the psychoactive effects of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in cannabis.



A new study, led by researchers from <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a>, has now investigated whether the use of synthetic cannabinoid drugs has changed in recent years and whether this is linked to the status of cannabis legalization in different U.S. states. They hypothesized that in states with more liberal cannabis policies which allow access to THC-containing products for recreational and other purposes, there would be a decrease in the use of synthetic cannabinoid drugs.&nbsp;



It is not easy to monitor the use of these drugs because they are often designed to be undetectable in urine. In addition, their chemical structure is constantly being changed by illicit manufacturers as new versions are developed, so standard drug tests commonly don’t identify them. Instead, the researchers used data from the National Poison Data System (NPDS), a data management system owned by the American Association of Poison Control Centers (AAPCC). Cases of poisoning in people who take synthetic cannabinoids and end up needing medical care, or who die, are reported to the NPDS by clinicians and the general public, via regional poison control centers.&nbsp;



This approach provided the researchers with comprehensive coverage of poisoning due to synthetic cannabinoids in the U.S., and they were then able to investigate any links between cases of poisoning and the type of legislation pertaining to cannabis use in each state.&nbsp;



They analyzed data on poisoning for the years 2016 to 2019 and looked only at states that had stable policies concerning cannabis use during those years. In this connection, they placed states in one of three categories: those that had permissive legislation, like Washington State, allowing both medical and recreational adult use of cannabis; those that allow medical use of cannabis only, like Hawaii; and those that had restrictive legislation, like Idaho, where nearly all cannabis use is prohibited.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The researchers found that.during the years 2016 to 1019, there were 7,600 calls that reported poisoning due to synthetic cannabinoid use - about 65 percent of which required medical attention. There were also 61 deaths. The results of the analysis, published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15563650.2022.2099887">Clinical Toxicology</a>, showed that cases of synthetic-related poisoning decreased overall during this time period but, while there were 13 percent fewer cases in states where only medical use of cannabis was allowed, there was a much more significant decrease (37 percent) in permissive states, which allow recreational or “adult use” of cannabis. 



“This study shows some potential public health benefits to the legalization and regulation of adult use of cannabis,” said study lead author Tracy Klein, a WSU associate professor of nursing. “Based on both past research and this current study, it's evident that users who have a choice to use a less toxic product would potentially do so.”



People who use synthetic cannabinoids actually report a preference for natural cannabis products, due in part to their lower negative effect profile including less hangover effects, less paranoia and more ability to function. The synthetic substances bind up to 100 times more readily with the brain receptors and lack any mediating constituents of whole plant cannabis, such as cannabidiol (CB). As a result, synthetic cannabinoids have a high toxicity and can lead to severe impairment, and even death.



An earlier study&nbsp;found that poison control calls related to natural cannabis use also increased between 2017 and 2019 across the U.S. but were driven mainly by manufactured products, such as plant-based vaping materials and edibles, which can contain high levels of THC. In contrast, poison control calls for whole plant cannabis declined during the same time period.



More research is needed to understand the use of these drugs better and the differences between them, Klein said. She pointed out that the study’s data set does not contain the rising popularity of synthetically derived Delta-8, marketed as a less strong form of Delta-9, which is the psychoactive cannabinoid found in naturally produced plant products.



“We know that there are many cannabinoids being developed and on the market – and the regulators are struggling to catch up,” said Professor Klein, who is also the assistant director of WSU’s Center for Cannabis Policy, Research and Outreach.



The current study likely underestimates the use of these drugs, the authors note, because the drugs are difficult to detect.



“You can’t easily test for illicit cannabinoids. A lot of times, we only find out if a patient has been using them because they’re hospitalized or because they’re dead,” said Professor Klein.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cannabis legalization reduces designer drug poisonings

Synthetic cannabinoids are “designer drugs” that mimic the effects of...

In a series of studies led by the <a href="http://www.wne.edu/">Western New England University</a>, scientists found that grape consumption has a remarkable impact on health and lifespan. According to the experts, adding just under two cups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-wine-grapes-have-unexpected-gut-health-benefits/">grapes</a> per day to a high-fat diet can have astonishing health benefits, yielding reductions in fatty liver, boosting levels of antioxidant genes, and significantly increasing longevity. Although the studies have been performed on mice, their results could be reliably translatable to human health-related issues.



The first study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/11/13/1984">Foods</a>,&nbsp;focused on the potential of dietary grape consumption to modulate the adverse effects caused by high-fat diets. The analysis revealed that, in mice on a high-fat diet, grape powder consumption led to a significant modulation of hepatic gene expression, successfully prevented oxidative damage, ameliorated non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and increased longevity.



In a second study published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3921/11/2/414">Antioxidants</a>, the researchers found that grape consumption altered gene expression in the brain and had positive effects on behavioral and cognitive structures that were impaired by high-fat diets.&nbsp;



Finally, a third study published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2022/fo/d2fo00961g">Food &amp; Function</a> has shown that in addition to changes in genetic expression, grape consumption can boost metabolism by reprogramming gut microbiota activity. This reduces the hepatic oxidative stress of high-fat diets, and increases the efficiency of glucose utilization by the liver for energy production.



