Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features sediment swirling in the Gulf of Alaska on December 29, 2023.



"After an unusually snowy start to winter, southern Alaska’s coastline remained under a blanket of white in late December," said NASA.



"Meanwhile, greens and tans swirled in the dark blue water offshore. The dullness of the hues near shore suggests that the water is mostly colored by sediment. It is likely that phytoplankton - microscopic plant-like organisms - contributed to some of the hues farther from the coast."



According to NASA, much of the sediment in this region comes from “glacial flour” carried into the gulf by the Copper River.&nbsp;



"Glacial flour forms as glaciers move over bedrock and grind it into a fine silt. When suspended in water, glacial flour can make the water appear an opaque turquoise color - similar to phytoplankton blooms. The sediment carries iron and other nutrients that can spur the growth of these tiny marine organisms," explained NASA.



Aimee Neeley, a biological oceanographer at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, noted that there are always phytoplankton in the water, but usually at lower levels in the wintertime at these latitudes.



The Gulf of Alaska is a vast and biologically rich body of water that lies at the northernmost part of the Pacific Ocean, encircled by Alaska.&nbsp;



The gulf extends approximately 1,500 miles from the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands in the west to the Alexander Archipelago in the east.



Characterized by a subarctic climate, it's known for heavy rain and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-loss-increases-snowfall-over-west-antarctica/">snowfall</a>. The region is also prone to frequent storms and is a significant pathway for colder northern weather patterns moving into the United States.



The Gulf of Alaska is home to a diverse marine ecosystem. It supports many species of fish, such as salmon and halibut, and is also a habitat for marine mammals like whales, sea lions, and seals.



The image was captured by the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) instrument on NASA’s Aqua satellite.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Sediment swirling in the Gulf of Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features an astronaut view of the Aladaghlar Mountains in northwestern Iran. These mountains are known for their strikingly colorful landscapes, which make them stand out among other mountain ranges.



"Ridges cast shadows in the valleys and other low elevation areas, creating a three-dimensional appearance. Human alterations to the landscape are most evident in riverbeds, where the even topography is easier to build on and navigate," said NASA.



"Natural processes over millions of years have folded rock layers of various compositions and colors into the curved patterns seen here. These folds are produced by tectonic forces operating along the convergent plate boundary of the Arabia and Eurasia plates. The convergence of these tectonic plates causes uplift, folding, and deformation of the colorful rock layers, and subsequent erosion exposes them."



One of the most remarkable features of the Aladaghlar Mountains is the vivid coloration of their slopes. The name "Aladaghlar" translates to "Colorful Mountains," which is a testament to their unique appearance. 



The Aladaghlar Mountains are part of a larger ecosystem that includes forests, meadows, and rivers, contributing to a rich biodiversity. The region supports a variety of wildlife, including several species that are unique to the area. The diverse wildlife add to the natural beauty and ecological importance of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/">mountains</a>.



In addition to their natural appeal, the Aladaghlar Mountains hold cultural significance. The region has a rich history, with evidence of ancient civilizations and historical sites. Local communities have their unique cultures and traditions, which have been influenced by the natural environment of the mountains.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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The Aladaghlar Mountains of northwestern Iran

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features a large sediment plume from the Yangtze River that extends hundreds of kilometers off the coast of China.



"Brown, sediment-laden water is visible along this shallow, turbid stretch of coast year-round, but a vast plume like the one visible here is a characteristic feature of winter. Scientists have proposed several causes of this seasonal phenomenon," said NASA.



"The ebb and flow of tides contain enough energy to stir up sediments from the seafloor, a 2017 study found. While there are also tides in the summer, the models used in the study showed that sediment only rises to the surface in the winter. That’s when temperatures and salinities at the sea surface and bottom are similar, allowing for vertical mixing to occur and for sediment to churn higher into the water column."



Additional studies have suggested that the summer monsoon’s influence on currents impedes the eastward flow of sediment out of the estuaries, noted NASA.



"Despite what looks like a glut of suspended sediment in the water, the overall amount of it flowing from the Yangtze River has declined steadily over the past several decades. The construction of dams, including the Three Gorges Dam, has been the primary driver of this trend."



It is important for scientists to track the movement of suspended sediment. This material can cause direct harm to marine life, as well as indirect harm by blocking sunlight.



The Yangtze River, also known as the Chang Jiang in Chinese, is the longest river in Asia and the third-longest in the world, following the Nile and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-river-dolphins-are-at-great-risk-of-extinction-due-to-human-activities/">Amazon</a>. It flows for over 6,300 kilometers (about 3,917 miles) from the glaciers of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in western China to the East China Sea at Shanghai.&nbsp;



The Yangtze River basin is a key region for China's agriculture, industry, and hydroelectric power production. The river's waters are used for irrigation, navigation, and as a source of freshwater. The basin is home to diverse wildlife, including the critically endangered Yangtze river dolphin or Baiji, which may now be extinct.



The image was captured on February 12, 2024 by the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite sensor on the NOAA-20 satellite.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Sediment flows offshore from the Yangtze River 

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the Ruki River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is a tributary of the Congo River, one of the largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warmer-rivers-keep-antimicrobial-resistant-genes-at-bay/">rivers</a> in the world by discharge and depth. 



The Ruki River, previously known as the Busira, merges with the Momboyo River near the town of Basankusu to become the Lulonga River, which eventually flows into the Congo River at the town of Lisala.



"If the appearance of the muddy Amazon River evokes a coffee cut with cream, the Ruki River, coursing gently through the Congo Basin, is like a dark tea," said NASA.



"On its slow path through mostly untouched lowland rainforest in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the water leaches organic material from vegetation, prompting some researchers to think it is one of the darkest blackwater rivers on Earth. The dissolved material in this distinctive water, scientists are finding, offers clues into the carbon cycle of tropical forests."



In a recent study, researchers measured the chemical composition and flow of the Ruki for the first time.&nbsp;



"The study reported that, as the water color suggests, the Ruki is rich in dissolved organic carbon compounds. It contains four times as much organic carbon as the Congo River and 1.5 times as much as the Rio Negro, the world’s largest blackwater river and a major tributary of the Amazon," said NASA.



Due to this heavy carbon load, the researchers concluded that “tropical forests like those around the Ruki might not accumulate quite as much carbon as we once thought.”



The region around the Ruki River is rich in biodiversity, hosting various species of flora and fauna. It is part of the Congo Basin, the second-largest tropical rainforest area in the world, which is a critical habitat for endangered species and a significant carbon sink.



The river is vital for the livelihoods of local communities. Fishing is a crucial activity, with many people depending on it for sustenance and income. The river also supports agriculture along its banks, where communities grow crops.



