Wine is more than a beverage in Italy. It’s a cultural emblem, a historical constant, and an agricultural marvel. From rustic vineyard rows in the hills of Tuscany to sophisticated wine cellars beneath Rome, the Italian wine and grapes story is celebrated.



But few realize that this tale took shape over millennia. The wine we sip today results from thousands of years of patient transformation.



A new study published in the journal PLOS One uncovers this complex history. Led by Mariano Ucchesu from the <a href="https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=University+of+Montpellier&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Montpellier</a>, the research team analyzed 1,768 grape seeds from 25 archaeological sites across Italy and San Marino.



These seeds spanned from the Early Neolithic to the Medieval period, covering around 7,000 years. 



Using geometric morphometrics, the team compared ancient seeds to modern wild and cultivated grapes to track their evolution. What emerged was a slow, regionally varied shift from wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-grapes-every-day-can-transform-your-muscles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grape</a> gathering to systematic cultivation and winemaking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-italians-used-wild-grapes-for-wine">Early Italians used wild grapes for wine</h2>



The oldest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resveratrol-may-boost-female-fertility-naturally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grape</a> seeds, from the Early Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, show no signs of domestication. Most seeds resembled those of modern wild grapevines, suggesting early communities did not yet cultivate vines. 



Instead, people gathered berries from naturally growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/death-of-the-dinosaurs-helped-grapes-conquer-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>. These seeds, preserved in waterlogged conditions, remained intact and highly informative.



In these early phases, no domestic-type seed was identified. The study used advanced linear discriminant analysis, trained on a balanced modern reference set, to classify seeds with over 95% accuracy. 



Most pips from La Marmotta (Lazio) and Canàr di San Pietro in Polesine (Veneto) were wild. Even in the Middle Bronze Age, sites across Toscana, Marche, and Emilia Romagna showed only four domestic pips out of 142 examined - a number too small to indicate established cultivation.



This supports a picture of grape use as primarily foraged rather than grown. The absence of consistent domestic traits in northern and central Italy during this period points to a society still reliant on nature’s offerings rather than intentional farming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-point-in-grape-cultivation">Turning point in grape cultivation </h2>



One site, however, told a different story. Sa Osa in Sardinia revealed a turning point. 



By the end of the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1300–1100 BC), nearly half the seeds from this site were domestic in shape and size. This marks the first significant appearance of cultivated grapes in the western Mediterranean.



The domestic seeds from Sa Osa showed a distinct morphology. They were longer and more elongated, with features typical of modern cultivated grapes. 



Paleogenetic analysis revealed that some seeds shared chlorotypes with modern Armenian varieties. This suggests eastern Mediterranean grapevines reached Sardinia through trade or migration.



Several hypotheses exist to explain this. Local communities may have begun their own domestication process. Alternatively, they may have imported fully domesticated plants. 



Or perhaps there was a blend - cultivated grapes from the east mixed with Sardinian wild varieties, creating new hybrids. Evidence of wine residue in Bronze Age Sardinian pottery supports the idea that these grapes were used not just for eating, but for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wine-production-in-a-warming-world-the-winners-and-losers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fermentation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-exchange-and-early-viticulture">Cultural exchange and early viticulture</h2>



Sardinia’s role in early viticulture may have depended on its strategic location. The island maintained trade connections with the Mycenaeans and Minoans during the Bronze Age. 



These interactions likely carried not only goods but also agricultural knowledge. Techniques for pruning, vine training, and fermentation could have spread westward with sailors and merchants.



“The appearance of the first domesticated grapes during the Bronze Age, in Italian archaeological contexts, points to a long-standing tradition of Italian wine heritage within the broader landscape of Western Europe,” noted the researchers.



At Terramara Santa Rosa di Poviglio in Emilia Romagna, researchers found pollen matching female wild grapevines. This pollen came from flowers with inaperturate grains, a trait of uncultivated plants. 



Its presence suggests people may have been managing or cultivating wild grapevines nearby - an early, experimental form of agriculture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expansion-of-grape-farming">Expansion of grape farming</h2>



By the 4th century BC, Italy’s grape story had evolved. At Etruscan sites in Emilia Romagna, most seeds were domestic. This shows that true viticulture had taken root. Grape cultivation wasn’t just experimental - it was widespread and sophisticated.



Evidence from Cetamura in Tuscany backs this up. Genetic testing showed links between Etruscan grape seeds and both wild and domestic varieties. Morphometric analysis also aligned these seeds with modern cultivated grapes. 



The Etruscans not only grew grapes but made and traded wine extensively. Their amphorae have been found across France, Spain, and North Africa.



This period marks a major shift in both grape farming and wine culture. Grapes were chosen for specific traits, possibly including flavor, productivity, and resistance. These communities were no longer passive gatherers of fruit. They were actively shaping grape biology and wine traditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-romans-blended-wild-and-domestic-vines">Romans blended wild and domestic vines</h2>



Viticulture flourished under Roman rule. Between the 1st and 6th centuries AD, archaeological sites show a clear dominance of domestic grape seeds. However, wild seeds did not disappear. In places like Domagnano and Cervia, a significant number of wild or intermediate seeds were found alongside cultivated ones.



This mix points to a deliberate practice. Roman farmers may have cultivated wild vines to create new varieties through introgression. This genetic blending could result in grapes with novel traits—perhaps better suited to different soils or climates.



Interestingly, during Roman times, the difference in shape and size between wild and domestic seeds narrowed. This supports the idea that even wild-looking seeds were cultivated, though not fully transformed. 



Wine was a booming industry, and farmers likely tried every possible way to enhance their yields and flavors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grapes-and-wine-became-fully-domesticated">Grapes and wine became fully domesticated</h2>



The Medieval period (8th–14th centuries AD) marked a high point in grape domestication. 



Seeds from this era were almost entirely domestic in both shape and size. Sites in Trentino-Alto Adige, Emilia Romagna, and Sardinia all showed this trend.



These seeds closely resembled modern cultivated grapes, suggesting that experimental phases had ended. Farmers had identified and preserved varieties that worked well. Wild vines were no longer widely used. Grape cultivation had become standardized and entrenched in Italian agriculture.



Seed morphology over time supports this. Domestic seeds grew longer and more elongated. Wild seeds, when cultivated, also grew larger than their wild-growing counterparts. But by the Medieval period, the distinction between wild and domestic seeds was wide again, showing that viticulture had settled into a clear direction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-of-patience-and-innovation">A legacy of patience and innovation</h2>



“This research has made it possible, for the first time, to trace the history of the origins of viticulture in Italy,” the authors write. 



“The appearance of the first domesticated grapes during the Bronze Age, in Italian archaeological contexts, points to a long-standing tradition of Italian wine heritage within the broader landscape of Western Europe.”



Supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 program and the ANR MICA project, the study shows how cultural exchange, experimentation, and adaptation shaped Italy’s wine landscape. It emphasizes that domestication is not a moment, but a slow evolution.



“This research was made possible thanks to funding received through the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Curie Fellowship (2021–2023 n. Agreement-101019563-VITALY) and supported by the ANR MICA project (grant agreement ANR-22-CE27-0026),” noted the study authors. 



”The successful outcome of the research is also due to the valuable collaboration of the archaeobotanical colleagues from CNRS-ISEM in Montpellier and all the Italian colleagues who generously provided the archaeobotanical materials, valuable advice and suggestions for this research.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-italian-grapes-evolved-to-wine">Italian grapes evolved to wine</h2>



The domestication of grapes in Italy was not a single event. It unfolded over thousands of years, shaped by geography, trade, and curiosity. From wild vines gathered by Neolithic foragers to the disciplined vineyards of Medieval monks, the grape’s journey mirrors Italy’s own transformation.



Today, each glass of Italian wine carries that deep past. With every sip, you taste the result of ancient selections, cross-regional exchanges, and countless seasons of change. The story of the Italian grape is, in essence, the story of civilization itself - patient, rooted, and ever evolving.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321653" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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How grapes became wine in Italy over 7,000 years

Wine is more than a beverage in Italy. It’s a cultural emblem, a historical constant, and an agricultural marvel. From rustic vineyard rows in the hills of Tuscany to sophisticated wine cellars beneath Rome, the Italian wine and grapes story is celebrated. But few realize that this tale took shape over millennia. The wine we sip today results from thousands of years of patient transformation. A new study published in the journal PLOS One uncovers this complex history. Led by Mariano Ucchesu from the University of Montpellier,...

