Coffee is part of the morning routines for millions of people. But does drinking more coffee align with having more muscle? 



That’s the question behind a new analysis of Americans’ habits and body composition. This research doesn’t try to prove cause and effect. It asks whether higher coffee or caffeine intake corresponds to more limb muscle for a given body size.



The answer points in a positive direction for most adults, with an important exception. The details matter, because the way researchers measured muscle and tallied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-may-help-you-live-longer-if-you-drink-it-this-way/">coffee intake</a> shapes how to read the results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-limb-muscle-matters">Why limb muscle matters</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/studies-learn-the-exact-amount-of-time-you-should-spend-training-to-build-muscle/">Muscle mass</a> isn’t just about strength. Lower muscle mass in arms and legs raises the risk of falls, fractures, and everyday struggles that chip away at independence. 



Scientists often track limb muscle adjusted for body size because it flags early losses that can sneak up with age.



A standard yardstick for that job is the appendicular skeletal muscle mass-to-BMI ratio, abbreviated as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10401528/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASMBMI</a>. In plain terms: “How much limb muscle do you have for your body size?” 



This measurement focuses on muscle quantity, not how quickly you rise from a chair or how steady you feel on stairs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-coffee-s-link-to-muscles">Studying coffee's link to muscles</h2>



Researchers pulled data from a large, ongoing U.S. health survey (<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NHANES</a>) spanning 2011-2018. 



They started with adults, applied clear rules such as “only include people with full diet interviews and body scans,” and finished with 8,333 participants. Muscle was measured by DXA scans of the arms and legs and then expressed as ASMBMI.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-helps-bacteria-resist-antibiotics-in-your-gut/">Coffee intake</a> came from two 24-hour dietary recalls - structured interviews covering everything people ate and drank on two different days. The team looked at regular coffee, decaf coffee, and total caffeine from all sources. 



Their statistical models adjusted for age, sex, race, education, income, smoking, alcohol, physical activity, BMI, medical conditions, total calories, and protein, so they could compare people who were similar on many fronts except for coffee intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-results-say">What the results say</h2>



People who drank more coffee tended to have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-grapes-every-day-can-transform-your-muscles/">more limb muscle</a> relative to their body size. After full adjustments, the highest coffee group had about a 13% higher ASMBMI than the non-coffee group. 



The highest caffeinated coffee group showed roughly a 12% increase. The top caffeine group showed about an 11% increase. Decaf didn’t show a clear, statistically significant link. 



When researchers drew smoothed trend lines, the pattern appeared approximately linear: more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-may-help-women-stay-sharp-and-strong-as-they-age/">regular coffee</a> or caffeine corresponded to more muscle relative to body size.



There was one major exception. When participants were split by BMI, the positive link disappeared in the group with obesity (BMI ≥ 30). 



In that subset, drinking more coffee was not associated with higher ASMBMI. That doesn’t mean coffee lowers muscle there; it means the helpful pattern seen elsewhere wasn’t present.



A likely reason is biological factors tied to obesity, including chronic, low-grade inflammation that speeds muscle breakdown and may overshadow small benefits from caffeine or other coffee compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-in-this-research">Limitations in this research</h2>



This was a cross-sectional snapshot. It can spot links, but it can’t prove that coffee changes muscle. People with more muscle may simply be more active or keep schedules where coffee fits better. 



The models adjusted for activity and many other variables, which strengthens confidence, but unmeasured factors can still nudge results.



Diet recalls lean on memory and honesty, and add-ins like sugar or cream can be easy to forget. 



ASMBMI captures muscle quantity, not strength or performance, so it can’t tell you how much weight you can move or how good your balance is during daily activities. 



Results also come from U.S. adults in specific survey years, so patterns could differ in other populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-coffee-is-linked-with-muscles">Why coffee is linked with muscles</h2>



Caffeine stimulates the nervous system and modulates how the body uses fuel during activity. Coffee also contains <a href="https://www.chhs.colostate.edu/krnc/monthly-blog/what-are-polyphenols-another-great-reason-to-eat-fruits-and-veggies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polyphenols</a> with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. 



Lab and animal research suggests these compounds may support healthier muscle by encouraging autophagy - the cell’s cleanup crew for worn-out parts - and by dialing down chronic inflammation over time. 



This analysis didn’t test mechanisms, but these ideas fit with the pattern. Decaf’s “no clear link” signal hints that caffeine may be doing more of the heavy lifting in this dataset.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-did-we-learn-from-this">What did we learn from this?</h2>



In U.S. adults, higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mood-boost-how-coffee-makes-us-happier-in-the-morning/">regular coffee</a> and total caffeine intake tracked with more limb muscle relative to body size after accounting for many other factors. However, that association did not appear in participants with obesity. 



If coffee already fits your day, these results sit comfortably with a muscle-friendly routine. Keep portions sensible, mind the extras, and avoid late cups that cut into sleep because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/irregular-sleep-may-cause-premature-muscle-aging/">poor sleep impairs recovery</a>.



If you’re in the obesity range, the study’s “no clear link” finding suggests coffee isn’t a muscle fix. 



The bigger levers are steady resistance training, enough protein spaced through the day, and better sleep, ideally alongside medical care that addresses weight, strength, and metabolic health together. 



Coffee can still be part of that plan if it agrees with you, but it’s not the star of the show.



It’s a pattern, not proof. Pair your coffee with protein, training, and sleep if your goal is to build or protect muscle.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2024.1390309/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Nutrition</a>.



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Drinking this beverage every day helps protect your muscles from aging

Coffee is part of the morning routines for millions of people. But does drinking more coffee align with having more muscle? That’s the question behind a new analysis of Americans’ habits and body composition. This research doesn’t try to prove cause and effect. It asks whether higher coffee or caffeine intake corresponds to more limb muscle for a given body size. The answer points in a positive direction for most adults, with an important exception. The details matter, because the way researchers measured muscle and tallied coffee...

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have...

Plant roots don’t just take in water and nutrients. They also send out chemical signals - organic compounds that can shape the life of the soil and help plants survive in tough conditions.



Researchers have been studying these hidden exchanges for years. They know that microbes like bacteria and fungi form close partnerships with plants. 



In return for the sugars and other molecules plants release, microbes can make plants stronger against drought or nutrient shortages. This constant give-and-take, known as rhizodeposition, plays a big role in how plants grow and adapt.



Now, scientists at the Department of Energy’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory (<a href="https://www.ornl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ORNL</a>) have taken a fresh look at this underground world. Their work focuses on understanding the specific compounds plants release - and it could change the way we grow food and energy crops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roots-release-diverse-molecules">Roots release diverse molecules</h2>



The ORNL team built a new framework using metabolomics - the study of small molecules - to map and categorize the compounds released by plant roots. 



The study produced a detailed catalog of the diversity and amounts of these compounds in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-plays-an-overlooked-role-in-antibiotic-resistance/">soil</a>. This knowledge could guide the development of crops that produce more food, need fewer resources, and stand up better to environmental stress.



The research could also lead to more resilient bioenergy crops, strengthening domestic supply chains and energy security.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-help-roots-reach-nutrients">Fungi help roots reach nutrients</h2>



Roots do far more than keep a plant standing. They act like a control center for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-the-timing-of-water-that-matters-to-plants/">water</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-proteins-that-control-nutrient-uptake-in-plants/">nutrient uptake</a>. Tiny hairs along their surface increase contact with the soil, helping plants draw in what they need.



They’re also sensors, constantly reading changes in moisture, temperature, and soil chemistry. When conditions shift, roots can alter how they grow or which molecules they release to adjust their environment.