In many parts of the DRC, rivers like the Ruki are crucial transportation corridors due to the challenging and often nonexistent road infrastructure. The river enables the movement of people and goods, facilitating trade and access to markets, health care, and education.



The region faces several challenges, including deforestation, overfishing, and environmental degradation, which threaten its ecological balance and the livelihoods of people who depend on it. Efforts to manage and conserve the river's resources are vital for sustainable development.



Understanding and protecting the Ruki River and its surroundings are crucial for the DRC's environmental sustainability, economic development, and the well-being of its communities.



The image was captured by the OLI (Operational Land Imager) on Landsat 8.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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The Ruki River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features dust streaming from Lago Colhué Huapi, a shallow endorheic lake located in the Chubut Province in southern Argentina.



"Strong northwesterly winds often race down the eastern side of the Andes Mountains and whip across the central Patagonian Desert. In the process, they sometimes lift dust from Argentina’s drying Lago Colhué Huapi, fueling intense dust storms," said NASA.



"Lago Colhué Huapi is a particularly rich source of dust because the shallow lake regularly grows and shrinks with variations in the flow of the Senguer River and the pace of evaporation. When lake water levels are low, as they were when MODIS captured this image, fine-grained, lightweight particles are easily transported by the wind."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-activity-from-lago-colhue-huapi">Dust activity from Lago Colhué Huapi</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-in-the-gulf-of-alaska-help-shape-the-global-climate/">Dust storms</a> in this region are most common during the summer months from December to March. There are 15 to 30 dust storms in a typical year.&nbsp;



"Dust storms are frequent and persistent enough in this area that they have exposed an open-air archaeological site along the lake’s edge," said NASA.



"The Puesto Roberts 1 site, located in an old floodplain on the southeast side of Lago Colhué Huapi, was first identified in 2019 when archaeologists noticed that winds had exposed a five-centimeter layer of sandy loam soil littered with stone tools and the bones of a wild species of llama called guanaco."



"Archaeologists identified 427 artifacts at the site - including stone cutting blades, milling tools, scrapers, and egg-shaped bola stones used for hunting - spread across 15 square meters, according to a 2022 study led by Heidi Hammond, an archaeologist at the National University of the Patagonia San Juan Bosco."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-lago-colhue-huapi">More about Lago Colhué Huapi</h2>



This lake is an interesting geographical feature primarily because it acts as a seasonal sink for the Senguerr River, which in turn gathers waters from various smaller streams in the region. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size">Size</h3>



Due to its shallow nature, the size of Lago Colhué Huapi can vary significantly with the seasons and the amount of water it receives from its sources. During times of drought or reduced rainfall, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-lakes-to-their-boiling-point/">lake</a> can shrink considerably, affecting the local ecosystem and the wildlife that depends on it.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate">Climate</h3>



The lake's surroundings are characterized by a semi-arid climate, which influences the type of vegetation and animal life that can thrive in the area. Despite the harsh conditions, the region around Lago Colhué Huapi supports a variety of bird species, making it a site of interest for birdwatchers and naturalists.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-challenges">Environmental challenges </h3>



In recent years, Lago Colhué Huapi has faced environmental challenges, including the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/">climate change</a>, which has led to lower water levels and increased salinity. These changes pose threats to the lake's ecological balance and the species that inhabit its waters and shores. The situation at Lago Colhué Huapi serves as a reminder of the broader environmental issues facing water bodies in arid and semi-arid regions around the world.



The image was captured on March 29, 2024 by the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) on NASA’s Aqua satellite.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Dust streams from Lago Colhué Huapi in Argentina 

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features thick haze over Thailand during the fire season. The photograph was captured by the VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) on the Suomi NPP satellite on March 16, 2024.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-waves-of-smoke-and-haze">Waves of smoke and haze</h2>



"Each year in January and February, satellites begin to detect waves of smoke and fire in Southeast Asia, particularly in highland forests in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand. Fire activity continues to increase through March and April, reaches a peak during the height of the dry season, and then fades in May with the start of the rainy season," noted NASA.



"Individual fires are usually small and short-lived. But they are often so numerous that smoke, along with air pollution from rural and urban areas, mixes to produce thick layers of haze that blanket the landscape." 



"Such hazes contain mixtures of small airborne particles called aerosols and gaseous pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone that degrade air quality and have harmful health effects."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-haze-in-thailand-nbsp">Haze in Thailand&nbsp;</h2>



An international field campaign - the Airborne and Satellite Investigation of Asian Air Quality (ASIA-AQ) - was recently launched to investigate the haze in Thailand.



"During the last two weeks of March 2024, NASA’s DC-8 and Gulfstream III aircraft flew several flights over Chiang Mai, Bangkok, and rural areas surrounding the cities to sample air quality with several sensors. At the same time, satellites observed the haze from above," said NASA.



James Crawford, ASIA-AQ’s principal investigator, said the team is collaborating closely with national and local government entities in Thailand.



“The goal is to take as many simultaneous measurements of pollutants as possible from the ground, air, and space,” said Crawford. The team will use the data to gain a better understanding of how the haze forms, evolves chemically over time, and moves throughout the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-haze-and-public-health-in-thailand">Haze and public health in Thailand </h2>



According to media reports, nearly 200,000 people have been hospitalized this year due to air quality in the region, with over 1.3 million people falling ill since January.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-root-causes">Root causes</h3>



The root causes of the haze include agricultural burning, particularly of corn fields, as part of slash-and-burn practices to prepare land for the next planting cycle. This is exacerbated by the dry season when there's little rain to wash the pollutants away. 



The situation is worsened by industrial emissions and vehicle fumes, particularly in urban areas like Bangkok​.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-solutions-are-needed">Sustainable solutions are needed</h3>



Efforts to address the crisis have been complex, involving local and transboundary issues. Much of the agricultural burning occurs not only within Thailand but also in neighboring countries like Myanmar and Laos, contributing to the transboundary nature of the haze. 



Activists and local communities have called for sustainable solutions that do not exacerbate the poverty of smallholder farmers, emphasizing the need for affordable and realistic alternatives to burning​.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigation-measures-nbsp">Mitigation measures&nbsp;</h3>



The Thai government has implemented a no-burning rule until the end of April to combat wildfires and haze, but enforcement and effectiveness remain challenges​​. 



Some measures taken to mitigate the immediate effects of pollution in urban areas include spraying water and seeding clouds to encourage rain, although these have had limited success​​.



This ongoing environmental crisis has sparked widespread concern among citizens, who are increasingly using public interest litigation to hold companies and the government accountable for environmental commitments. 