From playground coughs to forest blights, the young suffer more from disease than adults. This pattern stretches across ecosystems and species. Children in schools catch colds more frequently. Seedlings wilt under fungal attacks while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mature</a> plants stand strong. 



Scientists have long wondered why evolution hasn’t corrected this vulnerability. Shouldn’t early life be better protected, given how deadly infection can be at that stage?



A new study from University of Maryland (<a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UMD</a>) biologists brings some clarity to this age-old puzzle. Their work doesn’t focus on toddlers or baby animals, but on plants. Specifically, they looked at Silene latifolia, or white campion, a common wildflower in Europe and parts of North America. 



This plant is often infected by a fungal disease called anther-smut. It doesn’t kill the host but stops it from reproducing by destroying its pollen-producing parts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-costly-defense-in-youth">A costly defense in youth</h2>



The researchers found that young plants face a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-dont-all-plants-grow-everywhere-across-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serious trade-off</a>. Those that resist disease early on do so at a steep cost. Their growth slows down, and their reproductive success later in life drops significantly.



“It’s a mystery why young organisms don’t evolve stronger disease resistance because getting sick early in life can be deadly,” said study co-author Emily Bruns, an assistant professor of biology at UMD. 



“Our findings suggest that a hidden trade-off is involved, stopping them from being able to completely fight off a disease."



To uncover these patterns, the team grew 45 genetically different lines of the white campion under controlled lab conditions. They tracked how each one responded to the anther-smut fungus as seedlings and later in life. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-immunity-drains-energy">Early immunity drains energy</h2>



The results showed that baby plants with stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-plants-cant-outrun-climate-change-on-their-own/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resistance</a> produced far fewer flowers and seeds as adults - even when grown in fields without any disease.



This surprised the researchers. Why should <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-build-their-cell-walls-is-seen-by-scientists-for-the-first-time-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">defense</a> in early life cost so much? The answer lies in how plants allocate energy. 



Young plants, like young animals, operate with limited internal resources. What they spend on defense cannot go toward growing roots, leaves, or reproductive tissues later.



“We found that young plants paid a higher ‘cost’ for fighting the disease compared with adult plants,” Bruns said. 



“Trying to fight off the fungus was more difficult and resource-consuming for these baby plants. They only have so much energy to spend. If baby plants spend it on disease defense, they can’t put it toward future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">growth</a>.”



This concept is important. Adult plants with high resistance show no such penalty. They’ve already developed their roots and leaves and can afford to spend more on immune defenses. 



Seedlings, on the other hand, gamble with every drop of stored energy. Using it on immunity might leave them alive, but too weak to reproduce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-is-halted-in-young-plants">Evolution is halted in young plants</h2>



To test whether this cost could explain why strong juvenile resistance doesn’t evolve, the researchers created a mathematical model. It revealed that the energy price of resistance is high enough to halt the evolution of stronger defenses in young plants. 



If this cost didn’t exist, plants with better early resistance would outcompete others and wipe out the disease. But because resistance drains future reproductive potential, evolution holds back.



“Some young plants ‘pay the cost’ and survive into adulthood, but they make fewer flowers, meaning they’re less able to reproduce,” Bruns explained. “But most remain susceptible as babies, allowing the disease a toehold.”



Even more surprisingly, the negative effects didn’t appear immediately. Young plants that resisted the disease looked healthy during the first growing season. But when they reached their reproductive peak in the second year, the impact showed. These plants bloomed far less than expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-shapes-the-impact">Gender shapes the impact</h2>



The researchers also found a striking difference between male and female plants. Males suffered much higher penalties when they invested in resistance. 



Bruns thinks this might be because male white campion plants produce more flowers than females. Their reproductive success depends on spreading as much pollen as possible, so losing energy to defense hits them harder.



“Male plants produce many more flowers than females to spread their pollen as widely as possible - making the cost of diverting resources to disease resistance especially steep for males,” she said.



This insight points to how evolution can apply pressure differently across sexes. In plants as in animals, reproductive strategy affects how disease shapes the body. The same infection might challenge one sex more than the other, depending on where they spend their biological resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-young-plants-weakness-matters">Why young plants’ weakness matters </h2>



While this research focuses on a wildflower, its implications stretch far. Many species - from humans to fish - show a similar pattern: greater vulnerability in youth. Bruns believes this study offers a new lens for thinking about why that happens.



Because juveniles carry the disease burden for many populations, understanding why they remain vulnerable could help us design better approaches in agriculture, conservation, and health.



“Nature is full of infectious diseases. Understanding the different checks and balances between hosts and pathogens helps us understand how evolution has shaped these relationships over millions of years,” Bruns said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-experiments-and-applications">Future experiments and applications</h2>



The team doesn’t plan to stop with this study. They now want to know if timing matters. What happens if the disease hits just a little later - after seedlings grow their first true leaves and rely less on stored energy? Could resistance become less costly then?



They also plan to explore another angle: the protective effect of adult plants. If resistant adult plants surround seedlings, would that lower the local disease pressure? Could the adults, in effect, guard the next generation by absorbing the fungal threat?



These questions could open new research paths - not just for ecologists, but also for people trying to reduce disease in crops or manage infections in wildlife. 



Evolution has no perfect solutions. But studies like this reveal the complex calculations that every organism, even a wildflower seedling, must make.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2419192122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.</a>



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Young plants pay a big price for fighting off disease

From playground coughs to forest blights, the young suffer more...

Today, April 5th, brings with it a gentle, golden celebration - National Dandelion Day. At first glance, the dandelion might seem like just another weed. It pops up uninvited on lawns, fields, and roadsides. But beneath that familiar yellow bloom lies a rich story of endurance, healing, and quiet resilience.



"In our modern society, dandelions are considered a weed. The definition of a weed is a plant that is not valued where it is growing," notes the <a href="https://dandelionproject.org/pages/about-us" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dandelion Project</a>.



"The truth is dandelions have great value, but we've overlooked that in favor of perfectly manicured lawns. Perhaps we need to change our perception and recognize their worth."



This day is not just about admiring a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-as-food-how-ultrasound-makes-it-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flower</a>. It’s about recognizing how something small and often overlooked can travel across the world and take root in every corner. 



Dandelions tell a story of resilience, scattering hope with every seed they send into the wind. Their gentle drift reminds us that true strength is often found in life’s simplest forms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-national-dandelion-day-a-humble-flower">National Dandelion Day: A humble flower</h2>



Dandelions belong to a vast genus of flowering plants in the Asteraceae family. Originally native to Eurasia, they didn’t stay confined for long. European travelers brought them to North America, where the plant took hold quickly. 



Today, dandelions grow in nearly every part of the world. You’ll find them in grassy fields, between cracks in sidewalks, along rivers, and in mountain meadows. They thrive where other plants struggle.



What sets dandelions apart isn’t just their spread, but how they adapt. They grow fast, survive droughts, and keep returning even when removed. 



With deep taproots and clever seed dispersal, dandelions have mastered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-friendly-gardening-why-flower-diversity-is-so-important/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>. They don’t demand attention - they simply exist and persist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-of-survival">The science of survival</h2>



Dandelions are perennial, herbaceous plants with taproots that go deep into the soil. Their resilience begins underground. Once their yellow petals fall away, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-blooming-92-days-earlier-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flower</a> transforms. 



A spherical seed head forms, light and feathery. Each seed is equipped with a parachute-like structure. The wind does the rest. These seeds can travel across great distances and colonize new areas with ease.



This is nature’s way of giving the dandelion a wide reach. While most flowering plants rely on bees or birds, the dandelion trusts the wind. In doing so, it often ends up in unlikely places where it plants new roots and begins again.



The image of those seeds catching the breeze is both scenic and symbolic. They teach us about freedom, possibility, and quiet determination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rooted-in-history-and-healing">Rooted in history and healing</h2>



Scientists believe that dandelions have been around for 30 million years. Their origin traces back to the Eurasian region. 



Long before modern science acknowledged their value, ancient people knew their worth. Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans used dandelions for their medicinal properties. So did the Chinese, who incorporated them into traditional medicine.