Some roots form long-term partnerships with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/">fungi</a>, exchanging sugars for hard-to-reach nutrients. Others send quick chemical messages that repel harmful microbes or influence nearby plants.



By understanding these underground strategies, scientists can design crops that thrive with less fertilizer and water. This is where ORNL’s work takes on new importance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-trees-many-clues">Two trees, many clues</h2>



For their experiment, the scientists grew two varieties of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-engineered-wood-poplar-cottonwood-trees-store-more-carbon/">poplar trees</a> under controlled conditions. Some trees were given extra nutrients, others were not. Samples were collected from both young and mature root zones over time.



Instead of focusing only on known or suspected compounds, the team used an “untargeted” metabolomics approach. This allowed them to detect as many different molecules as possible. 



Scientists used high-resolution mass spectrometry to identify and measure these molecules, creating a chemical fingerprint for each sample. Advanced computational methods then grouped and compared the results.



What they found was a vast variety of rhizodeposit compounds - many never recorded before. The makeup of these compounds changed depending on plant variety, nutrient availability, location, and time. 



Using ORNL’s genomic data on poplar, the team also saw how plant genetics strongly influenced the chemical profiles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-untargeted-analysis-matters">Why untargeted analysis matters</h2>



"Metabolomics has mostly been limited to targeted analysis, confirming a specific compound or interaction you suspect is in the sample," said project co-lead Paul Abraham of ORNL's Biosciences Division. 



"But with an untargeted approach, we can capture a much broader range of chemical diversity, revealing unexpected or previously unrecognized compounds that may play critical roles in soil and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-circadian-systems-may-be-key-for-sustainable-farming/">plant systems</a>."



Abraham noted that the project was made possible by ORNL's ultra-precise mass spectrometry instruments and interdisciplinary environment. "The accuracy and sensitivity of these capabilities are paramount to the success of untargeted metabolomics."



"Our team of experts in genomic science, plant systems biology and bioanalytical chemistry were essential to designing and executing the study and understanding the implications of the work."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digital-tools-map-root-growth">Digital tools map root growth</h2>



Looking ahead, the team plans to use artificial intelligence to help interpret their massive dataset. 



"The chemical space we are measuring is vast, and most of the molecules we detect can't be confirmed using existing reference standards," Abraham said.



"To make sense of that complexity, we'll increasingly depend on machine learning and AI to resolve chemical formulas into predicted structures. That's why one of our key goals is to make our data findable, accessible, and reusable for the broader scientific community."



The scientists also see potential in pairing this data with ORNL’s new digital underground root analytics system. 



This technology, located in the Advanced Plant Phenotyping Laboratory, could allow them to capture image-based details of root growth and interactions, adding another layer of insight into how plants communicate with their environment.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pce.70004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant, Cell &amp; Environment</a>.



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Plant roots use a chemical code to fight stress and share resources

Plant roots don’t just take in water and nutrients. They...

Lakes are often labeled as steady emitters of carbon dioxide, yet new research suggests that view misses what happens along their edges, where plants work fast and sediments hold tight. 



A peer-reviewed analysis finds that when these fringes are included, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/">lakes</a> may act as net carbon sinks at the global scale.



Lake edges are known as littoral zones - the shallow belts where land and water meet, and they wrap around an astonishing length of shoreline. 



In fact, the total shoreline of the world’s lakes and reservoirs is estimated to be roughly four times longer than the global ocean coastline. The research was led by Charlotte Grasset of Uppsala University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vegetated-edges-and-lake-carbon">Vegetated edges and lake carbon</h2>



Add the vegetated littoral zone to the ledger and the balance shifts in surprising ways. A commentary describes how including these zones can substantially alter, and in some cases reverse, whole-lake carbon budgets by boosting burial and trimming apparent outgassing.



The key is that littoral plants take in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) during photosynthesis, send a portion of that carbon below ground, and help trap organic matter in low-oxygen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-lakes-may-disappear-faster-than-others/">sediments</a>. 



Those sediments can store carbon for long periods, changing the net ledger of what lakes contribute to the atmosphere versus what they lock away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-trap-and-store-carbon">Plants trap and store carbon</h2>



Aquatic plants, known as macrophytes, often grow densely in littoral zones and can be highly productive per square foot. 



Independent global work has shown that carbon burial in lakes and reservoirs is on the same order as burial in the oceans, underscoring how potent these inland sinks can be.



That background makes the new accounting intuitive. If the most productive, plant-rich parts of lakes were omitted from global budgets, the scale would tilt toward emissions by default, even if sediments at the edges were quietly piling up carbon year after year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calculating-carbon-balance">Calculating carbon balance</h2>



The study links littoral zones to open-water areas using a simple transport model and a mass-balance approach. 



The research builds on recent syntheses showing that global inland waters emit substantial greenhouse gases (GHGs) but also bury a lot of carbon, with regional variation and strong dependence on surface area estimates.



By integrating shoreline vegetation into the budget, the authors report scenarios in which the annual carbon buried in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-shock-lakes-are-losing-oxygen-faster-than-expected/">lake</a> sediments exceeds the annual carbon released to the air.



This flips the global lake balance from net source to net sink in their estimates - a change driven by the sheer footprint and productivity of vegetated edges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-can-switch-to-carbon-sinks">Lakes can switch to carbon sinks</h2>



One detail is important for interpretation. Part of the CO2 escaping from open-water zones may actually come from carbon originally fixed in the littoral zone, transported horizontally, and then respired offshore. 



This suggests that previous attributions may have overestimated the portion coming directly from land.



This adjustment doesn’t eliminate emissions - it clarifies them. It highlights the multiple pathways carbon takes within lakes and shows that the littoral zones do more than just support reeds, frogs, and shallow shelves: they actively process and store carbon on a continental scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lake-edges-and-the-carbon-budget">Lake edges and the carbon budget </h2>



“We were planning to write a conceptual paper about how aquatic plants in the littoral zone are overlooked in lake carbon cycling," said Grasset. 



"But after doing some initial calculations quantifying the role of these plants, we quickly realized that littoral zones could be a significant player in the global carbon budget!” 



The team’s calculations revealed that factoring in vegetated lake edges can change the overall carbon balance, often transforming lakes from net carbon sources into net carbon sinks.



According to Grasset, the team hopes their findings will encourage further investigation into the importance of littoral zones and highlight the potential benefits of restoring these habitats as part of nature-based climate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-in-arctic-lakes-are-fueling-a-large-methane-surge/">solutions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoration-takes-center-stage">Restoration takes center stage</h2>



Marine blue carbon ecosystems such as mangroves, seagrasses, and salt marshes have been treated as nature-based climate solutions for more than a decade, backed by extensive monitoring and finance frameworks. 



The new lake analysis argues that freshwater shorelines deserve a similar look, not only for carbon but also for water quality and biodiversity.



There is practical support for that move. Studies show that healthy macrophyte communities help stabilize clearer water states, reduce algal blooms, and retain nutrients, all of which can reinforce carbon burial in sediments while improving ecological conditions for fish and invertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-lake-edges">What’s next for lake edges</h2>



Accounting choices for methane (CH4) matter because methane warms more per pound than CO2 over a century, and littoral habitats can be methane hotspots. 



Current assessments use IPCC AR6 100-year global warming potentials, where non-fossil methane has a value of about 27 with climate-carbon feedbacks considered, a standard that sharpens cross-gas comparisons and helps frame tradeoffs.



Improved maps of vegetated littoral coverage, better separation of terrestrial versus littoral carbon sources, and year-round measurements in underrepresented tropical and productive lakes would tighten the error bars. 