With recent political changes, there is hope that the new administration will take more decisive action against the haze, possibly through more stringent regulations and international cooperation​​.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-impacts-of-haze">Health impacts of haze</h2>



Haze poses several health hazards for those exposed to it, particularly when it contains fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Here are some of the main health risks associated with exposure to haze:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-respiratory-problems">Respiratory problems</h3>



Haze can aggravate conditions such as asthma, bronchitis, and other chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD). The fine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heatwaves-and-air-pollution-may-double-fatal-heart-attack-risk/">particles</a> can penetrate deep into the lungs, causing inflammation and reducing lung function.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cardiovascular-issues-and-haze">Cardiovascular issues and haze</h3>



Exposure to fine particulate matter can also affect the cardiovascular system, leading to increased risk of heart attacks, strokes, and high blood pressure. Particles can affect blood vessel function and promote the formation of blood clots.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-irritation">Eye irritation</h3>



Haze can cause eye irritation, leading to conditions such as conjunctivitis (pink eye) or exacerbated symptoms in people with existing eye conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-problems">Skin problems</h3>



For some people, exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-will-increase-dramatically-in-a-hotter-climate/">polluted air</a> can cause skin irritation or exacerbate skin conditions like eczema or psoriasis.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-immune-function">Reduced immune function</h3>



There is evidence to suggest that prolonged exposure to polluted air can weaken the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to infections.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-mental-health">Impact on mental health</h3>



There are growing concerns about the impact of air pollution on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-multiple-chronic-health-conditions/">mental health</a>, with studies suggesting a link between exposure to polluted air and an increased risk of depression and anxiety.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnant-women-and-children">Pregnant women and children</h3>



Pregnant women, children, and the elderly are particularly vulnerable to the effects of haze. There may be increased risks of preterm birth and low birth weight in babies, and children may experience delayed development and reduced lung function.



The health impacts of haze can be mitigated by staying indoors on days when air quality is particularly poor, using air purifiers, wearing masks designed to filter out fine particles, and following local health advisories.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nbsp">&nbsp;</h3>

Haze pollution is an environmental crisis in Thailand

On October 3, 20005, observers in Europe and Africa, as well as parts of Asia, saw a partial solar eclipse over North Africa. Solar eclipses occur when the Earth, Moon, and Sun are all in a straight line with the Moon in the middle. This particular eclipse was an annular or ring <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/capturing-images-of-a-lunar-eclipse/">eclipse</a>, which occurs when the Moon passes in front of the Sun and blocks the only the center, leaving an outer ring visible to an observer on Earth.

Although the Moon is about 400 times smaller than the Sun, it is also about 400 times closer, so both celestial objects appear to be about the same size to us. However, the Moon´s orbit is elliptical (like a horse racetrack), not circular, meaning that sometimes it is closer to us and sometimes it is farther away. If the eclipse occurs when the Moon is closer, it will appear larger and therefore block the Sun entirely Ã¢â‚¬â€œ creating a total eclipse- while eclipses occurring when the Moon is farther away produces partial or ring eclipses. Eclipses occur about every 18 months or so and generally last for only several minutes.

Solar eclipse over North Africa

Soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-soil-microbes-could-revolutionize-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> face extreme challenges for survival in desert environments, which are characterized by prolonged drought and scarce rainfall. Despite these harsh conditions, an invisible world thrives below the surface. 



The microbes reside in the desert's biocrust - the uppermost layer of soil. They play a crucial role in enriching the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dormant-soil-microbes-survive-in-a-60-year-old-fire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil</a> with essential nutrients like carbon and nitrogen. 



Additionally, they help prevent erosion and retain moisture, contributing significantly to ecosystem health. Yet, the survival strategies of soil microbes in such a punishing environment have long baffled scientists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-dormancy-to-dynamism">From dormancy to dynamism</h2>



A recent study has shed light on how these resilient microorganisms manage to survive and even thrive under extreme conditions. Dagmar Woebken and her team in the Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a> published their findings in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46920-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



The experts found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-microbes-release-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert soil</a> microbes are uniquely adapted to swiftly respond to the infrequent moisture provided by rainfall. The bacteria enter a dormant state during dry periods, springing to life almost immediately following a rainfall event. This fascinating phenomenon was closely studied in the biocrusts of the Negev Desert, Israel. 



The researchers discovered that within a very short time frame after rain - sometimes as little as 15 to 30 minutes - nearly all of the diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-soil-planet-warming-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial life</a> present in the soil transitions from dormancy. They quickly reach full activity. This rapid shift is not commonly seen in other soil types, where bacteria reactivation takes significantly longer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-desert-soil-microbes">A closer look at desert soil microbes </h2>



The researchers used advanced techniques involving stable isotope-labeled water, which contains a form of heavy hydrogen, to simulate rainfall events. By using NanoSIMS, a sophisticated imaging technology, they were able to observe how individual cells responded to simulated rainfall.



The method allowed the researchers to identify which cells were reactivating and assess their growth potential during these brief periods of moisture.



Interestingly, while almost all of the biocrust cells reactivated quickly, only a minority were capable of cell division. This occurred within the short span of rain, typically lasting just one to two days. The majority of cells focused on regeneration, preparing themselves for the next dry spell rather than dividing.



"These data help us understand how biocrust bacteria make optimal use of the short activity windows they experience in deserts. They are ideally adapted to withstand short-term changes in soil water content, a very stressful situation for the cells. This allows them to survive the sudden increase in water content during rain, as well as the subsequent drying out,” noted Dagmar Woebken, principal investigator of the study.



“Additionally, the diverse microbial community is capable of immediate reactivation, which is of great benefit when it must return to a dormant state within a few hours to days.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-ecological-insights">Broader ecological insights</h2>



The insights gained deepen our understanding of desert microbial life and have broader ecosystem implications. 



Furthermore, as global droughts become more frequent and intense due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-soil-microbes-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, understanding microorganism responses to water scarcity is crucial. 



The desert-adapted strategies of soil microbes showcase resilience and adaptability, providing valuable lessons for managing soil health in other vulnerable areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Why are desert soil microbes important?</h2>



Desert soil microbes play a vital role in decomposing organic matter, which is scarce in deserts. This decomposition releases nutrients back into the soil, making them available to plants. Microbes such as bacteria and fungi are particularly crucial in the nitrogen cycle, converting atmospheric nitrogen into forms that plants can absorb and use.



Microbes also help to maintain and improve soil structure. Their activity helps bind soil particles together, which improves soil's ability to retain water and resist erosion, a critical function in arid environments where water is limited and soil erosion can be a severe problem.



Many desert plants rely on symbiotic relationships with microbes to survive in such extreme conditions. For example, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mycorrhizal fungi</a> colonize plant roots and extend far into the soil, increasing a plant’s reach for water and essential nutrients, which is particularly important in nutrient-poor desert soils.



Furthermore, desert microbes sequester carbon in the soil, contributing to the mitigation of climate change. Their ability to survive in extreme conditions also provides insights into resilience strategies that could be useful in managing ecological responses to climate change.