By 900 AD, Persians were already calling the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-tracks-changes-in-seasonal-flower-cycles-and-migration-patterns-from-the-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> "tarashquq." A century later, the philosopher Ibn Sīnā wrote about dandelions in his medical texts. 



During the 16th century, English herbalists like John Gerard and John Parkinson began documenting its use in healing remedies. Across cultures and centuries, the plant served as food and medicine.



In America, settlers used every part of the plant. The leaves were eaten raw or cooked. The roots brewed into tea. Flowers turned into wine. The dandelion was never wasteful. It gave generously - nutrients, color, and comfort in equal measure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutrition-in-every-leaf-and-petal">Nutrition in every leaf and petal</h2>



Dandelion greens are full of health benefits. Raw leaves offer calcium, potassium, iron, manganese, and an array of vitamins. The flowers can be used to make natural dyes, adding color to fabrics or paper. The roots go deep into the earth and pull up nutrients, making them valuable in both human diets and soil health.



Though often called a weed, the dandelion plays an active role in ecosystems. Its flowers attract pollinators, especially early in spring when few other blossoms bloom. Bees, butterflies, and other insects rely on them. 



The plant can also improve soil structure. When planted carefully, dandelions enrich gardens by supporting other plants.



However, dandelions can grow aggressively. In farmlands or gardens, they may crowd out crops if unmanaged. They don’t ask permission before spreading, and that has earned them a mixed reputation. But their impact depends on how humans choose to interact with them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-journey-before-national-dandelion-day">The journey before National Dandelion Day </h2>



The story of the dandelion includes some notable moments. Around 30 million years ago, it began evolving in the wilds of Eurasia. 



By 900 AD, Persians had named it. By 1000 AD, scholars were writing about its healing powers. In the 16th century, it gained a foothold in European medicine.



Its journey didn’t stop there. With every gust of wind, dandelions moved farther, took root deeper, and grew stronger. 



This simple plant carries generations of knowledge within its stems and leaves. It tells a story of migration, medicine, and nature’s quiet intelligence.



Dandelions thrive in a wide range of environments, particularly in temperate zones with moist soil, which offer ideal growing conditions. They are commonly found across the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, and Turkey. 



Dandelions are classified as herbs and are valued for their powerful medicinal properties, especially in treating infections and aiding digestion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-meets-the-eye">More than meets the eye</h2>



The word "dandelion" comes from the French dent de lion, meaning “lion’s tooth.” This refers to the jagged shape of its leaves. Some ancient cultures believed dandelions caused bed-wetting when touched. Others believed their roots could open psychic pathways.



Vineland, New Jersey, proudly calls itself the dandelion capital. And in case you were wondering - every part of the dandelion is edible. From root to flower, nothing goes to waste.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-national-dandelion-day">Honoring National Dandelion Day </h2>



Dandelions are among the most widespread wildflowers in the world. They withstand harsh, unforgiving climates on every continent and continue to thrive - earning their place as one of our favorite flowers with a powerful story to tell.



This flower teaches survival. Not through might, but through endurance. Not by force, but by grace.



There’s a quiet awe in witnessing something both beautiful and functional spread swiftly and silently across the world. The dandelion, born from a single seed, perfectly captures this. Its status as one of the most widespread wildflowers reflects the subtle yet powerful reach of nature.



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National Dandelion Day: Celebrating a flower that travels the world

Today, April 5th, brings with it a gentle, golden celebration...

Urbanization is reshaping more than just skylines. As cities expand and natural landscapes give way to concrete and park lawns, the soil beneath our feet is changing too.



The diversity of life underground - especially among bacteria and fungi - is responding to the pressures of urban development in surprising ways.



New research now shows that, while bacterial communities are becoming more alike across cities, fungal communities are holding onto their unique identities.



This new study comes from scientists at <a href="https://en.sjtu.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shanghai Jiao Tong University</a>, the University of Helsinki, and other international institutions. 



The researchers studied soil microbial communities in boreal, temperate, and tropical biomes. They looked at sites ranging from undisturbed forests to urban parks of various ages. 



Their findings reveal a striking contrast in how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-engage-in-more-conversations-after-rainfall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a> have responded to urbanization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-bacteria-reshaped-by-urbanization">Soil bacteria reshaped by urbanization </h2>



The researchers found that bacteria in urban soils tend to behave like generalists. They adapt quickly and can thrive in a range of conditions. 



In fact, the similarity between bacterial communities rose from 79% in forests to 85% in younger urban parks. About 90% of urban soil bacteria were generalists.



Fungi, on the other hand, proved to be more resistant to change. Roughly 83% of fungi remained specialists - organisms that stick to very specific environmental conditions.



Their evolutionary pace is slower than that of bacteria and they don't share genes as easily. This keeps them more rooted to particular niches.



“Urbanization is a powerful force reshaping soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-soil-planet-warming-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial communities</a>, yet bacteria and fungi respond in strikingly different ways. Bacteria swiftly adapt to urban conditions, whereas fungi retain their ecological specialization, highlighting the complex interplay between microbial adaptation and ecosystem resilience,” noted Dr. Nan Hui, the study’s corresponding author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-bacteria-and-fungi-different">What makes bacteria and fungi different?</h2>



The contrasting responses of bacteria and fungi to urbanization stem from their fundamental biological differences. 



Bacteria are single-celled organisms with relatively simple structures and rapid reproduction cycles. They readily exchange genetic material through processes like horizontal gene transfer, allowing them to adapt quickly to new or stressful environments.



Fungi, by contrast, are more complex. Many are multicellular, forming extensive underground networks known as mycelia. These structures connect them intimately to their surroundings, making them less mobile and less genetically flexible than bacteria. 



Fungi also tend to evolve more slowly and rely heavily on specific environmental conditions and host relationships.



These inherent traits explain why bacteria can act as generalists in urban soils - adapting and thriving across varied settings - while fungi often remain tied to particular ecological niches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-bacteria-adapt-to-urbanization">Soil bacteria adapt to urbanization </h2>



Despite their different strategies, both bacteria and fungi are essential for the same big job: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-soils-produce-a-symphony-of-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keeping the soil healthy</a>. They break down organic matter and recycle nutrients.



The study shows that even though the fungi and bacteria populations shift differently, their shared functional traits help maintain these vital services in urban soils.



This redundancy in ecological roles means cities aren’t necessarily doomed to poor soil health. The resilience is built in. And that’s good news for city planners and environmental managers looking to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-green-spaces-are-urgently-needed-across-the-global-south/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban green spaces</a>.



It also suggests that microbial soil communities can adapt to disturbance without losing their core functions. With the right support, urban soils can continue to thrive - even in heavily modified environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-city-soil-resilience">The future of city soil resilience</h2>



Soil microbes are often overlooked in discussions about biodiversity, especially in cities. But this study makes it clear that they play a vital role in sustaining life above the surface. Understanding their behavior under the stress of urbanization is a step toward building more resilient cities.



Future research could explore how certain design choices - like the age of green spaces or the types of plants used - shape these microbial communities.



Microbial studies like this one are essential for designing urban environments that support biodiversity, climate resilience, and long-term sustainability.



The more we learn about what keeps urban soils alive, the better equipped we’ll be to nurture the ecosystems that support us - even in the heart of the city.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666498425000250?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science and Ecotechnology</a>.



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Soil bacteria and fungi respond differently to urbanization

Urbanization is reshaping more than just skylines. As cities expand...

Why do some plant species grow and flourish only in certain places, while their close relatives take root in faraway landscapes? Scientists have wrestled with this mystery for years, hoping to understand how nature sets its limits.



A global investigation of nearly 270,000 seed plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> sheds new light on the environmental and historical factors that decide where vegetation can prosper.



The research was led by an international team that examined climate data, soil conditions, and ancient geologic events spanning millions of years. The break apart of the supercontinent Pangea due to plate tectonics is one significant event which saw a drastic change in plant life. 



The investigation's central findings trace back to work by Dr. Lirong Cai from the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a> and the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), who served as a key figure in this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-grow-in-some-places-only">Plants grow in some places only</h2>



Many scientists argue that biodiversity is shaped by more than just random spread or occasional migration. 



Climate, <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/soil-composition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil composition</a>, and geographical barriers are thought to play a strong part in keeping certain plant groups confined to specific locations. In turn, the locations become a place for unique plants to thrive.