“We have all heard the saying ‘you are what you eat’ which is obviously true since we all start out as a fetus and end up being an adult by eating food,” said John Pezzuto, a professor of Pharmacy and Health Sciences at the Western New England University and senior author of the studies. “But these studies add an entirely new dimension to that old saying. Not only is food converted to our body parts, but as shown by our work with dietary grapes, it actually changes our genetic expression. That is truly remarkable.”



“Many people think about taking dietary supplements that boast high antioxidant activity. In actual fact, though, you cannot consume enough of an antioxidant to make a big difference. But if you change the level of antioxidant gene expression, as we observed with grapes added to the diet, the result is a catalytic response that can make a real difference,” he concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Grapes have astonishing health benefits

In a series of studies led by the Western New...

Grasslands – which account for almost 40 percent of land-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-earths-ecosystems-adapt-to-climate-change/">ecosystems</a> – provide habitat for a vast diversity of plants and animals, and contribute to the livelihood of over one billion of people all over the world. Moreover, they provide significant carbon sequestration and biodiversity benefits, and can be more resilient to a rapidly changing climate than forests. Unfortunately, during the past few centuries, ancient grasslands worldwide have been largely converted into farmland, used to grow trees, or been replaced by urban areas as citied expanded.&nbsp;



According to a new study led by the <a href="https://colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a>, while the destruction of these pristine grasslands can occur very quickly, the complete recovery of grassland biodiversity and essential ecosystem functions occurs much slower, if at all. These findings contradict prior scientific assumptions that grasslands’ ecological development is quick and their recovery is rapid, posing new challenges to their successful restoration.



“Old growth grasslands have a unique suite of characteristics that develop over a really long time. Recovering grasslands do not have the same species or the same characteristics as they did prior to soil tilling or tree planting, and they take centuries to redevelop,” said study senior author Katharine Suding, a plant community ecologist at CU Boulder. 



“If you plant trees in an older grassland or till it for agriculture, you will probably never get many of the unique diversity and belowground characteristics back. It is irreversible. It’s an important reminder that we need to conserve the ancient grasslands that are still intact.”&nbsp;



Compared to newer, younger grasslands, old growth grasslands are unique in their underground structure and biodiversity and need a long time to be restored. “We should think of restoration as more of guiding a trajectory. Some species don’t come in right at the start, and the disturbance that maintains the grassland needs time to grow and be tweaked as these species get established and the soil develops. These processes take time,” explained Professor Suding.&nbsp;



While planting trees has become a popular “natural solution” worldwide to remove carbon from the atmosphere in order to mitigate climate change, many scientists warn than planting trees on natural grassland may create more problems than it solves. “We would lose a huge element of the biodiversity on Earth if we planted trees in old growth grasslands. I think we need to be a little bit more careful about what’s best for the globe, in terms of where to restore what,” warned Suding.



“Viewing grassland restoration as long-term assembly toward old-growth endpoints, with appreciation of feedbacks and threshold shifts, will be crucial for recognizing when and how restoration can guide recovery of this globally important ecosystem,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abo4605">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Ancient grasslands take a long time to recover

Grasslands – which account for almost 40 percent of land-based...

Neotropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/coastal-wetlands-are-threatened-by-salt-water-intrusion/">wetlands</a> are among the most diverse and beautiful regions on Earth. They are home to exotic birds and rare mammals, including jaguars. A recent study from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University of London</a> highlights the urgent need to protect the biodiversity of Neotropical wetlands.&nbsp;



The large-scale study was conducted in Brazil and analyzed 72 wetland lakes in the Amazon, Araguaia, Pantanal, and Paraná regions. The researchers examined humans' impact on biodiversity. They also investigated how biodiversity levels affect multifunctionality, or the various functions an ecosystem provides.



"This is one of a few studies that demonstrate how human pressures compromise the functioning of wetlands through their negative impact on biodiversity," said study co-author Dr. Pavel Kratina. "To our knowledge, this work presents the first empirical evidence of a large-scale positive relationship between aquatic biodiversity across multiple organismal groups and multifunctionality of wetlands."



The team examined seven groups of aquatic species to demonstrate their influence on several ecosystem functions, including aquatic phosphorus and nitrogen availability, standing biomass, microorganism abundance, and underwater habitat complexity.



The experts used the Human Footprint (HFP) index to determine the level of human impact. The HFP index measures impacts from farmland, human density, light pollution, railways, roads, and navigable waterways.&nbsp;



The researchers found that human activities harm biodiversity, which is detrimental to the functioning of ecosystems. The Paraná wetland, located near a grossly populated area, was the most threatened.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"This high-resolution dataset revealed strong and consistent associations between the diversity of multiple groups of aquatic organisms and wetland multifunctionality," said Kratina. "These results underline the important role of species richness and functional diversity in driving functioning of Neotropical wetlands."



The experts also discovered that fish diversity can indicate how well an ecosystem functions. According to Dr. Kratina, the study shows that an increasing human footprint correlates with a decline in species richness and functional diversity.



"Human Footprint index has a large direct negative effect on multifunctionality, but HFP also had indirect negative effects on the multifunctionality, mediated by declining species richness," explained Dr. Kratina.



"Although these indirect negative effects of human pressure were driven by the decline in the diversity of most organismal groups, these effects were strongly mediated by fish diversity, because fish diversity is very important for functioning of wetlands."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Biodiversity loss weakens ecosystem functioning

Neotropical wetlands are among the most diverse and beautiful regions...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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