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Soil microbes survive the desert by 'sleeping' through the dry spells

Soil microbes face extreme challenges for survival in desert environments,...

Plant stress is a critical concern in agriculture, where timely and accurate information about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-use-ai-and-drone-images-to-interpret-crop-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop health</a> is crucial for maintaining productivity and reducing losses. A recent advancement in this field involves sensors capable of detecting plant signaling molecules. 



The sensors provide farmers with an early warning system. They help preemptively address issues such as excessive light, heat, or attacks from insects and microbes.



Working on this technology, scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>) and the Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMART</a>) have recently made significant strides.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molecular-markers-to-sense-plant-stress">Molecular markers to sense plant stress</h2>



Utilizing carbon nanotube-based sensors, the experts have identified distinct signals which indicate various types of stress in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-new-way-to-measure-stress-in-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>, such as heat, light, or microbial and insect attacks. 



The sensors target two key signaling molecules: hydrogen peroxide and salicylic acid. Hydrogen peroxide is used by plant cells as a distress signal under attack scenarios. Meanwhile, salicylic acid plays a role in regulating growth, development, and stress response in plants.



The innovative sensors developed by the team are capable of detecting these molecules, which produce distinct patterns at different times depending on the type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-plants-emit-sounds-when-they-are-stressed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> experienced by the plant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plant-sensors-detect-stress">How plant sensors detect stress</h2>



The plant stress sensors are initially dissolved in a specialized solution. The solution is then carefully applied to the underside of the leaves of the plants. This strategic application allows the sensors to seamlessly penetrate the stomata, which are tiny openings on the leaf surfaces. 



Once inside, the sensors navigate through to the mesophyll, a layer within the leaf where essential plant processes occur. Within the mesophyll, the sensors begin their crucial work. 



They detect and monitor any chemical changes signaling stress, such as alterations due to excessive light, heat, or the presence of pests and pathogens. These changes are crucial indicators of the plant's health and its immediate environment.



To capture this data, an infrared camera is used. The camera is sensitive enough to detect the subtle chemical shifts triggered by the sensors. It converts these signals into visual data that is both actionable and timely. 



The system allows farmers to receive real-time insights into the health of their crops. With this information, they can make informed decisions quickly, potentially preventing significant stress or damage to their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-leaves-send-signals-to-their-roots-on-dry-days-telling-them-to-keep-digging-deeper-for-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>. 



This technology represents a significant step forward in agricultural practices, providing a tool that enhances crop management and sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-application">Real-world application</h2>



In a recent study, the researchers used the plant stress sensors on pak choi plants. These plants were exposed to various stressors including heat, intense light, insect bites, and bacterial infections.



The results were telling; each stress type triggered a specific production timeline of hydrogen peroxide and salicylic acid. This created a biochemical "language" or fingerprint that identifies the type of stress encountered.



The technology represents a significant leap forward from traditional methods, which often involve genetically engineered fluorescent proteins specific to certain plant types, like tobacco or Arabidopsis thaliana. 



The new sensors, however, can be universally applied to nearly any plant, providing a versatile tool for farmers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-farm-management">Implications for farm management</h2>



Michael Strano, a professor of Chemical Engineering at MIT and senior author of the study, emphasized the potential of the plant sensors in agriculture.



"What we found is that these two sensors together can tell the user exactly what kind of stress the plant is undergoing. Inside the plant, in real time, you get chemical changes that rise and fall, and each one serves as a fingerprint of a different stress,” explained Professor Strano.



Furthermore, the team is working on integrating the plant sensors into diagnostic systems that could not only detect stress but also initiate responses, such as adjusting greenhouse conditions to mitigate stress factors automatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The next steps for the researchers involve adapting these sensors to detect other plant signaling molecules. This could further enhance our understanding of plant responses and potentially lead to new strategies for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-insect-pollinator-communities-boost-crop-production/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop management</a> and protection.



In summary, this novel sensor technology offers farmers a powerful tool to monitor and respond to plant stress more effectively and in real time. As this technology develops, it could revolutionize the way we approach farming, making it more responsive, efficient, and sustainable.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-47082-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Sensors that detect plant stress could revolutionize farming

Plant stress is a critical concern in agriculture, where timely...

Astonishing new observations from the Webb Telescope (JWST) have revealed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-finalizes-ambitious-rule-to-slash-methane-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane emissions</a> from a cold brown dwarf -- a discovery that challenges our understanding of these distant celestial bodies. 



This observation suggests potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-enigma-aurorae-discovered-on-isolated-brown-dwarf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">auroral activities</a> similar to those on Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn, reshaping how we perceive the atmospheres of distant, isolated worlds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brown-dwarfs-are-an-enigma">Brown dwarfs are an enigma</h2>



Brown dwarfs are intriguing cosmic entities, larger than planets yet not massive enough to ignite like stars. They populate our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> in abundance, with thousands discovered within our own solar vicinity. 



These objects present a fascinating blend of planetary and stellar characteristics, making them a prime focus for astronomical research.



A particularly interesting subject of study is W1935, a brown dwarf located 47 light years away.



With a chilly surface temperature of about 400° Fahrenheit, this brown dwarf is as warm as an oven used to bake chocolate chip cookies. Despite this, it exhibits conditions markedly different from those of a typical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-blaze-star-explosion-visible-one-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a>.



Despite its poorly defined mass, estimates suggest it weighs between 6 and 35 times that of Jupiter, placing it squarely within the typical size range for brown dwarfs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-methane-glow-on-brown-dwarf-w1935">Unexpected methane glow on brown dwarf W1935</h2>



While examining W1935 among other brown dwarfs, researchers discovered a surprising phenomenon: W1935 was emitting methane.



This observation marked the first instance of methane emissions on a brown dwarf, as methane typically absorbs light rather than emitting it in such cold environments.



“Methane gas is expected in giant planets and brown dwarfs but we usually see it absorbing light, not glowing,” said Jackie Faherty, the lead author of the study. “We were confused about what we were seeing at first but ultimately that transformed into pure excitement at the discovery.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-inversions-and-auroras">Temperature inversions and auroras</h2>



Further investigation through computer modeling revealed another unexpected aspect: W1935's atmosphere exhibits a temperature inversion. In this inversion, the temperature increases with altitude.



While such inversions are common in planets close to a heat source like a star, the isolated nature of W1935 makes this phenomenon particularly baffling.



“We were pleasantly shocked when the model clearly predicted a temperature inversion,” said co-author Ben Burningham from the <a href="https://www.herts.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hertfordshire.</a> “But we also had to figure out where that extra upper atmosphere heat was coming from.”



The team sought answers within our solar system by examining Jupiter and Saturn. Both planets are known for methane emissions and temperature inversions likely caused by auroras.