Researchers have also turned to phylogenetic methods that track family trees over deep timescales. This <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.292.5517.673" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approach</a> helps reveal when a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-plants-cant-outrun-climate-change-on-their-own/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant group</a> encountered new conditions or broke past a barrier into another region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-and-soil-affect-plant-growth">Climate and soil affect plant growth</h2>



Temperature and moisture have long been recognized as strong regulators of distribution, influencing growth and survival. 



Some species can endure extreme cold, drought, or humidity better than others. This paves the way for plant growth to flourish or can restrict them to smaller pockets.



Shifts in habitat conditions can push certain lineages to adapt over time. Others may fail to survive these changes, leaving them behind as evidence of how vital the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-stops-the-spread-of-plants">What stops the spread of plants?</h2>



Physical structures such as mountains, deserts, and vast oceans block species from expanding at certain stages. Younger plant lineages often get stranded, while older ones might have had more time to grow and overcome these obstacles.



Older plants are more accustomed to harsh weather and soil conditions. Not only have older plants had more time to grow than younger plants, older plants are familiar with the structures around them.



This familiarity gives older plant species an advantage which allows the plant to continue to grow without becoming trapped due to terrain or physical structures.



“These findings reveal a fundamental process in nature. Given enough time, plants can overcome the barriers of vast distances and geography, but they often remain limited by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a> they encounter,” said Dr. Cai.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-continents-changed-plant-paths">Shifting continents changed plant paths</h2>



Continents <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16701355/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drifted</a> into different positions between 20 and 50 million years ago, opening or closing routes that influenced plant travel.



This rearrangement had moderate impacts on long-term distribution, though it was more pronounced within that window of shifting plates.



Some groups of plants managed to traverse newly connected landmasses, while others remained clustered where they first took root. The lasting effect of those movements is still visible in the distribution <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-understanding-of-light-detection-in-plants-may-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> seen today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-plants-spread-more">Ancient plants spread more</h2>



Genetic evidence confirms that <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02599-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal barriers</a> remain tough to conquer in the short run, even though ancient lineages managed to spread widely over longer intervals. 



Oceanic gaps and hostile climates slow down or halt these botanical journeys. Unfortunately, some plants cannot survive and spread in specific environments.



Because of this, environmental filtering stays a constant factor. Where the temperature or moisture swings too far from a species’ tolerance, the plants refuse to grow or venture there, no matter how long they have existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Ecologists see value in integrating more detailed geological reconstructions with modern species data. Climate fluctuations, like those in the past Ice Ages, also carry <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.292.5517.673" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clues</a> about how quickly species can respond or shift their homes.



A broader understanding may inspire efforts to protect fragile habitats. Some zones remain high-risk for plant extinctions if conditions change faster than species can grow or adapt.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02599-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Why don’t all plants grow everywhere across the world?

Why do some plant species grow and flourish only in...

Newly published research suggests that toxins aren't reserved for creatures like snakes, spiders, or scorpions, which we've traditionally labeled as venomous. A surprising cast of organisms also use comparable tactics.



Growing evidence indicates that many plants, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-fungi-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a>, and microorganisms rely on venom-like methods to protect themselves from threats and outmaneuver other organisms. The research challenges assumptions we've held about which living things can deliver a harmful punch and opens new doors for scientific inquiry.



Venomous animals have long fascinated biologists that were seeking to understand their deadly secretions and the traits associated with their use, but have also contributed numerous life-saving therapeutics, said William K. Hayes, professor of biology at Loma Linda University <a href="https://medicine.llu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Medicine</a>.&nbsp;



This perspective casts a wider net over organisms that employ toxic secretions, raising hopes that an even broader range of life forms could offer untapped chemical treasures for medicine and research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venom-goes-beyond-animals">Venom goes beyond animals</h2>



<a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/17/3/99" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have begun to expand the basic definition of venom beyond what is produced by snakes or spiders, since a strictly animal-based perspective overlooks key examples in other branches of life. 



A toxin introduced into the internal tissues of a target through a specialized structure could also describe the stinging hairs on some plants, the penetration mechanisms used by certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-fungal-networks-are-natures-hyper-efficient-architects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a>, and even the injection systems of a few bacteria.



One example includes certain <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/Urticaceae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nettle species</a> that can puncture skin upon contact, while other flora form alliances with stinging ants for defense, effectively tapping into ant venom as a shared resource. 



Scientists investigating <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abb8828" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian stinging trees</a>, for instance, have identified peptides that trigger severe and long-lasting discomfort, mirroring what happens when an animal injects toxins through fangs or barbs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-and-viruses-use-venom">Fungi and viruses use venom</h2>



Fungi have also developed toxin-delivery tactics that come into play when they invade living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-fungi-diversity-can-be-pulled-out-of-thin-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hosts</a>, and these strategies often involve sophisticated enzymatic activity that breaches protective barriers. 



Certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/entomopathogenic-fungus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">entomopathogenic species</a>, such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/cordyceps" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cordyceps fungi</a>, infect insects by using specialized structures to pierce the exoskeleton, then introduce <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15792702/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical compounds</a> that cripple the insect’s immune response and ultimately pave the way for the fungus to feed.



Viruses might appear too simple to fit our usual venom concepts, but some can inject their genetic material directly into a cell using a needle-like mechanism that disrupts normal function. 



This approach even underpins emerging <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/795414/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ideas</a> about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0882401024005552" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phage therapy</a> for antibiotic-resistant infections, since bacteriophages can selectively invade harmful bacteria and dismantle them from the inside.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-microbial-strategies">Hidden microbial strategies</h2>



Bacterial warfare often revolves around <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26999395/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialized secretory systems</a> that shoot toxins straight into rival cells, effectively seizing control or neutralizing threats on the microbial battlefield. 



These intricate setups, including type III and type VI secretion systems, function much like an inbuilt syringe, enabling bacteria to sabotage plant or animal tissues while gaining an upper hand in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



Competition among microbes can be fierce, with each species fighting for resources in shared environments, and these hidden battles often hinge on toxin injection that allows one group to dominate a niche.



Some strains even produce <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29405518/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contractile devices</a> that resemble phage tails, launching protein payloads across cell membranes to stop competing organisms in their tracks and often developing self-protective measures to avoid collateral damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venom-from-fungi-plants-and-microbes">Venom from fungi, plants, and microbes</h2>



Medical <a href="https://www.weforum.org/stories/2018/11/venomics-deadly-toxins-life-saving-drugs-mande-holford/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> have long looked to animal venoms for treatments that range from blood pressure medication to pain relief, leveraging the finely tuned molecules that evolved to subdue prey or fend off enemies. These endeavors fuel optimism about searching for new leads among non-animal toxins. 



If plants, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-eating-fungus-beauveria-bassiana-causes-the-immune-system-to-attack-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a>, and microbes also contain potent substances shaped by similar evolutionary pressures, then a bigger repository of chemical compounds could emerge for developing therapies against infections, chronic pain, or even cancer.



Adopting a more inclusive perspective on what qualifies as venom might shift the way scientists collaborate across disciplines, bringing together botanists, microbiologists, and pharmacologists in shared discovery that breaks conventional boundaries. 



This approach could spark fresh ideas about the ecological roles of toxins in nature, pave the way for advanced drug development pipelines, and spur new methods for controlling pests or pathogens.



The research reminds us that the line between harmful and helpful can be surprisingly thin when viewed through a different lens.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/17/3/99" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Toxins</a>.



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Venom beyond animals: The toxic arsenal of fungi, plants, and microbes

Newly published research suggests that toxins aren't reserved for creatures...

For over 165 years, scientists have puzzled over a strange fossil called&nbsp;Prototaxites. Even its appearance was unusual. It stood up to 8 meters tall, and resembled a towering tree with no leaves.



These curious lifeforms appeared during the late Silurian period, around 400 million years ago. Found among early ferns and horsetails, they lacked branches and looked nothing like modern trees.



In 1859, Canadian geologist John William Dawson thought these fossils were decaying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/palm-tree-fossils-found-in-the-arctic-rewrite-earths-climate-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> trunks. He named them "first conifer," a name that stuck even as confusion deepened. 



The mystery has only grown as modern science has applied new tools, yet the answers remained elusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-was-prototaxites-a-fungus">Was Prototaxites a fungus?</h2>



For decades, the idea that Prototaxites was a fungus gained support. 