As these data become available, planners can more precisely balance shoreline restoration with other measures to achieve climate, water quality, and habitat objectives.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-025-01739-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Lakes with vegetated edges are powerful carbon sinks

Lakes are often labeled as steady emitters of carbon dioxide,...

A single living tree can host about one trillion microbes in its wood, with distinct communities in the inner and outer layers. That is not a rounding error - it forces a rethink of what tree health and forest function really mean.



Researchers sampled 150 living trees spanning 16 species across the northeastern United States and found that these internal microbe communities are not random. They split cleanly between the inner heartwood and the outer sapwood. There is little overlap with microbes found in leaves, roots, or soil.



Jonathan Gewirtzman, a doctoral candidate at the <a href="https://environment.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale School of the Environment</a>, led the study with support from collaborators across multiple disciplines at Yale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-worlds-beneath-the-bark">Hidden worlds beneath the bark</h2>



Most research on trees has focused on what we can see, like leaves, roots, and bark. Yet forests store vast amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slow-and-steady-tree-growth-wins-the-race-for-carbon-capture/">carbon</a> across living biomass, dead wood, litter, and soils, with global stocks estimated at roughly 861 gigatons of carbon across all pools. 



What happens inside wood is not a footnote for the planet. The inner trunk is not uniform. Heartwood is older, drier, and typically more sealed off, while sapwood is younger tissue that moves water and nutrients upward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-reveals-microbial-residents">DNA reveals microbial residents</h2>



The researchers extracted high-quality DNA from woody tissues and profiled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bacteria-breathe-by-creating-electricity/">bacteria</a> and archaea across both layers to map who lives where. 



The team paired the genetic snapshots with measurements indicating microbial activity in the wood, so this was not just a catalog of dormant passengers.



Those choices matter because a microbiome is more than a roster. It is a structured community whose metabolism can change the chemistry of its home. That is exactly what the patterns in wood suggest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-neighborhoods-in-every-trunk">Two neighborhoods in every trunk</h2>



The inner wood favored anaerobic life that does not require oxygen, a pattern seen before in studies of heartwood that reported methanogenic communities thriving in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-are-threatened-by-low-oxygen-levels/">low-oxygen conditions</a>. 



The outer wood favored oxygen-using microbes suited to the sapwood’s role in water transport and air exposure. This split tracks with basic physiology and chemistry.



These communities include archaea alongside bacteria, and they do work that affects trees and ecosystems. That work includes biogeochemical processes tied to gases and nutrients that, when scaled across forests, can influence larger cycles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-signatures-that-stick">Species signatures that stick</h2>



The communities were not just layered - they were species-specific. Profiles inside sugar maple differed consistently from those inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-altitudes-no-longer-protect-pine-trees-from-disease/">pines</a>, and those differences held across individual trees of the same species. 



This pattern is consistent with long-term host filtering and even coevolutionary pressures discussed in plant-microbe research.



“One of the things I found most interesting was how these microbiomes varied across different species," said Wyatt Arnold, a chemical and environmental engineer and study co-lead.



"For example, sugar maples hosted a very different community than the one within pines, and these differences were consistent and conserved.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-as-tree-partners">Microbes as tree partners</h2>



Calling plants holobionts treats the organism and its associated microbes as one integrated unit. That framing is not semantics, it changes how we think about tree health, stress, disease, and even growth in the field and in cities.



These wood-dwelling partners appear to help cycle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/">nutrients</a> inside trunks and produce gases that may vent to the atmosphere or feed other microbes. 



Scaling that up matters because forests act as a major carbon sink each year. Small changes in internal processes can add up across billions of stems worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-in-the-carbon-equation">Microbes in the carbon equation</h2>



Global assessments suggest forests hold on the order of hundreds of gigatons of carbon and continue to remove carbon dioxide from the air annually. 



Knowing how much of that storage and flux depends on microbes living in wood is key for realistic models and practical management.



This is not a call to overpromise - it is a step toward tighter estimates of what forest recovery and protection can deliver.



These estimates are informed by a better handle on internal microbial metabolism. They also draw on how it changes with drought, heat, pests, and age structure across regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-life-across-forests">Mapping life across forests</h2>



Cataloging these communities beyond the northeastern United States will show how climate, species pools, and land use shape internal wood life.



That includes dry forests, wet tropics, plantations, and urban trees that experience pruning, compaction, and pollution in different ways.



“There is a massive reservoir of unexplored biodiversity, countless microbial species living inside the world’s trees that we’ve never documented," said Gewirtzman. "We need to catalog and understand these communities before climate change potentially shifts them.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-matter-for-tree-management">Microbes matter for tree management</h2>



Internal microbiomes can influence decay resistance, wound healing, and interactions with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/">pathogens</a>. They may also shape a tree’s response to drought or flooding by altering internal chemistry and gas transport.



If certain microbe groups boost resistance or growth, they could lead to new diagnostics and treatments alongside breeding and silviculture.



That prospect aligns with a growing literature on shared governance between hosts and microbes in plants. This research stresses that outcomes reflect both partners.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09316-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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One trillion microbes can live in a single tree

A single living tree can host about one trillion microbes...

As plant roots develop, they flip a fundamental switch in how they move water and nutrients. What starts as a free-flowing, two-way exchange between cells becomes a one-way inward stream - an efficient delivery route toward the plant’s central pipelines.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Geneva</a> (UNIGE) have mapped this switch in living roots and tied it to the behavior of plasmodesmata, the microscopic pores that connect neighboring cells. 



The work points to a developmental program that locks directionality into place and may be harnessed to boost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-a-humble-plant-may-help-us-save-crops-from-drought/">drought</a> resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-direction-matters"><a></a>Why direction matters</h2>



Roots are layered like an onion. Soil-facing epidermal cells do the first capture. Cargo then must traverse the cortex and endodermis to reach the vascular tissues in the core, where xylem and phloem distribute resources through the sap. 



Efficient delivery depends not just on how much the root absorbs, but on how reliably that load moves inward.



For decades, textbooks have pictured plasmodesmata as conduits that let water and small solutes cross those layers. The idea was persuasive, but evidence in intact, developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">roots</a> was thin.



“Although this has been widely taught, it has never been directly proven. We wanted to test this assumption experimentally,” said senior author Marie Barberon, a professor in the Department of Plant Sciences at the UNIGE Faculty of Science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proving-the-root-flow-switch">Proving the root flow switch</h2>



The team turned to Arabidopsis thaliana, a model plant, and to fluorescent tracers. They expressed green fluorescent protein in specific tissues and watched how the signal spread across layers at different stages of development. 



In the youngest regions, before the vascular system fully develops, the dye flowed freely both inward and outward. That matched the old picture: open channels and two-way exchange. Then the pattern flipped.



As plant roots matured, movement stopped being bidirectional. The fluorescence traveled only from the periphery toward the center. It never flowed back out from inner <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-plant-tissue-discovered-that-increases-seed-size-by-up-to-16-percent/">tissues</a> to the outer layers.



“But in mature roots, we found that transport becomes unidirectional - strictly from the periphery toward the central vessels,” said lead author Léa Jacquier, a scientist at UNIGE.



“This was unexpected, but it likely reflects an optimized system that ensures essential resources efficiently reach the vascular tissues,” added co-author Celeste Fiorenza, a researcher at the same university.



The finding suggests that development doesn’t just add barriers like the endodermal Casparian strip. It also refines the intercellular network itself and biases the plasmodesmatal routes to funnel valuable cargo inward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-root-pores-as-traffic-controllers">Root pores as traffic controllers</h2>



What makes a pore behave like a valve? To probe the mechanism, the researchers screened for plants in which the fluorescence could still run both ways.