Consequently, auroras result from interactions between magnetic fields and high-energy particles from the sun. These interactions lead to spectacular light displays near the poles of planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speculating-on-solar-and-lunar-influences">Speculating on solar and lunar influences</h2>



Without a host star, the typical solar wind explanation for auroras does not apply to W1935. However, a tantalizing hypothesis emerged: an active moon, similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brilliant-new-images-of-jupiters-moon-io-captured-by-juno-spacecraft/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter's Io</a> or Saturn's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-sparking-energy-source-found-on-saturns-moon-enceladus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Enceladus</a>, might be influencing the phenomenon. 



These moons, known for their dynamic geological activity, significantly impact their planets' atmospheres.



“Every time an astronomer points JWST at an object, there’s a chance of a new mind-blowing discovery,” Faherty explained. 



“Methane emission was not on my radar when we started this project but now that we know it can be there and the explanation for it so enticing I am constantly on the look-out for it. That’s part of how science moves forward," he concluded.



This recent discovery underscores the unpredictability of space exploration and ignites curiosity. It also drives the scientific community to further unravel the secrets of the universe.



Additionally, more observations are planned to enhance our understanding of W1935 and explore the potential of an undiscovered moon fostering auroral activity on this distant brown dwarf.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07190-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Cold brown dwarf seen emitting methane and generating an aurora

Astonishing new observations from the Webb Telescope (JWST) have revealed...

A,Saber-toothed,Tiger,Attacks,A,Lone,Mammoth,In,A,Snowstorm

A team of brilliant climate scientists has taken a deep dive into Earth's Last Ice Age to unravel the complex relationship between climate change, carbon dioxide (CO2), future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperature-increase-2023-blew-past-all-climate-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global temperatures</a>. 



By focusing on the Last Glacial Maximum (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-footprints-prove-humans-were-in-north-america-23000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LGM</a>), a period 21,000 years ago when much of North America was covered in ice, the study aims to improve our understanding of climate sensitivity and the potential warming we face in the years and decades ahead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-the-last-ice-age-for-future-climate-clues">Analyzing the last ice age for future climate clues</h2>



As carbon dioxide (CO2) levels continue to rise in the atmosphere, the Earth's climate will continue to change, and temperature is expected to increase. 



However, the exact relationship between CO2 and global warming, known as climate sensitivity, is still under investigation.



A recent study led by <a href="https://uwpcc.ocean.washington.edu/person/Vince_Cooper" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vince Cooper</a>, a doctoral student in atmospheric sciences at the University of Washington, and senior author <a href="https://environment.uw.edu/faculty/kyle-armour/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyle Armour</a>, an associate professor of atmospheric sciences and oceanography, has shed new light on this critical relationship by analyzing data from Earth's Last Ice Age.



"The main contribution from our study is narrowing the estimate of climate sensitivity, improving our ability to make future warming projections," Cooper explained. 



"By looking at how much colder Earth was in the ancient past with lower levels of greenhouse gases, we can estimate how much warmer the current climate will get with higher levels of greenhouse gases," he continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Data from the LGM: Coldest chapter of the Last Ice Age</h2>



The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) refers to the period during the Last Ice Age when global ice sheets reached their maximum extent. This occurred around 21,000 years ago and lasted for several thousand years. 



The LGM represents the coldest and most severe stage of the last glacial period. During the LGM, global temperatures were significantly lower than today, with average temperatures around 6 degrees Celsius cooler.



This extreme cooling allowed ice sheets to expand and cover vast areas of the Earth's surface. The Laurentide Ice Sheet in North America and the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet in Europe were at their peak, while glaciers advanced in mountainous regions worldwide.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Sea level changes and exposed landmasses</h3>



As water became locked up in the massive ice sheets, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-sea-levels-spiked-dramatically-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global sea levels</a> dropped by approximately 125 meters during the LGM. 



This dramatic decrease in sea levels exposed extensive areas of the continental shelves, creating land bridges between regions that are now separated by water. 



The most famous example is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-arrived-in-the-americas-10000-years-earlier-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bering Land Bridge</a>, which connected Asia and North America, allowing human populations and animals to migrate between the continents.



The LGM also saw significant changes in the Earth's atmospheric composition. Carbon dioxide levels were much lower than today, dropping to around 190 parts per million (ppm) compared to the current level of over 400 ppm. 



This decrease in greenhouse gases contributed to the cooler global temperatures and amplified the effects of the expanding ice sheets.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Influence on ecosystems and biodiversity</h3>



The harsh conditions of the LGM had a profound impact on ecosystems and biodiversity. Tundra and steppe environments expanded, while forests retreated to smaller refugia. 



Many plant and animal species adapted to the colder climate, with some megafauna, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/end-of-an-era-woolly-mammoth-remains-tell-an-intriguing-story/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">woolly mammoths</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-tooth-diet-giant-ground-sloth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">giant ground sloths</a>, thriving during this period. 



However, the LGM also led to the extinction of some species that were unable to cope with the changing environmental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-future-climate-warming-estimates-from-ice-age-data">Refining future climate warming estimates from ice age data</h2>



By analyzing data from the Last Glacial Maximum, the study's results show significant deviations from current warming projections. 



The best-case, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-to-1-5-degrees-celsius-would-save-billions-of-lives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most likely estimates</a>, for warming due to doubling CO2 levels remain unchanged at about 2 and 3 degrees Celsius, respectively. 



However, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-global-temperature-exceeded-2c-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worst-case scenario</a> has been reduced by a full degree, from 5 to 4 degrees Celsius.



"This paper allows us to produce more confident predictions because it really brings down the upper end of future warming, and says that the most extreme scenario is less likely," Armour enthused. 



"It doesn't really change the lower end, or the average estimate, which remain consistent with all the other lines of evidence," he concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-of-recent-climate-trends">Limitations of recent climate trends</h2>



The authors caution that recent decades are not a reliable predictor of future global warming trends. 



Shorter-term climate cycles and the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric pollution</a> are just some of the reasons why recent patterns cannot be relied upon to forecast the rest of the century.



"The spatial pattern of global warming in the most recent 40 years doesn't look like the long-term pattern we expect in the future -- the recent past is a bad analog for future global warming," emphasized Armour.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combining-paleoclimate-records-and-computer-models">Combining paleoclimate records and computer models</h2>



By combining prehistoric climate records from the Last Glacial Maximum, such as ocean sediments, ice cores, and preserved pollen, with computer models of the Earth's climate, Vince Cooper and his team were able to simulate the weather conditions of this ancient period.



"The paleoclimate record includes long periods that were on average much warmer or colder than the current climate, and we know that there were big climate forcings from ice sheets and greenhouse gases during those periods," explained Cooper. 