In 2001, paleontologist Francis Hueber proposed it was a giant terrestrial fungus, based on anatomical features like the presence of tubular structures. 



Later, in 2017, researchers identified what they believed were fruiting bodies in the fossil, linking it to Ascomycota, a modern fungal group.



But there was a problem - these supposed reproductive parts had never been shown to connect with the vegetative body. That raised concerns. 



Could these fragments have belonged to an entirely different organism? Without direct evidence, the fungal identity of Prototaxites remained guesswork.



Despite ongoing debate, the fungus theory persisted. That is, until a team led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a> took a closer look. 



They re-examined Prototaxites taiti, a species preserved in Scotland’s Rhynie chert, which is one of the best <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-oasis-provided-refuge-for-plants-during-earths-worst-extinction-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> deposits from the early Devonian period. Their findings call everything we thought we knew into question.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-largest-organism-of-the-devonian-landscape">Largest organism of the Devonian landscape</h2>



The team focused on an exceptionally well-preserved fossil labeled NSC.36. This fossil showed a cross-section of P. taiti and revealed medullary spots - dark, circular features - spread throughout its body.



The sample of rock that was used for analysis was roughly cylindrical, 5.6 cm (2.2 inches) wide and nearly 7 cm (2.8 inches) long, but incomplete. This suggests the original organism was much larger, likely a towering figure in its environment.



At the microscopic level, the researchers discovered three distinct types of tubes running lengthwise through the fossil. 



Type 1 tubes were thin, septate, and branched. Type 2 tubes were wider, with smooth double walls and no internal cross-walls. Type 3 tubes were thickest, and featured ring-like thickenings that do not match any known fungal type. These structures appeared interwoven, forming a dense, interconnected network inside the fossil.



Interestingly, these anatomical features resembled some aspects of fungi - but not enough to confirm a match. The third tube type, with its annular thickenings, doesn’t appear in any known fungal group, which raised immediate doubts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-medullary-spots-with-no-equal">Strange medullary spots with no equal</h2>



Using confocal laser scanning microscopy and 3D imaging, the team examined the medullary spots in detail. These regions contained all three tube types and added even finer ones, some just 1 micron in diameter. The branching patterns inside were complex and lacked the clear order seen in today's fungal systems.



In modern fungi, branching follows a hierarchy - generative hyphae give rise to other types in a predictable pattern. But in P. taiti, the branching had no clear direction or sequence. Tubes connected in all directions, forming a chaotic mesh.



“There are no structures analogous to medullary spots in extant fungi,” the researchers noted.



They also rejected the idea that these spots resembled fruiting bodies of ascomycetes. Even though some scientists once thought the spots hinted at spore production, no organic connection exists between these spots and any supposed reproductive structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prototaxites-lacked-fungal-or-plant-traits">Prototaxites lacked fungal or plant traits</h2>



Next, the team analyzed the fossil’s molecular makeup using FTIR spectroscopy. 



They compared P. taiti with fungi, plants, animals, and bacteria from the same deposit. All these fossils had undergone the same fossilization process, which allowed for reliable side-by-side comparison.



The results were striking. The fossil lacked any trace of chitin or chitosan, which are essential compounds found in fungal cell walls. Even perylene - a chemical marker of ascomycete fungi - was absent in P. taiti, though present in the surrounding substratum.



Instead, P. taiti’s cells contained aromatic and phenolic compounds resembling fossilized lignin. Lignin is found in land plants, but this version differed chemically. It was something entirely distinct - resembling lignin, yet not plant-like.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-confirms-its-isolation">Machine learning confirms its isolation</h2>



To test the molecular data further, the team used machine learning models. These models were trained to distinguish organisms based on their molecular fingerprints. 



The results were clear. The models identified P. taiti as something different from fungi, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, bacteria, or plants - with over 90% accuracy.



"We conclude that the morphology and molecular fingerprint of P. taiti is clearly distinct from that of the fungi and other organisms preserved alongside it in the [Devonian deposit], and we suggest that it is best considered a member of a previously undescribed, entirely extinct group of eukaryotes," the authors note.



With no known taxonomic group sharing its combination of anatomy, chemistry, and lifestyle, Prototaxites stands apart. It was a eukaryote - meaning it had complex cells with nuclei - but that’s where the similarities end.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-a-plant-fungus-or-animal">Not a plant, fungus, or animal</h2>



The researchers tested every possible affiliation. Could it be an alga? No, P. taiti lacked the necessary photosynthetic structures and was chemically dissimilar. Could it be an early land plant? Again, the absence of vascular tissues and other plant traits ruled that out.



How about lichen? Not possible without a photobiont. Oomycetes? The molecular composition didn’t match. Even animals were ruled out. Metazoans do not have tube-like structures with cell walls, and P. taiti clearly did.



In the end, the team’s classification table showed the same result for every group: rejected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prototaxites-evolution-s-lost-experiment">Prototaxites: Evolution’s lost experiment</h2>



Prototaxites might be the last known member of its kind. It formed massive vertical structures from underground networks. It likely absorbed nutrients from decaying matter, much like modern saprotrophs. Yet it was not a fungus, not a plant, and not an animal.



"Based on this investigation we are unable to assign Prototaxites to any extant lineage, reinforcing its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">uniqueness</a>," the authors concluded.



And that may be all we ever know. With no modern descendants and no living relatives, Prototaxites exists only as a fossil - part of a long-vanished branch of life. It reminds us that evolution is full of strange ideas, some of which thrived briefly before disappearing forever.



The ancient world was full of life unlike anything we see today. Prototaxites was one of its boldest experiments - and perhaps, one of its most fascinating failures.



The study is published in the pre-print server <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.03.14.643340v1.full.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioRxiv</a>.



Image Credit: CC BY-SA 4.0



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Giant, mysterious organisms discovered are impossible to categorize

For over 165 years, scientists have puzzled over a strange...

A new study shows that the forces creating mountain ranges can also drive species diversity, illuminating how Earth’s geological processes shape the evolution of life. 



The work marks a breakthrough in understanding why mountainous areas are hotbeds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-species-diversity-shaped-by-climate-change-for-21000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species diversity</a> and how tectonic activities may have guided the evolutionary paths of certain groups of organisms over millions of years. The study was co-authored by researchers at <a href="https://www.iu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indiana University</a> (IU).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-mountains-and-new-species">Rising mountains and new species</h2>



Long recognized as biological treasure troves, mountain regions often hold surprising numbers of plant and animal species. Yet, it has been difficult to tease out whether high biodiversity naturally accompanies the rugged terrain or if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a>’ geological formation directly promotes new evolutionary processes.



According to this new study, the mere act of mountains rising can create conditions that give birth to new species. Shifting landscapes open up new habitats and geographically isolate populations, encouraging the emergence of new, distinct species - a process known as allopatric speciation.&nbsp;



Among smaller animals such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modern-day-plague-rodents-fleas-and-their-impact-on-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rodents</a>, the team found a strong correlation between how quickly and how high mountains lift up and the degree of species diversification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-with-virtual-worlds">A closer look with virtual worlds</h2>



The research team, which includes Eyal Marder of the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> (a former IU postdoctoral fellow) and Brian Yanites, an associate professor of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at IU, used advanced computer models to simulate how species might evolve in response to rising terrain over very long timescales.



They based their work on “Adascape,” a specialized model that allows for virtual representations of the Earth’s surface and how it changes. Then, they coupled it with programs that populate these landscapes with model species and track how they adapt and migrate as mountains slowly take shape.&nbsp;



The result was a synthetic view of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> might proceed in response to upheavals that can last tens of millions of years.



One of the more compelling revelations from these simulations is that certain mountainous areas can act like “cradles” of new biodiversity. A species of rodent-like mammals in the model, for instance, split into multiple distinct species as soon as the mountains rose and created different environmental niches.&nbsp;



Over time, some of these new species even migrated into adjacent lowlands, matching patterns paleontologists often see in fossil deposits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-to-the-fossil-record">Connecting to the fossil record</h2>



Past geologic intervals have left behind a record of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> booms that, until now, were not well explained. The authors propose that at least some of these booms may correlate with upticks in tectonic activity.&nbsp;



For example, the researchers suggest that a known spike in fossil diversity about 15 million years ago in the western United States might be linked to local mountain building in the Basin and Range region, which shaped both animal evolution and the formation of sedimentary basins.



