Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a pair of interacting spiral galaxies known as the Antennae Galaxies. They are located approximately 45 million light-years away in the constellation Corvus.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antennae-galaxies-in-a-deadly-embrace">Antennae Galaxies in a deadly embrace </h2>



“The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has snapped the best ever image of the Antennae Galaxies. Hubble has released images of these stunning galaxies twice before, once using observations from its Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) in 1997, and again in 2006 from the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS),” noted <a href="https://esahubble.org/images/potw1345a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The galaxies - also known as NGC 4038 and NGC 4039 - are locked in a deadly embrace. Once normal, sedate spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, the pair have spent the past few hundred million years sparring with one another.”



According to ESA, the clash of the Antennae Galaxies is so violent that stars have been ripped from their host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> to form a streaming arc between the two.&nbsp;



The name of the galaxy pair comes from this long stream of stars and gas, which resembles insect antennae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-bursts-of-star-formation-nbsp">Intense bursts of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



The collision has triggered intense bursts of star formation, making the Antennae Galaxies one of the nearest and most dramatic examples of a starburst galaxy.&nbsp;



Many of the newly formed stars are concentrated in massive star clusters, some of which are expected to evolve into globular clusters over millions of years.



“This new image of the Antennae Galaxies shows obvious signs of chaos. Clouds of gas are seen in bright pink and red, surrounding the bright flashes of blue star-forming regions - some of which are partially obscured by dark patches of dust,” explained ESA.



“The rate of star formation is so high that the Antennae Galaxies are said to be in a state of starburst, a period in which all of the gas within the galaxies is being used to form stars.”&nbsp;



“This cannot last forever and neither can the separate galaxies; eventually the nuclei will coalesce, and the galaxies will begin their retirement together as one large elliptical galaxy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-antennae-galaxies">Significance of the Antennae Galaxies</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies are one of the most well-studied examples of galaxy collisions - offering insight into the processes that shape galaxies over time.



Astronomers study the Antennae Galaxies using a range of telescopes across different wavelengths, including visible light, infrared, and X-rays.&nbsp;



Observations in X-rays have revealed evidence of supernovae and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, while infrared studies highlight regions of dust and star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-collision-course-nbsp">The Milky Way's collision course&nbsp;</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies provide a glimpse into the future of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is expected to eventually merge with the Andromeda Galaxy - our closest spiral galaxy neighbor.



The cosmic collision course of the Milky Way and Andromeda will reshape both galaxies over billions of years.&nbsp;



This event is expected to occur in about 4.5 billion years. Both galaxies are part of the Local Group, a cluster of galaxies bound together by gravity. Their mutual gravitational pull is drawing them closer at a speed of approximately 110 kilometers per second.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-birth-of-an-elliptical-galaxy-nbsp">The birth of an elliptical galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



When the two galaxies collide, their individual stars will largely avoid direct collisions due to the vast distances between them. However, the gravitational forces involved will create dramatic effects.&nbsp;



These forces will distort the galaxies' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shapes</a>, triggering intense bursts of star formation as gas clouds collide and compress. Over time, the galaxies will settle into a new, larger elliptical galaxy often referred to as "Milkomeda" or "Milkdromeda" by astronomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-merger-and-the-solar-system">Galaxy merger and the solar system</h2>



Despite the seemingly destructive nature of the collision, the solar system is unlikely to face direct harm. Our Sun may find itself flung into a new orbit within the merged galaxy or even cast into intergalactic space.&nbsp;



The merger will also significantly alter the night sky, with the Andromeda Galaxy becoming increasingly prominent before blending into the unified structure.



This event is part of the natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> and serves as a fascinating reminder of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe. 



While the collision is still billions of years away, studying it helps astronomers understand galactic interactions and the long-term future of our cosmic neighborhood.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA



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Violent clash of the Antennae Galaxies  

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the galaxy NGC 2090, located approximately 40 million light-years away in the constellation Columba.



NGC 2090 is a stunning spiral galaxy that is notable for its well-defined structure, featuring a bright central core surrounded by tightly wound spiral arms.&nbsp;



These arms are filled with young, hot stars and interstellar gas, indicating active star formation.&nbsp;



Captured by the Webb Telescope’s MIRI and NIRCam instruments, the image reveals the galaxy's winding spiral arms and the swirling gas and dust of its disc in magnificent and unique detail, noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-ngc-2090">Observations of NGC 2090</h2>



The galaxy’s spiral pattern is relatively symmetrical, making it a fascinating object of study for astronomers interested in galactic evolution and dynamics.&nbsp;



Observations of NGC 2090, including those conducted by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-helps-solve-the-mystery-of-a-young-eruptive-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> Space Telescope, have provided valuable insights into the properties of its stellar populations, gas content, and the nature of its spiral structure.



“NGC 2090 was one of many galaxies studied by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope to refine the measurement of the Universe’s expansion rate, or ‘Hubble constant,’” said ESA.&nbsp;



“This can be done by observing a special type of variable stars named ‘Cepheids’ in relatively nearby galaxies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-ngc-2090">New insights into NGC 2090</h2>



A Cepheid-based measurement from 1998 indicated that NGC 2090 is 37 million light-years away from Earth. However, the latest measurements suggest that the galaxy is 40 million light-years away.