"If we know roughly what the past temperature changes were and what caused them, then we know what to expect in the future," he concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-ice-sheets-and-clouds">Role of ice sheets and clouds</h2>



The study revealed that the ice sheet covering much of North America during the Last Glacial Maximum had a more significant cooling effect than previously thought. 



In addition to reflecting summer sunlight off the continents, the ice sheet also altered wind patterns and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-ocean-currents-slowing-as-water-temperature-rises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean currents</a>, causing the northern Pacific and Atlantic oceans to become especially cold and cloudy. 



These cloud changes over the oceans compounded the glacier's global cooling effects by reflecting even more sunlight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-future-climate-with-help-from-earth-s-last-ice-age">Predicting future climate with help from Earth's last ice age</h2>



In summary, as we continue to face the challenges posed by climate change, studies like this one provide valuable insights into the complex relationship between CO2 and global warming. 



By refining our understanding of climate sensitivity and improving our ability to make future warming projections, researchers are helping to inform policymakers and the public about the potential impacts of rising greenhouse gas levels.



While the study's findings offer some reassurance that the most extreme warming scenarios are less likely, it is crucial to remember that even moderate increases in global temperature can have significant consequences for our planet and its inhabitants. 



As we work towards a more sustainable future, it is essential that we continue to support and invest in climate change research to better understand and mitigate the risks posed by a warming world.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adk9461" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Ice age data analysis offers good news for Earth’s current climate woes

A team of brilliant climate scientists has taken a deep...

A significant space weather event has prompted the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="https://www.noaa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a>) to issue a Geomagnetic Storm Alert. 



The Space Weather Message Code ALTK07, issued at 1952 UTC on April 19, 2024, indicates that the geomagnetic K-index has reached a value of 7, crossing the threshold at 1951 UTC during the synoptic period of 1800-2100 UTC.



Initially, space experts anticipated the storm's intensity to fluctuate between a G1 and G2 level, potentially escalating to G3 by Sunday. 



However, the unpredictable nature of space weather has manifested itself, with a severe G3 level storm materializing within the last 24 hours.



The alert, classified as a G3 -- Strong event on the NOAA Space Weather Scale, suggests that the area of impact is primarily poleward of 50 degrees Geomagnetic Latitude. 



The NOAA Space Weather Scale descriptions can be found at <a href="http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/noaa-scales-explanation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">www.swpc.noaa.gov/noaa-scales-explanation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impacts-on-power-systems-spacecraft-navigation-and-radio">Potential impacts on power systems, spacecraft, navigation, and radio</h2>



The G3 - Strong geomagnetic storm alert warns of several potential impacts across various sectors:



<ol start="1">
<li>Induced Currents - Power system voltage irregularities are possible, and false alarms may be triggered on some protection devices. </li>



<li>Spacecraft - Systems may experience surface charging, increased drag on low Earth-orbit satellites, and orientation problems. </li>



<li>Navigation - Intermittent satellite navigation (GPS) problems, including loss-of-lock and increased range error, may occur. </li>



<li>Radio&nbsp;- High frequency (HF) radio communications may be intermittent.</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aurora-visibility-extends-to-lower-latitudes">Aurora visibility extends to lower latitudes</h2>



One of the most visually stunning effects of this geomagnetic storm is the increased visibility of the aurora. The alert suggests that the aurora may be seen as low as Pennsylvania, Iowa, and Oregon, providing a rare opportunity for residents in these regions to witness the mesmerizing dance of the Northern Lights.



In the rare event of the storm reaching a G4 level of severity, the phenomenon could be observed as far south as Alabama and Northern California, a remarkable occurrence for these latitudes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-active-warning-and-continued-monitoring">Active warning and continued monitoring</h2>



The Space Weather Message Code ALTK07 indicates that an active warning is in place, emphasizing the need for continued monitoring and preparedness. 



As the geomagnetic storm progresses, NOAA and other space weather monitoring agencies will provide updates and further guidance to help mitigate the potential impacts on technology and infrastructure.



It is essential for individuals and organizations in the affected regions to stay informed about the development of this geomagnetic storm and to take necessary precautions to protect sensitive equipment and systems. 



By understanding the potential risks and staying alert to official updates, we can work together to minimize the disruptions caused by this powerful space weather event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-predicting-geomagnetic-storms">Challenges of predicting geomagnetic storms</h2>



Predicting the precise intensity of geomagnetic activity remains a complex challenge for space experts, compounded by the increasing frequency of such events. 



The uptick in geomagnetic storms is attributed to the Sun entering the peak phase of its 11-year solar cycle, a period marked by the magnetic field's reversal.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-activity-will-intensify-over-the-next-18-months/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar Cycle 25</a>, which commenced in 2019, is expected to continue until approximately 2030, indicating a period of heightened solar and geomagnetic activity ahead. 



As the world witnesses the awe-inspiring displays of the aurora, the scientific community continues to work tirelessly to better understand and predict the intricacies of space weather.



Visit the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Weather Prediction Center</a>&nbsp;for more information.



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NOAA Alert: Severe geomagnetic solar storm warning issued

A significant space weather event has prompted the National Oceanic...

In a remarkable development, NASA has given the green light to the Dragonfly mission, a revolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/dragonfly-craft_titan-surface_nasa_1m.jpg">rotorcraft</a> designed to investigate the complex chemistry of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturns-rings-will-vanish-from-sight-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn</a>'s moon Titan. 



This confirmation allows the mission to proceed with the final design, construction, and testing of the spacecraft and its scientific instruments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-prebiotic-chemistry-on-titan">Deciphering the prebiotic chemistry on Titan</h2>



The Dragonfly <a href="https://dragonfly.jhuapl.edu/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mission</a>, led by Dr. Melissa Trainer of NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Space Flight Center</a>, will carry a cutting-edge instrument called the Dragonfly Mass Spectrometer (DraMS). 



This powerful tool will help scientists delve into the intricate chemistry at work on Titan, potentially shedding light on the chemical processes that led to the emergence of life on Earth, known as prebiotic chemistry.



"We want to know if the type of chemistry that could be important for early pre-biochemical systems on Earth is taking place on Titan," explains Dr. Trainer, a planetary scientist and astrobiologist specializing in Titan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Titan: Dragonfly's target</h2>



Titan, the largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-now-leads-the-solar-system-moon-race-with-145/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon of Saturn</a>, is shrouded in a dense nitrogen-rich atmosphere, bears a striking resemblance to Earth in many ways. With a diameter of 5,150 kilometers, Titan is the second-largest moon in our solar system, surpassed only by Jupiter's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-moon-ganymede-has-huge-internal-ocean-and-salty-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ganymede</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Dense atmosphere and unique climate</h3>



One of Titan's most distinctive features is its thick atmosphere, which is composed primarily of nitrogen and methane. This dense atmosphere creates a surface pressure 1.5 times higher than Earth's, making it the only moon in our solar system with a substantial atmosphere. 