“This study gives us new insights into how Earth’s physical processes influence the diversity of life,” Marder said. “It also highlights how ongoing geological changes could continue to impact biodiversity in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-role-of-mountains">The hidden role of mountains</h2>



Previous theories had proposed that mountains simply serve as a stage on which evolution plays out. In contrast, this research indicates that landscapes in flux can actively spark or redirect the evolutionary process.&nbsp;



“We often think of landscapes as passive backdrops for evolution, but this study shows that they are active participants in shaping biodiversity,” Yanites said.



Mountain-building pushes populations up or isolates them in valleys, subjecting organisms to different climates, food sources, and environmental pressures.&nbsp;



Over time, these constraints spawn new species. The link between tectonics and evolution grows even stronger when one considers that mountain ridges can capture moisture and alter local climates, further driving organisms to adapt or relocate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Beyond helping explain the past, these findings may also help conservationists decide how and where to protect species. Mountains remain sensitive to climate change; as conditions shift, those living at high elevations may have nowhere left to migrate.&nbsp;



Understanding which areas are most critical for speciation could focus conservation efforts on safeguarding genetic diversity hotspots.



By revealing how rising mountains foster new species, this study may also guide reevaluation of existing protected zones. If certain ridge systems are particularly crucial for generating biodiversity, setting them aside or expanding current reserves might become a priority.&nbsp;



This knowledge could likewise apply to other dynamic environments - like tectonically active rifts or volcanic zones - which might also harbor outsized roles in biological innovation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-uplift-and-species-evolution">Mountain uplift and species evolution</h2>



Moving forward, the authors aim to extend their computer modeling to different regions and sets of organisms, matching simulated results more closely with fossil records and genetic data. This interdisciplinary approach can refine projections about how topography influences evolution today and in the future.



According to the scientists, it’s not just about where species are now but about how a place changed over time, and how that might have sparked speciation or extinctions. This link between landscapes and life is something we’re just beginning to fully appreciate.



By establishing a clear, data-driven link between tectonic uplift and the evolution of new species, the study offers a novel perspective on Earth’s living tapestry - and on the power of the planet’s deep geological machinery to shape life across the ages.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adp7290" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.&nbsp;



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How rising mountains give birth to new species

A new study shows that the forces creating mountain ranges...

Fruits and plant extracts have long been valued for their medicinal properties. Scientists are now working to better understand how these natural compounds might help prevent or treat disease, especially in the face of growing antibiotic resistance.



Recent research shows that certain plant extracts and fruit fibers may boost the immune system and even reduce the risk of chronic diseases.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.lmu.de/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Munich</a> and the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG) are teaming up to explore the power of medicinal plants in treating urinary tract infections (UTIs). 



At a lecture during FAPESP Week Germany at the Free University of Berlin, the team shared that they are building infection models to investigate how plant compounds affect bladder cells and immune response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-medicinal-plants-may-block-infections">Medicinal plants may block infections</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/narrowing-the-search-for-new-medicinal-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medicinal plants</a> contain phytochemicals that may help block infections and support the body’s defenses.



Some of these compounds may reduce inflammation, fever, or pain, but researchers are especially interested in how they might block infections.



“Although their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anti-inflammatory-foods-lower-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anti-inflammatory</a>, antipyretic and analgesic effects are well known, the active compounds of these plants - such as flavonoids, alkaloids and terpenoids - and their mechanisms of action on pathogen cells have yet to be characterized. Some are antibacterial, but many don’t have this effect,” said Ulrich Dobrindt, a professor at the University of Munich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-extracts-and-bladder-cells">Plant extracts and bladder cells</h2>



To dig deeper, the scientists created infection models to observe how these extracts influence gene activity in bladder cells.



The experts are especially focused on plants listed in the German pharmacopoeia that have traditional use in treating urological issues.



Working with scientists at UFMG, the team tested extracts from plants like Solidago gigantea and Equiseti herba. 



They discovered that certain water-based extracts drastically reduced how well Escherichia coli, the main cause of UTIs, could stick to and survive in human bladder cells.



“We observed a drastic reduction in the adhesion and proliferation of this bacterium in bladder cells,” Ulrich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-fibers-and-digestive-health">Fruit fibers and digestive health</h2>



While their German colleagues focused on infection, researchers in Brazil are exploring how fruit fibers may support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-promotes-digestive-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digestive health</a> and prevent disease. 



A team from the University of São Paulo’s School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, working with the Food Research Center (FoRC), is studying special polysaccharides - complex sugars that can’t be digested but may have powerful biological effects.



These sugars, especially pectins, are found in papaya, passion fruit, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citrus-fruits-where-did-they-come-from-and-how-would-we-live-without-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citrus fruits</a>. They are believed to help reduce the risk of chronic diseases. 



But extracting them can be tricky. Fruits like papaya ripen quickly, which changes the structure of the pectins and reduces their health benefits.



“During fruit ripening, enzymes are expressed that modify the structure of the pectins, reducing their beneficial biological effects. Passion fruit and citrus pectins, on the other hand, must be chemically modified in order to present beneficial activities in the intestine,” explained João Paulo Fabi, professor at the University of São Paulo and project coordinator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boosting-the-effectiveness-of-fruits">Boosting the effectiveness of fruits</h2>



To address these challenges, the Brazilian team created new methods to extract and alter pectin from the usually discarded white parts of oranges and passion fruit. 



By reducing their molecular complexity in the lab, the researchers were able to boost the pectins' effectiveness.



This led to one patent for extracting pectin from soft fruits like papaya and chayote. Another patent is being filed for a method to modify pectin from passion fruit leftovers.



“We already have a prototype for extracting and modifying these pectins on a laboratory scale. The idea is to obtain a product, such as a flour rich in modified pectin, that could be consumed as a supplement or food ingredient,” Fabi explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-and-fruits-the-future-of-medicine">Plants and fruits: The future of medicine</h2>



With their modified pectins, the team conducted animal studies in collaboration with other groups. These preclinical trials showed promising links between the altered pectins and improved biological activity in the body.



“These preclinical studies can serve as a basis for the development of clinical trials [with modified pectins] as adjuvants to chemotherapy treatment of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-linked-to-younger-colon-cancer-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colon cancer</a> or even as beneficial modulators of the intestinal microbiota,” said Fabi.



Together, these complementary projects from Brazil and Germany highlight the potential of natural substances in improving health - from preventing infections to supporting the gut.



As science continues to explore the benefits of what we eat, it’s becoming clearer that the healing power of plants may be more than just folklore - it might be the future of functional food and medicine.



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Fruits and plants are powerful allies for disease prevention

Fruits and plant extracts have long been valued for their...

Farmers rely on insecticides to protect their crops from damage by pests. But using them too often may lead to an unexpected side effect - more weeds.



A new study reveals that the way insecticides are applied can shape weed growth, especially in corn and soybean fields. 



Researchers from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> conducted a three-year study to understand the bigger picture. They compared two insecticide strategies: applying them preventively at planting, versus only applying them when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-have-become-increasingly-toxic-to-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> were actually present. 



The experts also tested how cover crops - plants grown after harvest to protect the soil - interact with both approaches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insecticides-may-harm-helpful-insects">Insecticides may harm helpful insects</h2>



By the third year, the results showed a clear pattern. Fields treated with insecticides but left without cover crops ended up with more weeds, especially a type called marestail. In contrast, fields with cover crops didn’t have this issue - even if insecticides were used.



This finding raised questions. One possible reason, the researchers suggest, is that insecticides may be hurting more than just the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-a-molecular-alarm-system-to-respond-to-insect-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a>. 



Some insects - like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-climate-impact-the-beetles-that-protect-our-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a>, crickets, and ants - actually help by eating weed seeds. If these helpful insects are harmed by the insecticides, the weeds have more of a chance to thrive.



“Always using an insecticide at planting does not seem to be the best approach in Pennsylvania, considering that early-season insect pests tend to be a relatively uncommon problem,” said John Tooker, a professor of entomology in the College of Agricultural Sciences at Penn State.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-case-for-smarter-pest-control">A case for smarter pest control</h2>



The study supports the idea of integrated pest management (IPM). Instead of spraying chemicals by default, IPM involves monitoring fields and only treating them when necessary. This reduces harm to helpful insects and may keep weed populations in check.