The team identified a mutant they call sesame. In sesame, plasmodesmata appeared abnormally wide. That detail mattered: enlarged channels loosened the inward-only rule and let tracers leak outward again. The result points to pore geometry as a control knob for directionality.



Under ideal growth conditions, sesame showed only mild changes in nutrient handling. The mutant’s most striking trait emerged under stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drought-resilience-in-a-mutant"><a></a>Drought resilience in a mutant</h2>



When water ran short, sesame plants bounced back better than their wild-type counterparts. After two weeks without irrigation, few normal plants resumed growth once rewatered. 



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-make-incredibly-fast-decisions-with-a-brain-smaller-than-a-sesame-seed/">sesame plants</a> recovered robustly. The team cannot yet say exactly why a pore-size change translates into superior drought performance.



“We don’t yet know exactly how these plants cope better with drought, but our findings show that understanding intercellular transport mechanisms could lead to crops that absorb nutrients more efficiently or withstand water stress - a crucial issue for agriculture in the face of climate change," said Barberon.



The observation hints that tuning the intercellular network may help roots retain and route water during dry spells, or maintain nutrient flow when soil availability fluctuates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-plants-to-harsh-climates">Adapting plants to harsh climates</h2>



Directionality is a simple idea with big implications. If mature plant roots hardwire an inward bias, breeders and biotechnologists might modulate that bias to suit harsh environments. 



Narrowing or widening plasmodesmata, or adjusting their density and gating, could optimize how plants partition limited water and minerals toward essential organs.



The work also reframes how we think about root maturation. The shift from two-way to one-way traffic is not just a passive consequence of new barriers. 



It is an active, tissue-wide reconfiguration of the living channels that couple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plant-stem-cells-could-support-human-growth/">plant cells</a>. That makes plasmodesmata prime targets for improving resource use efficiency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-plant-innovation">Next steps for plant innovation</h2>



The study raises several questions. What molecular players set pore size and polarity as cells differentiate? 



How does the endodermal barrier interact with plasmodesmatal gating to produce the net inward stream? Do plant roots show similar switches, and can those switches be nudged without trade-offs in growth or yield?



Answering those questions could turn a basic developmental insight into practical tools. A root that is better at channeling scarce resources inward is a root that buys time against drought.



With climate stress mounting, the ability to fine-tune those microscopic “one-way streets” may prove invaluable.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/molecular-plant/fulltext/S1674-2052(25)00233-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Plant</a>.



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Plant roots rewire themselves to fight drought

As plant roots develop, they flip a fundamental switch in...

What was once pruned and burned in vineyards could soon wrap your groceries - then vanish without a trace. Scientists have developed a biodegradable film from grapevine prunings that mimics plastic but breaks down in just over two weeks.



The breakthrough comes from <a href="https://www.sdstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South Dakota State University</a> (SDSU), led by Associate Professor Srinivas Janaswamy, in collaboration with grapevine expert Anne Fennell. 



The latest results show that films cast from cellulose extracted out of grapevine canes are transparent, tough, and fast to biodegrade. The team harvested canes from SDSU’s research vineyard and followed a protocol to turn them into packaging-grade films.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-plastic-problem">The plastic problem</h2>



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whats-the-most-sustainable-packaging-the-answer-will-surprise-you/">packaging</a> is used once and tossed, and it is made from petroleum. It lingers in landfills and oceans for centuries. Only a sliver is recycled. Micro- and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nanoplastic-particles-have-infiltrated-the-oceans-food-web-at-the-most-important-levels/">nanoplastics</a> break off and spread.



People and wildlife inhale and ingest them, and they have recently turned up everywhere, including inside the human body. The long-term health effects are still unclear. The “Great Pacific Garbage Patch” is the emblem of that crisis.



Perhaps the worst offender in daily life is the thin retail bag. It is light, cheap, and convenient. It is also hard to recycle and easy to litter. Replacing that bag with a material that behaves like plastic but rapidly decomposes could change the waste stream.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cellulose-packaging-vision">The cellulose packaging vision</h2>



Janaswamy’s lab targets that problem using agricultural byproducts. He has extracted cellulose from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cave-discovery-of-ancient-avocados-could-rescue-a-global-crop/">avocado</a> peels, soy hulls, alfalfa, switchgrass, spent coffee grounds, corncobs, and banana peels. 



The recovered polymer is then used for films that mimic familiar wraps and liners. "By extracting cellulose from agricultural products, value-added products can be created,” Janaswamy said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grapevines-transformed-into-packaging">Grapevines transformed into packaging</h2>



The grapevine idea began after a campus talk. Fennell, a professor of agronomy, horticulture, and plant science, knew canes are cellulose-rich and produced in bulk each winter. However, most are mulched, composted, or burned.



“Every year we prune the majority of the yearly biomass off the vine. The pruned canes are either mowed over, composted and reapplied to the soil, or burned in some areas,” Fennell said. “My thought was, why not use this for value-added films?”



“Several of the materials that Janaswamy previously used had a high water content. In contrast, the winter pruning yields a cellulose-dense material with low water content, making it an abundant and ideal material to work with.”



The team dried and milled the canes. Afterwards, they extracted a cotton-like cellulose residue, solubilized it, and cast it onto glass plates to form thin, uniform sheets. The result looked like clear packaging film.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-built-strong-breaks-down-fast">Built strong, breaks down fast</h2>



Tests showed a standout mix of traits. The grapevine films were transparent, which matters on store shelves.



“High transmittance in packaging films enhances product visibility, making them more attractive to consumers and facilitating easy quality inspection without the need for unsealing,” Janaswamy said. “These films demonstrate outstanding potential for food packaging applications.”



They were strong, too. In tensile tests, they outperformed common plastic bags. Moreover, in soil, the films <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-future-of-plastic-biodegradable-durable-and-even-edible/">biodegraded</a> within 17 days and left no harmful residue. 



That is the kind of decay window that makes sense for single-use packaging. It gives an item enough life to do its job, then it returns to the earth.



Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on the planet. It is the load-bearing material in plant cell walls, reinforced by hydrogen bonds in chains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glucose-the-sweet-secret-to-a-younger-brain/">glucose</a>. 



Since cotton is mostly cellulose and wood is rich in it, such feedstock is common, renewable, and often wasted. Using byproducts adds value without claiming more land or water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-packaging-designed-to-biodegrade">Packaging designed to biodegrade</h2>



The films bring Janaswamy closer to a retail bag that will not persist in the environment. They also point to a flexible platform. 



By choosing different plant sources, the lab can tune clarity, strength, and handling. Grapevine canes - dry, cellulose-dense, and plentiful - hit a sweet spot for performance and processing.



“Using underutilized grapevine prunings as a cellulose source for packaging films enhances waste management in the field and addresses the global issue of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-harming-our-health-not-just-the-planet/">plastic pollution</a>,” Janaswamy explained.



“Developing eco-friendly films from grapevine cellulose represents a practical approach to sustainability, helping to conserve the environment and its resources and contributing to the circular bioeconomy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-grapevine-packaging">Next steps for grapevine packaging</h2>



Scaling up will require a steady feedstock, efficient extraction, and film lines that meet food-contact standards. Retailers will want consistency, while consumers will want price parity and a familiar feel. Luckily, the early data is encouraging.



Since packaging still leans on fossil inputs, recycling rates remain low, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/airborne-microplastics-where-they-come-from-and-where-they-go/">microplastic</a> concerns are growing, the need for alternatives is high. 