The presence of methane in Titan's atmosphere leads to a fascinating hydrological cycle, similar to Earth's water cycle, but with methane as the primary liquid.



Titan's surface is dotted with numerous lakes and seas of liquid hydrocarbons, predominantly methane and ethane. These liquid bodies, some of which are larger than the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-great-lakes-are-running-low-on-ice-cover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Lakes on Earth</a>, are the result of Titan's unique climate and atmospheric conditions. 



The <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/cassini/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cassini mission</a>, which explored the Saturn system from 2004 to 2017, provided stunning images and data of these extraterrestrial lakes and seas.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Dragonfly mission to search Titan for prebiotic chemistry and life</h3>



The complex chemistry occurring on Titan's surface and in its atmosphere has drawn significant attention from astrobiologists. 



With its abundant organic compounds and the presence of liquid methane, Titan is considered a prime candidate for studying prebiotic chemistry and the potential for life to emerge in environments different from Earth. 



Beneath Titan's icy crust lies another intriguing feature: a global subsurface ocean of liquid water and ammonia. This ocean, which is believed to be salty and have a high pH, may potentially host microbial life. 



The presence of this subsurface ocean, along with the unique chemistry on Titan's surface, makes this moon a fascinating target for future exploration and scientific research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pushing-the-boundaries-of-rotorcraft-exploration">Pushing the boundaries of rotorcraft exploration</h2>



Nicky Fox, associate administrator of the Science Mission Directorate at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Headquarters</a>, emphasized the significance of the Dragonfly mission, stating, "Exploring Titan will push the boundaries of what we can do with <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/dragonfly-craft_titan-surface_side-view_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rotorcraft outside of Earth</a>."



Titan's unique characteristics, including its abundant complex carbon-rich chemistry, interior ocean, and past presence of liquid water on the surface, make it an ideal destination for studying prebiotic chemical processes and the potential habitability of an extraterrestrial environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-design-and-cutting-edge-technology">Innovative design and cutting-edge technology</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/dragonfly-craft_mission-concept_NASA_1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dragonfly robotic rotorcraft</a> will leverage Titan's low gravity and dense atmosphere to fly between different points of interest on the moon's surface, spanning several miles apart. 



This innovative approach allows the entire suite of instruments to be relocated to new sites once the previous one has been thoroughly explored, providing access to samples from diverse geological environments.



DraMS, developed by the same team responsible for the Sample Analysis at Mars (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/msl-curiosity/science-instruments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SAM</a>) instrument suite aboard the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-vanishing-water-mystery-new-insights-curiosity-rover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity rover</a>, will analyze surface samples using techniques tested on Mars. 



Dr. Trainer emphasized the benefits of this heritage, stating, "This design has given us an instrument that's very flexible, that can adapt to the different types of surface samples."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-mission-challenges-and-funding">Dragonfly mission challenges and funding</h2>



The Dragonfly mission successfully passed its Preliminary Design Review in early 2023. However, due to funding constraints, the mission was asked to develop an updated budget and schedule. 



The revised plan, presented and conditionally approved in November 2023, hinged on the outcome of the fiscal year 2025 budget process.



With the release of the president's fiscal year 2025 budget request, Dragonfly is now confirmed with a total lifecycle cost of $3.35 billion and a launch date set for July 2028. 



This reflects a cost increase of approximately two times the initially proposed cost and a delay of more than two years from the original selection in 2019.



Despite the challenges posed by funding constraints, the COVID-19 pandemic, supply chain issues, and an in-depth design iteration, NASA remains committed to the Dragonfly mission. 



Additional funding has been provided for a heavy-lift launch vehicle to shorten the mission's cruise phase and compensate for the delayed arrival at Titan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rigorous-testing-and-validation">Rigorous testing and validation</h2>



To ensure the success of the Dragonfly mission, researchers on Earth have conducted extensive testing and validation of the designs and models for the nuclear-powered, <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/dragonfly-craft_in-flight_nasa_1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">car-sized drone</a>. 



The mission team has carried out test campaigns at NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/langley/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Langley Research Center</a>, utilizing the Subsonic Tunnel and the Transonic Dynamics Tunnel (<a href="https://aeroelasticity.larc.nasa.gov/facilities/transonic-dynamics-tunnel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TDT</a>) to validate computational fluid dynamics models and gather data under simulated Titan atmospheric conditions.



Ken Hibbard, Dragonfly mission systems engineer at APL, emphasized the importance of these tests, stating, "All of these tests feed into our Dragonfly Titan simulations and performance predictions."



As the Dragonfly mission progresses, it marks a new era of exploration and scientific discovery. Dr. Trainer expressed her excitement, saying, "Dragonfly is a spectacular science mission with broad community interest, and we are excited to take the next steps on this mission."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-science-fiction-into-fact-with-the-dragonfly-mission">Turning science fiction into fact with the Dragonfly mission</h2>



In summary, the Dragonfly mission embodies the essence of human curiosity and the relentless pursuit of knowledge. As NASA prepares to send this revolutionary rotorcraft to the alien world of Titan, we stand on the brink of a new era of exploration and discovery. 



With its innovative design, cutting-edge technology, and the unwavering dedication of the mission team, Dragonfly will unlock the secrets of prebiotic chemistry and shed light on the potential for life beyond Earth. 



As we eagerly await the launch of this titanic mission, we can only imagine the wonders that await us on Saturn's enigmatic moon. The Dragonfly mission is a testament to the indomitable human spirit and our boundless capacity to push the frontiers of knowledge. 



In the words of Ken Hibbard, "With Dragonfly, we're turning science fiction into exploration fact," and that fact will undoubtedly inspire generations to come.



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NASA's Dragonfly mission gets the green light to search for life on Titan

In a remarkable development, NASA has given the green light...

Ever watched a fly zoom past or a bee hover delicately over a flower, and wondered how they manage it? Unlike birds and other flying animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-insects-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> don't have direct muscle control in their wings. 



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a> have delved deep into this question, revealing the complex mechanics behind insect flight, a capability that has profoundly influenced the evolution of life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-secret-s-in-the-hinge">The secret's in the hinge</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-flying-insects-fight-the-wind-to-reach-food-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insect</a> wings are attached to the body by a hinge that is far more complex than any simple joint. This specialized hinge facilitates subtle rotations, precise tilting, and intricate motions, granting the insect incredible agility during flight. 



Internal muscles control the hinge, acting in a concerted way to manipulate the wings. Each muscle receives direct commands from the insect's brain, resulting in coordinated and precise alterations in wing movement that dictate the insect's flight path.