“When taking an IPM approach, we advocate for using the right products at the right time to control the right pests, and that will also then help reduce these negative consequences of using these treatments too much,” said Tooker.



This message may be especially important now. Elizabeth Rowen, lead author of the study and assistant professor at the University of California, Riverside, said that weeds are getting harder to manage.



“Many of the seeds growers use were developed to not be killed by herbicides,” explained Rowen.



“This allows growers to use glyphosate to control weeds; however, this also results in the evolution of herbicide-resistant weeds, which makes it much harder to control weeds without killing the crops. So, having multiple strategies to help manage weeds is really important.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-less-insecticide-use">Benefits of less insecticide use</h2>



The study was carried out at Penn State’s Russell E. Larson Agricultural Research Center. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-sweet-corn-at-high-densities-improves-yield/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Corn</a> and soybean plots were assigned one of three pest control treatments: preventive insecticides at the time of planting, IPM-based insecticides used only when needed, or no insecticides at all. Each treatment was tested with and without cover crops.



Over the course of three years, the researchers tracked many details. They measured cover crop growth, insect communities, seed predation, weed density, and crop yields.



The results showed that applying insecticides only when needed did not reduce productivity. In fact, it came with some added benefits - less pesticide use and better weed control when cover crops were involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-limited-approach-pays-off">A limited approach pays off</h2>



“Oftentimes corn and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-virus-can-benefit-soybean-eating-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soybean</a> fields are so big that growers are inclined to do all of the management up front so they don't have to go back and walk the fields,” Tooker said. 



“But our evidence suggests that walking these fields to identify problems as they happen can provide clear benefits in terms of not needing certain pesticides, namely many of the fungicides and insecticides.”



Taking time to observe what’s actually happening in the soil and among the plants can reveal issues that automated treatments might overlook. 



This study reminds us that nature is full of connections. Choosing when and how to use insecticides may not just control pests - it can also change the entire balance of a field.



The research suggests that a slower, more watchful approach might lead to better results in the long run.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/18597/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



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Insecticides may be helping weeds thrive

Farmers rely on insecticides to protect their crops from damage...

For centuries, foie gras has graced the tables of royalty, chefs, and fine diners. Its creamy richness and deep flavor made it a culinary icon. But behind the luxury lies a harsh reality - one that has stirred protests, divided cultures, and triggered bans across nations.



Foie gras means “fatty liver” in French. Traditionally, it's made by force-feeding ducks or geese until their livers grow large and soft. Germany’s term, “Gänsestopfleber,” bluntly references its origins. 



Animal welfare groups have long opposed the practice. Cities like New York and countries like India have taken legal steps to limit or ban its production.



Still, demand has not vanished. Diners and chefs continue to admire foie gras for its taste and texture. The culinary world has struggled to find a satisfying, ethical replacement. Most plant-based or lab-grown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-molecule-could-shape-the-future-of-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">versions</a> fall short in flavor or feel. 



But a group of scientists in Germany may have finally cracked the code.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recreating-foie-gras-without-cruelty">Recreating foie gras without cruelty</h2>



​At the&nbsp;Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research (<a href="https://www.mpip-mainz.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPI-P</a>)&nbsp;in Mainz, a team of physicists, chemists, and culinary enthusiasts teamed up for a bold experiment. With help from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern Denmark</a>, they turned to data, microscopes, and texture analysis to reimagine foie gras without cruelty.​



The study's lead researcher, physicist Thomas Vilgis, also happens to be an avid home cook. He guided the group through months of food science and experimentation. The goal was simple but ambitious: to match the real thing in both flavor and mouthfeel - without harming animals.



“It has always been a goal to reproduce the taste and texture of real foie gras while not losing sight of animal welfare,” said Thomas Vilgis of MPI-P.



This wasn’t a culinary guessing game. They relied on precise tools to explore the microstructure of foie gras. Microscopes showed how fat settled in the liver and how collagen formed a soft, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frozen-food-new-thawing-methods-will-improve-safety-and-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supportive network</a>. 



They also used rheological tests to simulate the chewing process and melting sensation on the tongue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-foie-gras-unique">What makes foie gras unique</h2>



The research showed that foie gras isn't just fatty liver - it’s a delicate balance of collagen, fat, and moisture. The collagen gives it structure and softness, while irregular fat clumps create its creamy, melt-away finish.



With these details in hand, the team began crafting their version. They started by simmering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-as-food-how-ultrasound-makes-it-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen</a>-rich tissues such as animal skin, which could provide that tender texture. Then, they added liver and fat in different ratios, trying to mimic the original’s complexity.



However, each batch left something missing. The texture didn’t quite match. The mouthfeel was either too firm or too smooth. Collagen tweaks helped only slightly. After many failed attempts, the experts realized they needed a new strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-to-nature-for-a-clue">Turning to nature for a clue</h2>



The breakthrough came with a small but powerful idea. They introduced goose lipases - natural enzymes used by birds to break down fat in their digestive systems. These enzymes had never been used in this context before.



By treating the fat with these enzymes, the team saw immediate changes. The fat began forming larger, irregular clumps. These formations closely resembled what they observed in real foie gras under the microscope.



The mouthfeel changed dramatically. It now melted and coated the tongue just like the original. Collagen alone had not done the job, but the enzyme-altered fat transformed the entire product.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-ethical-copy-with-authentic-taste">An ethical copy with authentic taste</h2>



The texture wasn’t the only improvement. The flavor took a step forward, too. Though still a prototype, this enzyme-treated pâté tasted remarkably close to real foie gras. The team avoided using synthetic additives or artificial enhancers.



Vilgis pushed for a clean recipe. He focused on the basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-pistachio-dna-is-shaping-the-future-of-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ingredients</a> and how to manipulate them using science. No extra chemicals. No flavor boosters. Just technique, temperature, and timing.



He has now filed a patent to protect this approach. Talks are underway to explore commercial production. Future phases may involve chefs and sensory scientists to fine-tune taste and aroma. For now, the product holds promise as the most authentic and ethical foie gras alternative yet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-gourmet-without-cruelty">Future of gourmet without cruelty</h2>



This research shows what happens when science, ethics, and passion collide. 



It opens a new chapter for culinary traditions that once depended on animal suffering. Rather than discard foie gras altogether, Vilgis and his team reimagined it from the ground up.



Their creation is not just a lab product - it’s a culinary experience built with care and precision. The research has been published in <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/pof/article/37/3/037196/3340498/Foie-gras-pate-without-force-feeding" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics of Fluids</a>, a journal more known for fluid dynamics than fine dining. But here, science and food met in harmony.



It’s too early to know how chefs and food lovers will receive this version. Yet, it offers a path where taste and ethics can finally share the same plate.



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Cruelty-free foie gras made with enzymes, not force-feeding

For centuries, foie gras has graced the tables of royalty,...

Intact forests once absorbed 7.8 billion tonnes of CO₂ each year, about one-fifth of global emissions. Today, their reliability is fading. Climate change, deforestation, and land degradation now threaten this vast carbon sink.



A new study by the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (<a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PIK</a>) raises alarms. The experts warn that relying on forests to deliver consistent carbon removal is no longer a safe bet.



Worse still, most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate strategies</a> still assume forests will expand and stay resilient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dangerous-gamble-with-carbon-storage">Dangerous gamble with carbon storage</h2>



Michael G. Windisch, the lead author of the study, highlights the growing risk. 



“Our climate strategies bet on forests not only remaining intact, but even expanding,” he said. But with rising wildfires and Amazon deforestation, this is a fragile assumption.



Forests are vulnerable to pests, disease, drought, and other climate-driven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-undisturbed-forests-support-greater-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes</a>. If these threats intensify, forests may begin to release more carbon than they store. That would wipe out years of progress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-risks-of-depending-on-forests">The risks of depending on forests</h2>



The study outlines three key risks. First, we depend on existing forests to stay intact. Second, we rely on them to keep removing carbon each year. Furthermore, we plan to increase forest cover for future carbon removal. If any part fails, the whole plan collapses.



This is why the researchers stress caution. Immediate action is essential to prevent forest disturbances from derailing climate goals. Postponing action by just five years can double the mitigation cost and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effort</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-models-confirm-forest-risks">Climate models confirm forest risks </h2>



The researchers used REMIND-MAgPIE, a climate and land-use model, along with the LPJmL vegetation model. They introduced disturbance rates - events like pest outbreaks, fire, and wind damage - into their scenarios.