Packaging film made from grapevines that vanishes in 17 days is not a cure-all, but it is a concrete step toward cleaner shelves, cleaner bins, and cleaner oceans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/fb/d5fb00211g" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sustainable Food Technology</a>.



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Grapevines could offer a breakthrough alternative to plastic packaging

What was once pruned and burned in vineyards could soon...

A pesticide that American farmers cannot spray on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-packaging-is-leaking-harmful-chemicals-into-meals/">food</a> crops is still turning up in the breakfast bowls of millions. Tests show that chlormequat sneaks into best selling oat cereals despite the domestic ban on food uses.



In a peer reviewed survey of 96 adults, scientists detected the chemical in 77 urine samples, an 80 percent hit rate that points to routine exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-chlormequat">What is chlormequat?</h2>



<a href="https://www.ewg.org/news-insights/our-experts/alexis-temkin-phd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alexis M Temkin, PhD</a>, a toxicologist at the Environmental Working Group (EWG), explains that the compound is a plant growth regulator that stiffens grain stalks so they do not lodge in bad weather.



Because shorter stems make harvesting easier, growers in Canada and Europe apply the chemical widely to oats, wheat, and barley.



The <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/13836" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Library of Medicine</a> classifies chlormequat as approved only for ornamental plants inside U.S. greenhouses, not for any edible crop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-changing-regulatory-landscape">A changing regulatory landscape</h2>



The Environmental Protection Agency (<a href="https://www.epa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPA</a>) opened the door in 2018 by allowing imported foods with allowable residues, then doubled the residue limit for oats in 2020, a move critics say signaled acceptance rather than caution.



Domestic use remains under review, yet the agency proposed granting farmers direct access in 2024, sparking a flood of public comments from pediatricians, growers, and consumer advocates.



Temkin warns that incremental rule changes can translate into large jumps in exposure because oats are baked into cereals, snack bars, and even baby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-insecurity-can-lead-to-heart-problems-later-in-life/">food</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-chlormequat-on-the-rise">Signs of chlormequat on the rise</h2>



The new urine analysis shows median concentrations tripling between 2017 and 2023, suggesting that imported oats are already reshaping the U.S. chemical landscape.



Researchers also found the substance in 92 percent of non organic oat products purchased in Washington, DC grocery stores, while wheat products rarely registered positive.



Because chlormequat leaves the body in roughly twenty four hours, repeated detection indicates daily intake, not a one time spike.



Temkin calls the finding “alarm bells about how it could potentially cause harm without anyone even knowing they’ve consumed it,” a statement released through <a href="https://www.ewg.org/news-insights/news-release/2024/02/new-peer-reviewed-ewg-study-finds-little-known-toxic-crop" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EWG</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-studies-and-fertility">Animal studies and fertility</h2>



Laboratory work over four decades links dietary chlormequat to reduced sperm quality, delayed puberty, and altered fetal growth at doses lower than current regulatory limits.



Pig experiments in Denmark first flagged reproductive trouble when sows fed treated grain failed to cycle normally.



More recent mouse <a href="https://cen.acs.org/environment/pesticides/Chlormequat-rise-US-population/102/i6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> showed testosterone drops of up to forty percent, reinforcing the suspicion that the chemical disrupts steroid synthesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-oats-are-vulnerable">Why oats are vulnerable</h2>



Oats grow in cooler, wetter climates where plants tend to fall over, so farmers lean on growth regulators more than maize or rice producers.



The slender hull of the oat kernel also absorbs residues easily, meaning what goes on in the field can stay through milling, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chocolate-with-less-sugar-still-tastes-great-with-a-secret-ingredient/">baking</a>, and shipping.



Unlike wheat, most oats eaten in the United States are imported from Canada, a country that allows routine chlormequat spraying, creating a direct pipeline from prairie fields to pantry shelves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-industry-response">Industry response</h2>



Cheerios maker General Mills maintains that “All our products adhere to all regulatory requirements,” said company spokesperson Mollie Wulff.



Quaker echoed that stance, saying it follows “a comprehensive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-plastic-food-packaging-contains-9936-harmful-chemicals/">food</a> safety management system” for its oats and bars.



Cereal processors note that detected levels fall below the EPA reference dose of 0.05 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day, though toxicologists counter that the reference is based on decades old data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-children-on-the-front-line">Children on the front line</h2>



EWG’s calculations suggest that toddlers who eat a small bowl of conventional oatmeal could consume more chlormequat per pound of body weight than adults, eroding any margin of safety.



Pediatric dietitians point out that oat based finger foods are frequently marketed as “first solids,” giving the youngest consumers disproportionate exposure during critical developmental windows.



Choosing <a href="https://www.usda.gov/farming-and-ranching/organic-farming" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USDA Organic</a> oats cuts residue dramatically, with only one of eight organic samples in the 2023 survey testing positive and at a fraction of conventional levels.



Steel cut oats sourced from domestic processors also showed lower contamination, hinting that where grain is grown can matter as much as how it is processed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chlormequat-policy-options">Chlormequat policy options</h2>



Health advocates want the EPA to tighten residue limits, add chlormequat to the <a href="https://www.ams.usda.gov/datasets/pdp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pesticide Data Program</a>, and apply extra safety factors for children, mirroring rules already used for other endocrine disruptors.



State lawmakers in New York and California are considering bills that would require front of package disclosure when grains exceed advisory levels, a strategy meant to shift market demand toward lower residue sources.



Major retailers could accelerate change by setting private standards, a <a href="https://www.ewg.org/peer-reviewed-studies-published-by-ewg-scientists" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tactic</a> that has successfully reduced antibiotics in meat and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-plastics-chemical-bpa-linked-to-autism-adhd-in-children/">BPA in food</a> contact plastics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-parents-can-do-now">What parents can do now</h2>



Nutritionists recommend rinsing quick oats before cooking and diversifying breakfasts with eggs, yogurt, and fresh fruit, steps that dilute overall exposure without major lifestyle changes.



Parents who rely on oat based snacks can look for organic certification or brands that publish independent residue tests, a small but growing niche in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childrens-cereals-now-contain-more-sugar-and-fat-than-ever/">cereal</a> aisle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-better-monitoring">A call for better monitoring</h2>



Consumer groups are urging the federal government to add chlormequat to routine pesticide sampling programs and to set children specific safety factors that reflect the latest animal evidence.



Temkin and colleagues want larger epidemiological studies that track fertility outcomes in communities with high oat consumption, similar to historic work on other endocrine disruptors.



Until such data arrive, simple breakfast choices will continue to serve as an unintended experiment in chemical policy.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41370-024-00643-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Exposure Science &amp; Environmental Epidemiology</a>.



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Banned chemical is found in popular oat brands eaten by millions of people

A pesticide that American farmers cannot spray on food crops...

A new study has revealed how organic matter enables soil to lock in water, even in the driest climates. Researchers found that certain plant and microbial carbohydrates create microscopic “bridges” between soil minerals and organic molecules, trapping water that would otherwise evaporate into the air.



The work explains why adding compost or plant matter to soil makes it better at holding moisture - and could help design soils that act like long-term sponges.



“The right amount of minerals and organic matter in soils leads to healthy soils with good moisture,” said senior author Ludmilla Aristilde, a scientist at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.



“It’s something everyone has experienced, but we haven’t fully understood the physics and chemistry of how that works. By figuring this out, we could potentially engineer soil to have the right chemistry, turning it into long-term sponges that preserve moisture.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sugars-meet-soil-minerals">Sugars meet soil minerals</h2>



The researchers focused on smectite, a common clay mineral found in soils. They mixed it with three carbohydrates: glucose, amylose, and amylopectin.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glucose-the-sweet-secret-to-a-younger-brain/">Glucose</a> is a simple sugar. Amylose and amylopectin are more complex starch polymers made of linked glucose units. Amylose forms straight chains; amylopectin has branched, tree-like structures.