"The fly wing hinge is perhaps the most mysterious and underappreciated structure in the history of life," explained Professor Michael Dickinson. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flying-is-an-insects-superpower">Flying is an insects superpower</h2>



Flight offers substantial benefits that have contributed significantly to the ecological success of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-feast-on-migrating-insects-in-the-pyrenees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>. Here's how aerial movement impacts their lives:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhanced-foraging">Enhanced foraging</h3>



Taking to the skies vastly expands an insect's foraging range. They can quickly locate food sources that would be difficult or tedious to reach on foot, increasing their chances of finding a meal and boosting energy intake.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-dating-pool">Expanding the dating pool</h3>



The ability to fly makes it significantly easier for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-silent-language-decoding-the-chemical-signals-of-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> to locate potential mates. Individuals can cover vast distances and increase the odds of encountering a suitable partner, contributing to successful reproduction and species continuation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improved-predator-avoidance">Improved predator avoidance</h3>



Flight provides insects with a swift escape route. They can rapidly gain altitude or outmaneuver predators, increasing their chances of survival and ultimately, reproductive success.



Unlike birds, bats, and pterosaurs, who evolved flight through the modification of their forelimbs, insects took a radically different approach. Their wings are not modified limbs, but unique outgrowths of their body wall. 



This unique evolutionary trajectory and specialized wing system is one crucial reason behind the incredible diversification and dominance of insects around the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-behind-insect-flight">Complexity behind insect flight</h2>



Scientists at Caltech are exploring the intricacies of insect flight, focusing on the remarkable aerial capabilities of the fruit fly. Their research reveals the complexity and precision of these small creatures’ flight mechanisms.



"We didn't want to just predict the wing motion; we wanted to know the role of the individual muscles," said study first author Johan Melis. "We wanted to tie together the biomechanics of the wing hinge to the neural circuits that control it."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-behind-insect-flight">Mechanisms behind insect flight </h2>



In the wing hinge of a fly, a specific set of 12 muscles directly controls the movement of the wings. Each of these muscles receives signals directly from the fly's brain, guiding their precise and quick actions necessary for flight. 



To understand the significance of this, compare it to a hummingbird, which is also renowned for its agile flight. Despite its small size, a hummingbird relies on thousands of neurons to coordinate the complex movements needed for its flight maneuvers. 



Essentially, while both creatures are masters of flight, the fly achieves similar levels of control and agility with far fewer neural resources, indicating a highly efficient and specialized flight control system within these tiny insects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-and-insect-flight">Machine learning and insect flight</h2>



To better visualize these processes, the researchers engineered fruit flies with wing muscles that emit a glow when active. This genetic modification allowed clearer observation of muscle activity during flight.



The team used high-speed cameras and microscopes to gather extensive data, recording over 80,000 wingbeats from their test subjects. This highlights the dynamic and rapid nature of insect flight.



Finally, to manage and interpret this vast amount of information, machine learning algorithms were utilized. These tools analyze the data and generate detailed maps that show how the fly's muscles work together seamlessly to control flight, often making adjustments faster than the blink of an eye.



This exploration not only increases our understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-insects-seem-to-be-attracted-to-light-has-long-been-a-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> fly but also enhances our appreciation for the complex biological systems that govern seemingly simple actions like flight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wing-movements-facilitated-by-the-insect-s-hinge">Wing movements facilitated by the insect's hinge</h2>



The ultimate objective of this research extends beyond simply understanding the intricate wing movements facilitated by the insect's hinge. Scientists strive to unravel how these complex wing motions are orchestrated by the insect's brain. 



The wing hinge, despite its remarkable design, is merely a tool – it's the brain that issues the commands and directs aerial maneuvers.



As some of the first creatures to take to the air, insects hold invaluable insights into the evolution of early flight control systems. Their brains contain the neural circuits that allowed for this remarkable adaptation, blueprints that offer a glimpse into the origins of flight.



Moreover, an insect's brain seamlessly coordinates flight and their numerous walking legs. This showcases an incredible ability to control vastly different movement systems, requiring sophisticated neural networks and information processing within their compact brains.



The connection between the physical structures that enable flight – like the hinge and muscles – and the neural commands that control them is fundamental to understanding the amazing aerial abilities of insects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The Caltech team hopes to create intricate models that fully combine the muscle control, the mechanics of the hinge, the way air flows around the wings, and the fly's inner command center. 



By studying other insects like mosquitos and bees, they could reveal how different wing structures and brain systems give insects their unique flying styles.



"We want to understand the circuitry between the biomechanics and the neurobiology. Very few times in evolution has an animal had one very successful form of locomotion - walking - and simply added another one - flying. This means that the brains of insects must have all the circuitry to regulate to completely different means of moving," said Dickinson.



Understanding the incredible engineering that underpins insect flight is about more than just satisfying our curiosity. This research might ultimately lead to better flying robots – such as tiny drones with the adaptability of a housefly. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07293-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Insect flight is powered by an extraordinary structure

Ever watched a fly zoom past or a bee hover...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

Cape Verde Islands, an island country in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-ocean-circulation-climate-change/">Atlantic Ocean</a> off the coast of Africa, is clearly visible in this image acquired on October 17, 2005. The islands total about 4,000 square kilometers (1,500 square miles) in area, slightly larger than the State of Rhode Island in the United States.
Therefore islands were claimed by Portugal in 1456; they declared their independence in 1975. Throughout its history, Cape Verde has been an important commercial port, serving at various times the slave trade, whaling, and transatlantic shipping. Commerce and tourism remain its dominant economic activities. All but one of the ten major islands are inhabited; the other, Santa Luzia, is a wildlife preserve.
Also ne of the islands, Fogo, contains an active volcano. This stratovolcano (a large cone-shaped volcano, like Mt. Rainier) measures 8 kilometers (5 miles) in diameter and last erupted in 1995. The rugged and mountainous islands have a warm, tropical climate and are often subjected to severe droughts.

Cape Verde Islands

Hundreds of  intense agricultural fires and smoke in Northwest India continue to burn in the Punjab region of India. This area is of India, producing approximately two-thirds of the country´s food is mostly wheat and rice. Farmers use fire to clear the fields of vegetation and to add nutrients to the soil.

The smoke from these fires becomes trapped by the barrier formed by the <a href="http://www.earth.com/image/some-of-the-worlds-tallest-mountains-are-in-the-himalayas/">Himalayas</a>, clearly visible on the right side of this image. Smoke and other particulate matter that linger in the atmosphere is called haze and is a major health concern. Therefore the American Heart Association, they have been linked to heart disease and stroke; prolonged exposure may also be associated with reduced immune system response and cause damage to the lining of the lungs.

Also this area is south of the Kashmir region, which was recently struck by a massive earthquake that killed tens of thousands, left millions homeless, and will likely cost billions of dollars in rescue, repair, and reconstruction operations.