Their findings? Even low disturbance rates drastically affect outcomes. Myopic policy responses that delay action lead to steeper emission cuts and higher costs. 



The models show that a five-year delay doubles the pressure on all sectors, especially energy and land use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-costs-soar-as-forest-sinks-shrink">Climate costs soar as forest sinks shrink</h2>



Under immediate action, the carbon price by 2050 rises to $327 per tonne. But with delay, that shoots up to $483. GDP losses also increase from 2.4 to 2.7 percent.



The energy sector suffers more in myopic scenarios. Renewables must scale up much faster. Fossil fuel use must fall more steeply. The industry and transport sectors, especially, bear heavier burdens.



Negative emissions technologies like BECCS and DACCS become essential. But delayed action means building them faster and larger, increasing pressure on land and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-forests-rose-again-after-the-planets-most-extreme-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">budgets</a>.



In delayed scenarios, land demand for mitigation jumps to 563 million hectares - larger than the European Union. That’s 149 million hectares more than if action were taken immediately.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-need-surveillance-not-assumptions">Forests need surveillance, not assumptions</h2>



Many global climate models ignore natural disturbances or assume forests react positively to rising CO₂. But evidence shows otherwise. Phosphorus limits and shifting ecosystems reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-forests-do-not-necessarily-store-more-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>’ ability to absorb carbon.



Some models also underestimate human impact, assuming forest lands are quickly and efficiently reused. In reality, land speculation and mismanagement delay recovery.



“Forests are not an infinite resource,” Florian Humpenöder warns. He urges immediate monitoring and realistic projections. Only then can we act fast when carbon sinks weaken.



The study also shows that myopic responses to small disturbances demand more effort than immediate responses to double those disturbances. Every delay becomes costlier than we expect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-can-t-solve-the-climate-crisis">Forests can't solve the climate crisis </h2>



“We must act immediately to safeguard the carbon stored in forests,” said Windisch. Without foresight, future generations may inherit a climate plan full of gaps.



“Alongside protecting forests, it is essential to promote sustainable land use practices,” added study co-author Alexander Popp. This includes conserving biodiversity and avoiding reckless land expansion.



Forests are crucial - but they can’t solve the climate crisis alone. The study leaves no room for wishful thinking. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-play-an-overlooked-role-in-the-climate-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forests</a> will face more stress in the future. Assuming otherwise puts climate goals at risk.



Instead of hoping forests remain stable, policies must adjust. Immediate, coordinated action across all sectors can still deliver on the Paris targets - but the window is closing.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57607-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Forests can no longer carry the climate burden alone

Intact forests once absorbed 7.8 billion tonnes of CO₂ each...

Beneath the forest floor lies a hidden web that sustains life as we know it. These lifelines are not roots, nor are they animals or minerals. They are fungi - ancient organisms that form dense underground networks. Most people never see them, yet they are as essential as sunlight and rain for ecosystems.



Fungi connect trees in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-fungal-networks-are-natures-hyper-efficient-architects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silent communication</a>. They help crops resist disease and survive drought. Without fungi, the soil weakens, the plants suffer, and biodiversity falters. 



Despite their importance, fungi are rarely featured in conservation headlines. They’ve been largely ignored in environmental efforts, until now.



This month, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) released a warning: fungi are under threat. And the threat is serious. Deforestation, farming expansion, and wildfires driven by climate change are pushing hundreds of fungi species toward extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unsung-heroes-of-life">Unsung heroes of life</h2>



The IUCN’s latest update of its Red List reveals a worrying trend. Out of 1,300 well-documented fungal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, 411 face extinction. 



This number represents only a fraction of the fungal kingdom. Scientists have recorded around 150,000 fungal species so far, but estimates suggest the true count may exceed 2.5 million.



Each of these organisms plays a part in maintaining balance in ecosystems. Many fungi form symbiotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-fungi-diversity-can-be-pulled-out-of-thin-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationships</a> with plants, providing them with nutrients in exchange for sugars. 



These relationships are ancient, stretching back over 400 million years. Their loss would unravel natural systems that evolved over millennia.



"Fungi are the unsung heroes of life on Earth, forming the very foundation of healthy ecosystems - yet they have long been overlooked," said IUCN Director General Grethel Aguilar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-are-unseen-but-essential">Fungi are unseen but essential </h2>



Fungi form their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-eating-fungus-beauveria-bassiana-causes-the-immune-system-to-attack-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biological kingdom</a>. They are distinct from plants and animals. Their structures, growth patterns, and reproduction methods differ entirely. Yet, their presence supports both flora and fauna.



"While fungi mainly live hidden underground and inside wood, their loss impacts the life above ground that depends on them," explained Professor Anders Dahlberg, a Swedish mycologist who led the IUCN’s fungal assessment.



Dahlberg compares their role to the microbiome in human guts. Unseen but essential, fungi allow ecosystems to digest, grow, and respond to change. When fungi vanish, ecosystems lose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-fungi-communicate-using-a-silent-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a>. 



Crops become more vulnerable, trees become less stable, and soils lose their ability to store carbon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-impact-on-fungal-networks">Human impact on fungal networks</h2>



Nearly 300 fungal species are now threatened due to expanding agricultural lands and growing cities. As human settlements rise and farmlands sprawl, fungi lose habitat. 



Urban development compresses the earth, alters drainage, and cuts through the underground threads fungi rely on.



Nitrogen-rich fertilizers and vehicle emissions also impact fungi. The IUCN notes that 91 species are directly threatened by nitrogen and ammonia pollution. 



One example is the fibrous waxcap (Hygrocybe intermedia), an uncommon yellow-orange mushroom found across European meadows. Once spread from Scandinavia to southern Italy, it now faces serious pressure.



Deforestation creates even more severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-fungi-can-be-trained-to-degrade-plastic-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consequences</a>. The cutting of ancient forests removes the only environment many fungi can survive in. Unlike fast-growing plants, many fungi cannot adapt or migrate quickly.



"Clear-cutting of old-growth forests is especially damaging, destroying fungi that do not have time to re-establish with rotation forestry," the IUCN noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iconic-fungi-species-are-disappearing">Iconic fungi species are disappearing</h2>



Some threatened fungi were once widespread, although none of the popular edible varieties face immediate danger. Dahlberg noted that the most vulnerable types are often very specific, occupying narrow ecological roles in local fungal communities.



One such species is the giant knight (Tricholoma colossus), which has suffered greatly due to the disappearance of old-growth pine forests in Finland, Sweden, and Russia. These forests have declined by 30 percent since the 1970s, shrinking the giant knight’s habitat along with them.



The public rarely hears of such species, yet their loss weakens ecosystems. Each vanished fungus takes with it a piece of the forest’s memory, function, and future stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-shifts-the-forest-s-rhythm">Climate change shifts the forest’s rhythm</h2>



Global warming adds another layer of threat. In the United States, shifting fire patterns have altered forest dynamics. 



Fires now burn hotter, more often, or in unexpected regions. Over 50 fungal species have been affected, with some pushed to the edge of extinction.



One notable case involves the endangered Gastroboletus citrinobrunneus. This rare fungus depends on specific conditions found in California’s Sierra Nevada. Due to warming, fir trees have overtaken the high-elevation woods, reducing the mushroom’s already limited habitat.



Fungi cannot run. They cannot grow elsewhere at will. When the forest changes, they either adapt slowly or die quickly. Climate pressure forces rapid shifts that fungal systems were never designed to handle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-kingdom-that-holds-it-all-together">The kingdom that holds it all together</h2>



The IUCN’s Red List now includes nearly 170,000 species, of which over 47,000 face extinction. Fungi, long excluded from mainstream conservation, are now being recognized for their irreplaceable roles.



"Now it's time to turn this knowledge into action and safeguard the extraordinary fungal kingdom, whose vast underground networks sustain nature and life as we know it," said Aguilar.



Preserving fungi means protecting forests, clean soil, healthy crops, and biodiversity. These silent organisms are nature’s caretakers. The time has come to listen to their silence - and act before it becomes permanent.



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Hundreds of fungi species are threatened with extinction

Beneath the forest floor lies a hidden web that sustains...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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