“We decided to use carbohydrates as a type of organic matter because it exists everywhere,” Aristilde said.



“Cellulose, which is the most abundant biopolymer on Earth, is made of glucose, and plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/">microbes</a> secrete different carbohydrates into soil. We also selected carbohydrates because they have simple chemistry to avoid complicating our results with certain side reactions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clay-s-double-grip-on-water">Clay’s double grip on water</h2>



Using molecular simulations, quantum mechanics, and lab experiments, the team studied how clay, water, and carbohydrates interact at the nanoscale.



They found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-land-based-water-storage-has-drastically-diminished-and-its-not-being-replaced/">water</a> forms hydrogen bonds not only with other water molecules but also with both clay surfaces and carbohydrates at the same time. 



These dual bonds create water “bridges” that cling tightly inside the soil’s structure.



“When a water molecule is retained via a hydrogen bond with a carbohydrate and a hydrogen bond with the surface of a mineral, this water has a strong binding energy and is stuck between the two things it’s interacting with,” Aristilde said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stronger-bonds-stronger-soil">Stronger bonds, stronger soil</h2>



Simulations showed that water lodged between clay and carbohydrates had far stronger binding energy than water on clay alone. 



Complex sugar polymers boosted water-binding strength by up to five times compared to bare clay. Soil with the right organic matter holds water more effectively, even in extreme dryness.



“We increased the temperature to measure water loss in both the presence and absence of carbohydrates,” Aristilde said.



“Compared to the clay by itself, it required higher temperatures for water to leave the matrix with the presence of the clay and carbohydrates together. This means the water was retained more strongly in the presence of the carbohydrates.”



In addition, the large, branched <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-molecule-could-shape-the-future-of-food-security/">carbohydrate molecule</a>s kept clay pores from fully collapsing when dried. Normally, as clay loses water, its nanopores shrink. 



But carbohydrates prevented complete collapse, allowing the soil to maintain pockets of trapped moisture for long periods - including during drought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-farms-to-mars">From farms to Mars</h2>



These findings could change the way farmers, gardeners, and environmental engineers think about soil health. By fine-tuning the balance of minerals and organic matter, it may be possible to create soils that retain water longer, reducing irrigation needs and helping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/critical-food-crops-are-threatened-by-rising-temperatures-globally/">crops</a> survive in dry regions.



The implications also extend to planetary science. The same chemistry may explain how moisture persisted in ancient Martian soils or meteorites for billions of years.



“Even though our goal was to understand how soil on Earth holds on to its moisture, the mechanisms we uncovered here may have implications in understanding phenomena beyond our planet,” Aristilde said.



“There is a lot of interest in how this relationship between organics and water might play out on other planets - especially those that are considered to have once harbored life.”



By uncovering the molecular “glue” that binds water to soil, the research opens up possibilities for sustaining life in the harshest conditions. This could apply both here on Earth and far across the solar system.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/advance-article/doi/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf259/8229066?searchresult=1&amp;login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Organic matter helps soil hold water - even in conditions like Mars

A new study has revealed how organic matter enables soil...

Ripe,Rice,In,Farm,Fields.,Autumn,Harvest,Season.

Rice plants run on sunlight, but they don’t always use that light wisely. A new study shows that gently rewriting their control code can raise the crop’s natural photosynthetic output and set the stage for sturdier harvests.



<a href="https://ripe.illinois.edu/team/dhruv-patel-tupper">Dhruv Patel-Tupper</a> and colleagues from the <a href="https://innovativegenomics.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Innovative Genomics Institute</a>, at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California Berkeley</a>, used CRISPR/Cas9 to rearrange short stretches of regulatory DNA upstream of a single rice gene, PsbS, and watched the plant ratchet up its own protein levels without a trace of foreign genetic material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-rice-deserves-attention">Why rice deserves attention</h2>



One fifth of global calorie intake comes from rice, making the grain an irreplaceable safety net for billions. 



Demand is rising fastest in regions already grappling with water scarcity and erratic weather, so every extra ounce harvested from existing fields matters.



Nearly 733 million people faced hunger in 2023, a number the <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/24-07-2024-hunger-numbers-stubbornly-high-for-three-consecutive-years-as-global-crises-deepen--un-report" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations</a> calls “stubbornly high” despite record food production. Rice yields have climbed, yet the pace of improvement has slowed as breeding hits biological ceilings.



Scientists have long known that the photosynthetic efficiency of most crops leaves room for improvement. 



A plant typically dissipates excess light as heat to avoid damage, a safety valve called non photochemical quenching that is governed by PsbS.



Earlier transgenic experiments in tobacco showed that overexpressing PsbS tightened water use by 25 percent under field conditions. Those gains hinted that dialing up the same gene in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-quietly-making-rice-more-dangerous/">rice</a> could lift both radiation use efficiency and yield.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tweaking-the-genetic-dimmer-switch">Tweaking the genetic dimmer switch</h2>



Traditional genetic modification bolts new genes into the genome, but that triggers lengthy regulation in many countries. 



The Berkeley team instead targeted the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/cis-regulatory-element" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cis regulatory</a> DNA that behaves like a dimmer, deciding when and how strongly a native gene turns on.



“Tools like CRISPR/Cas9 are accelerating our ability to fine tune gene expression in crops, rather than just knocking out genes or turning them ‘off’,” said Patel-Tupper. 



Their goal was audacious: increase expression rather than knock genes out, a harder trick because nature already keeps useful genes near optimum.



Eight CRISPR guides cut flanking regions of the promoter and 5′ untranslated zone, letting the plant’s own repair machinery shuffle fragments. 



In about one percent of edited seedlings a segment flipped orientation, an inversion that unexpectedly turbo charged PsbS transcription two to threefold.



“The changes in the DNA that increased gene expression were much bigger than we expected,” noted Patel-Tupper. 



Protein assays confirmed matching surges in PsbS abundance, while RNA sequencing found only 104 other genes nudged, less than 0.2 percent of the genome.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-lab-bench-to-paddy-field">From lab bench to paddy field</h2>



Greenhouse tests under intense red light showed that boosted PsbS plants dissipated extra energy faster yet kept carbon intake steady. 



Higher non photochemical quenching trimmed peak leaf temperatures, a side benefit that may shield crops during heat spikes.



Gas exchange measurements revealed an 11 percent jump in intrinsic water use efficiency, echoing earlier tobacco work. More efficient stomatal behavior means the plants release less water vapor per molecule of carbon dioxide captured.



Importantly, whole plant growth and grain fill matched or exceeded unedited controls when plants were raised to maturity in a sunlit glasshouse. 



That finding suggests the added photoprotection does not exact a penalty under moderate light, unlike some transgenic overexpression lines that ran short on energy.



The team’s long read sequencing traced the top performing allele to a 252 kilobase duplication inversion that left neighboring genes intact. 



Such large but surgical edits were once thought rare, new long read data imply they may be surprisingly common outcomes of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41438-020-0258-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> breaks in repetitive regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regulatory-shortcuts-and-farmer-benefits">Regulatory shortcuts and farmer benefits</h2>



Because the edit rearranges native DNA and removes the CRISPR machinery through breeding, U.S. regulators classify the resulting line as non regulated, clearing a quicker path to field trials.



Many countries follow a similar product based standard, so farmers could see seed in seasons rather than decades. 



The work also sidesteps public unease over “foreign genes.” Consumers get a variety that is genetically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-rice-plants-could-help-astronauts-grow-food-in-space/">rice</a> through and through, differing only in how vigorously one natural gene is read.



For breeders, the allele behaves like any conventional trait: it can be crossed into local varieties without lingering transgenes. 



That flexibility is crucial in Asia, where more than 200,000 distinct rice cultivars are grown across diverse soils and climates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-modest-step-against-hunger">A modest step against hunger</h2>



On its own, a two fold PsbS boost will not erase global hunger, yet stacking this trait with other edits that cut photorespiration or improve nitrogen uptake could compound gains. 



Computational models from the <a href="https://ripe.illinois.edu/news/over-coles-dynamic-photosynthesis-model-simulates-10-20-percent-yield-increase" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RIPE consortium</a> predict that integrating several photosynthetic tweaks might raise rice yields 20 percent under fluctuating field light.



Even incremental efficiency matters when climate extremes threaten harvests and irrigation water shrinks. If each percentage point in yield shields a few million people from calorie deficits, the payoff scales quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-efforts">Future efforts</h2>



The study also offers a template for editing upstream <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-study-reveals-secrets-of-weedy-rice-invasion/">DNA</a> of other single copy photosynthetic genes, many of which sit idle at midday when stress peaks. 



Moving beyond random mutagenesis into rational promoter refits could unlock traits breeders never dared chase before.



Patel-Tupper sees a broader lesson: plants tolerate large rearrangements far better than animals, providing engineers with unusual genomic “wiggle room.” 



Harnessing that plasticity responsibly may accelerate the shift toward climate smart agriculture without sparking regulatory gridlock.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adm7452" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Altering rice DNA improves its growth rate and could end world hunger

Rice plants run on sunlight, but they don’t always use...

Biodiversity benefits nature in many ways. A greater variety of plants and animals helps create forests that are stronger and better able to withstand pests, diseases, and changes in climate.



However, exactly how much biodiversity is needed - and in which places - has been somewhat unclear. A global study of forests by scientists at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> brings sharper focus to that question. 



The research suggests that biodiversity isn’t just good - it’s especially important in wetter places. For forest managers and conservationists, that detail could change how we approach <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/">tree planting</a> and restoration around the world.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">Diversity</a> matters everywhere we look. But in our experiments, we see it matters more in the wetter climates," said Peter Reich, professor of environment and sustainability and director of the Institute for Global Change Biology at the University of Michigan. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-trees-one-by-one">Looking at trees, one by one</h2>



The researchers studied 15 forest experiments across the globe through the Tree Diversity Network - the world’s largest of its kind. The analysis included nearly 100,000 trees and close to 130 species in a wide range of climates. 



The University of Michigan team collaborated with co-authors from more than 30 institutions across nearly a dozen countries.



The study was unusually detailed. Instead of treating each forest as one big data point, the scientists zoomed in. They looked at each tree individually, and then took note of its closest neighbors.



“What’s unique about our study is it has 15 long-term experiments with lots and lots and lots of trees,” said Reich. “Then, rather than looking at an entire community, we looked at every individual and eight or so of its neighbors and asked, ‘Are those neighbors diverse or not?’”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-biodiversity-boosts-tree-growth">Forest biodiversity boosts tree growth </h2>



The results revealed a clear pattern. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-trees-decide-between-growing-and-breathing/">Trees</a> in wetter climates grew more when surrounded by a mix of different species. The effect was weaker - or even nonexistent - in drier regions.



“This provides a more nuanced insight into how biodiversity works in different environments,” Reich said. “If you’re thinking of restoring or regrowing, it makes a lot of sense to plant diverse trees, especially in wetter areas.”



The “wetter” category is not limited to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-losing-their-carbon-storage-capacity/">tropical rainforests</a> either. By the study’s standard, forests in places like Michigan count as wet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-forest-biodiversity">Benefits of forest biodiversity </h2>



According to the researchers, the benefits of diversity were not just about the number of species.



“We find a tree growth boost in diverse tree neighborhoods with different species and functional traits - for example, specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/standard-cameras-can-now-track-plant-growth-in-3d/">leaf area</a> and wood density,” noted study lead author Liting Zheng, who conducted the research as a postdoctoral fellow at Michigan’s School of Environment and Sustainability.



“Our results highlight the importance of establishing and maintaining high neighborhood diversity in forest management - especially to maximize the potential of biodiversity as a nature-based climate solution in wetter regions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-climate-years">Extreme climate years</h2>



One surprising takeaway: the benefit of diversity didn’t increase during extreme climate years. It seemed more useful in typical conditions. That challenges the common belief that biodiversity is most helpful in tough times.



“Diversity appears to be better suited for the average condition, which matters for management,” Reich said. 



“There’s thinking that biodiversity is really going to help you when you have those extreme years and some evidence supporting this idea, but in our data this was not the case.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diversity-as-a-management-tool">Diversity as a management tool</h2>



There’s still more to learn, especially about how older forests behave. The trees studied were still young - just 4 to 14 years old. But the results are strong enough to guide real-world decisions about how we plant and protect forests going forward.



For wetter areas, at least, one thing is now very clear: variety isn’t just the spice of life - it’s how trees grow best.



Given that tree-tree interactions are ubiquitous and likely to interact with climate in both young and old forests, the findings suggest that neighborhood diversity could be incorporated as a management tool to enhance forest productivity, concluded the researchers.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02805-5">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Trees get a boost from diverse neighbors, especially in wet forests

Biodiversity benefits nature in many ways. A greater variety of...

Forests don’t plant themselves. In fact, the survival of many forests depends on a hidden network of animal workers that most people never think about. Birds, mammals, fish, and even a few amphibians are nature’s original gardeners, moving seeds from place to place and giving forests a chance to grow.



But this quiet system is breaking down. Populations of seed-dispersing animals are shrinking. Without them, many trees won’t survive, forests will lose their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">diversity</a>, and the fight against climate change will become even harder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-rely-on-animals-to-grow">Forests rely on animals to grow</h2>



In the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-vanishing-in-the-amazon-represent-a-global-shift-in-biodiversity/">Amazon</a> and Atlantic Forest, about 90 percent of trees depend on animals to spread their seeds. In the Cerrado, the number is 60 percent. 



These creatures aren’t just helping forests regenerate - they’re also indirectly helping the planet store carbon. When seed-dispersing animals disappear, forests change. Their ability to absorb carbon dioxide weakens, reducing their role in controlling global warming.



Yet, despite their importance, seed-spreading animals rarely get the attention they deserve in large-scale forest restoration plans. That’s a big oversight, noted an international team of researchers.



Mauro Galetti is co-director of the Center for Research on Biodiversity Dynamics and Climate Change (CBioClima), based at the Institute of Biosciences of <a href="https://www.international.unesp.br/">São Paulo State University</a> (IB-UNESP) in Rio Claro, Brazil.



“There’s a lot of talk today about carbon credits and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-restoration-aids-humans-nature-climate-together/">forest restoration</a>, but who ‘plants’ the carbon? It’s the toucan, the agouti, the tapir, the jacutinga," said Galetti. "To have a copaiba tree, for example, the forest needs toucans and monkeys to disperse its seeds."



"Therefore, we need to include frugivorous animals in the restoration equation, as there’s already enough science to quantify how much forest carbon is planted by animals.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-alarming-decline-of-seed-movers">The alarming decline of seed movers</h2>



A growing collection of research warns that the loss of frugivorous animals - animals that eat fruit - could sabotage efforts to protect and restore ecosystems.



A study published in the journal Science found that the worldwide loss of birds and mammals has already reduced seed dispersal by 60 percent.



“We’ve made great strides in addressing these problems of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/">seed disperser</a> loss, and although Brazil is the country with the most scientific studies on seed dispersal, we need to delve deeper into the problem," the researchers said. "In addition, we need to identify which strategies best restore seed dispersal.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-digestion-boosts-seed-success">Animal digestion boosts seed success</h2>



When an animal eats a fruit, the seed goes on a journey. It might get softened by stomach acids, scratched by a bird’s gizzard, or carried to a safer location. This treatment increases the seed’s chances of sprouting - and thriving away from its parent tree.



“Therefore, seeds consumed by animals will germinate more, faster, and will establish themselves in safer places to grow," said Galetti. "And if there’s no animal to ‘bruise’ the seed and take it away from the mother plant, it won’t germinate."



“The Brazil nut, for example, has only one disperser: the agouti. If the agouti becomes extinct locally, the Brazil nut’s seed-dispersal service will succumb. We therefore depend on a fundamental ecological service provided by the agouti."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-overlooked-partners-in-restoration">The overlooked partners in restoration</h2>



Like bees, seed-dispersing animals are vital for plant reproduction. Both groups face threats from habitat loss and human activity. 



But their challenges differ: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/">pollinators</a> are more impacted by pesticides, while seed dispersers are hit harder by habitat destruction and hunting.



The loss of pollinators often gets more attention because the consequences for food production are immediate and measurable. The decline of seed dispersers is slower and less visible, but the long-term effects on biodiversity and carbon storage are severe.



“Both are important and should be taken into account in restoration and conservation projects, Galetti said. 



"However, the decline of pollinators is more easily measured in the short term, generating immediate economic impacts such as loss of crop productivity, while the effects of seed-disperser loss occur slowly and broadly, compromising the functionality and resilience of ecosystems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-forest-needs-more-than-just-trees">A forest needs more than just trees</h2>



Right now, the economic costs of losing seed-dispersing animals remain largely unknown. What is clear is that restoration won’t work without them.



“Restoration isn’t just about planting trees; you have to consider who will maintain the future of that forest, which are the dispersing animals," Galetti said. "A few years ago, it was believed that by planting the forest, these animals would come to it."



"But that’s not how it works. It’s much more complex to have a restored forest functioning.” 



The researchers stress that ignoring seed dispersers could lead to forests that fail to recover from fires, degrade more quickly, and lose biodiversity.



“Addressing the decline of seed dispersers is critical to preserving animal biodiversity, ensuring forest connectivity, and balancing plant communities,” concluded Galetti.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44358-025-00053-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Biodiversity</a>.



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Forests at risk as seed-spreading animals disappear

Forests don’t plant themselves. In fact, the survival of many...

For flowering plants, the choice of a visiting insect or bird can be a matter of evolutionary life or death. A recent study reveals that even brief mismatches between when flowers bloom and when pollinators arrive can flip the direction of natural selection, favoring one floral form one week and a different form the next.



The work, led by biologist Liedson Carneiro from <a href="https://www.etsu.edu/ehome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East Tennessee State University</a>, shows how fast these “rules” can change inside a single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-blooming-92-days-earlier-due-to-climate-change/">flowering season</a> - and hints at what may lie ahead in a warming world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-bees-no-seeds">No bees, no seeds</h2>



The team focused on an oil-producing vine - nicknamed the Amazonvine - that climbs through Brazil’s dry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-have-strategies-to-survive-in-nutrient-poor-soils/">tropical forests</a>. The vine cannot self-pollinate; it relies on specialized oil-collecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-do-not-learn-to-be-cooperative-it-is-in-their-genes/">bees</a> that grasp the petals, extend their legs, and scrape off nutrient-rich floral oils. 



Those fingerprints - tiny scrapes on the petal surface - let researchers track exactly which flowers were visited and when.



The fieldwork took place in Parque Nacional do Catimbau, Pernambuco, during the species’ 2020 flowering season. Two snapshots were taken: an early census during the vine’s normal bloom peak and a second one four weeks later.



The contrast was stark. At the first visit more than 100 flowers were open, yet bee traffic was nearly absent. By the second survey, pollinator activity had surged. Ninety-four percent of late-blooming flowers bore the telltale scrape marks, compared with just 7.5 percent at peak bloom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-flip-flower-priorities">Bees flip flower priorities</h2>



Because flowers leave seeds only if they receive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-alters-cloud-formation-and-changes-weather-patterns/">pollen</a>, the researchers could link each plant’s “fitness” to its floral display. 



During the quiet early period, vines with the largest blossoms set the most fruit: bees apparently chose the biggest targets on their rare visits.



A month later, the tables turned. With bees everywhere, plants bearing smaller flowers now produced more seeds. When every blossom attracted attention, the value of extra-large petals evaporated; large flowers may even have cost the plant energy that could have gone into seed production.



Statistical models showed the relationship between flower size and fitness did not merely weaken - it actually reversed direction between the two censuses. 



Averaged over the entire season, the contradictory pulses canceled each other, leaving only weak overall selection on blossom size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-in-real-time"><a></a>Evolution in real time</h2>



The results matter because they confirm that evolutionary pressures can flip within weeks, not millennia.



“Our findings show that even within a single flowering season, temporal mismatches between plants and pollinators can shift how traits like flower size relate to reproductive success,” Carneiro said.



“These short-term dynamics may influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/">evolutionary outcomes</a>, help maintain trait diversity, and prevent rapid trait change in plant populations.”



That diversity can be a long-term boon, giving populations a preexisting mix of shapes and strategies to weather future shifts. But it also means conservationists cannot assume pollination patterns seen on one date will hold the following month - let alone the following year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-disrupts-pollinator-timing">Climate disrupts pollinator timing</h2>



Much discussion of plant-pollinator mismatches focuses on year-to-year effects: warming springs coax flowers to open earlier, while migrating hummingbirds and overwintering bees may lag behind.



The new study adds another layer of concern. In regions where rainfall, temperature, or day length fluctuate sharply over a few weeks, the “sweet spot” of overlap can shrink even inside one season.



If climate change makes those swings more extreme - stronger droughts, heavier downpours, hotter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/">heatwaves</a> - then the brief windows of perfect synchronization could become rarer.



In the Brazilian vine, peak bloom arrived before most bees became active. In other species, pollinators might appear before nectar flows. Either way, the study illustrates that a plant’s evolutionary trajectory can hinge on such timing errors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-insights-for-conservation">Timing insights for conservation</h2>



The research also highlights the value of detailed field observation. By sampling the same population twice, the scientists captured a live-action picture of selection that would have been invisible in a single survey. 



For ecologists monitoring threatened habitats, revisiting plots through the season could reveal hidden stresses - or hidden resilience.



In practical terms, knowing how selection fluctuates could guide which genotypes to conserve or propagate in restoration projects.



If climate change is likely to lengthen dry spells, for example, managers might favor individuals whose floral schedules naturally lags behind the average, ensuring flowers and bees still meet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-and-flowers-misaligned">Bees and flowers misaligned</h2>



Plant-pollinator partnerships are often portrayed as timeless mutualisms, but they are, in fact, dynamic negotiations subject to abrupt renegotiation.



The new work from northeastern Brazil delivers a clear message: evolution does not wait for the next <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lessons-from-the-ice-age-how-climate-change-reshapes-plant-life/">Ice Age</a>. It is happening now, blossom by blossom, as flowers and their faithful couriers dance to a rhythm increasingly disrupted by a changing climate.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/aob/advance-article/doi/10.1093/aob/mcaf126/8222357?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of Botany</a>.



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When bees arrive late, flowers may vanish

For flowering plants, the choice of a visiting insect or...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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