“Already before that Hubble project in 1998, NGC 2090 had been well studied as a very prominent nearby example of star formation,” noted ESA.&nbsp;



“Described as a ‘flocculent’ spiral, this galaxy has a patchy, dusty disc and arms that are flaky or not visible at all. We can see those patterns well in Hubble's visible-light images. However, Webb’s NIRCam near-infrared data reveal the spiral arms with remarkable clarity.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-spiral-galaxies">What are spiral galaxies?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are among the most common and visually striking types of galaxies in the universe.&nbsp;



They are characterized by their flat, disk-like shape with a bright central bulge surrounded by sweeping spiral arms.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-arms-and-central-bulge-nbsp">Spiral arms and central bulge&nbsp;</h3>



The arms of a spiral galaxy are regions where stars, gas, and dust are concentrated, often glowing brightly with the light of young, hot stars that form within them.&nbsp;



The central bulge typically contains older stars and can host a supermassive black hole at its core.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-spiral-galaxies-nbsp">Types of spiral galaxies&nbsp;</h3>



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on how tightly their arms are wound and the size of their central bulge, ranging from tightly wound "Sa" galaxies to loosely wound "Sc" types.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-nbsp">Star formation&nbsp;</h3>



The structure of spiral galaxies is maintained by the interplay of gravity and angular momentum, with a rotating disk of stars and gas giving rise to their iconic shape.&nbsp;



They are active sites of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> due to the abundance of gas in their arms.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies often have a halo of older stars and globular clusters surrounding their disks, which provides clues about their formation and evolution.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxy">Barred spiral galaxy</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-is-surrounded-by-massive-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, the galaxy that contains our Solar System, is a prime example of a barred spiral galaxy, a subtype where a bar-shaped structure of stars extends from the central bulge.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-columba-nbsp">The constellation Columba&nbsp;</h2>



Columba is a small and relatively faint constellation in the southern sky, whose name means "dove" in Latin. It was introduced in the late 16th century by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius and first appeared in a celestial atlas by Johann Bayer in 1603.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-jupiter-discovered-in-the-great-bear-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constellation</a> is said to represent the dove sent out by Noah during the biblical flood, tying it to themes of hope and peace.



Columba lies near the larger constellation Canis Major and is bordered by others such as Lepus and Puppis.&nbsp;



Although it lacks particularly bright stars, its most notable star, Alpha Columbae (also called Phact), shines at a magnitude of approximately 2.6 and is a hot blue-white star. Beta Columbae, another prominent star in the constellation, is a slightly cooler, yellow-white star.



The constellation is best viewed from the Southern Hemisphere during the summer months, though it can also be seen from lower latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope&nbsp;



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Webb unveils a spiral galaxy in magnificent detail

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 6744 - a large, barred spiral galaxy located approximately 30 million light-years away in the constellation Pavo.&nbsp;



The galaxy is often considered a close analog to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> due to its similar structure and size, spanning about 175,000 light-years across.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-space-mission-nbsp">Euclid space mission&nbsp;</h2>



The image was captured by the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid</a> space telescope. NGC 6744 stands out as a prime example of the galaxies currently forming the majority of stars in the nearby universe, making it an ideal subject for study with the Euclid mission.&nbsp;



Euclid’s extensive field-of-view allows it to capture the entire galaxy, showcasing not only its large-scale spiral structure but also revealing intricate details on smaller scales across various wavelengths. These details include feather-like dust lanes, known as “spurs,” emerging from the spiral arms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-6744">Star formation in NGC 6744</h2>



Euclid's observations enable scientists to count individual stars within NGC 6744, trace the distribution of stars and dust throughout the galaxy, and map the dust associated with the gas that fuels the development of new stars.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Star formation</a> is a key process in the growth of galaxies, making these studies crucial for understanding galaxy evolution.



Researchers are utilizing Euclid’s data to explore the relationship between dust, gas, and star formation; to map the distribution of different stellar populations and identify regions of active star formation; and to investigate the underlying physics of spiral galaxy structures.&nbsp;



Spiral arms play a significant role in star formation by compressing gas, yet the precise mechanisms behind this process are still unclear. The presence of “spurs” along NGC 6744’s spiral arms offers valuable insights into the dynamics of star formation within these structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-new-dwarf-galaxies-nbsp">Discovering new dwarf galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, Euclid's dataset will help scientists identify clusters of old stars (globular clusters) and discover new dwarf galaxies around NGC 6744. 



Remarkably, Euclid has already identified a new dwarf satellite galaxy of NGC 6744 - a surprising discovery given that the galaxy has been studied extensively.



With Euclid’s detailed observations, scientists are gaining a deeper understanding of the processes shaping galaxies, providing essential clues to the evolution and appearance of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universes-expansion-rate-hubble-tension-puzzles-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-ngc-6744">More about NGC 6744</h2>



NGC 6744's disk is rich in star-forming regions and contains numerous young, bright blue stars. The galaxy's nucleus is slightly elongated and has a bar structure, which influences the motion of the stars and gas within it.&nbsp;



The spiral arms of NGC 6744 are well-defined and extend outward, wrapping around the central bar. 



Additionally, NGC 6744 has a smaller companion galaxy, NGC 6744A, which is interacting with it, adding to the complexity and interest of this distant system. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-spiral-galaxies">Types of spiral galaxies</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are one of the most common types of galaxies in the universe, characterized by their distinct, spiral-shaped structure.&nbsp;



The galaxies typically consist of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas, and dust, along with a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. This bulge is often surrounded by a halo of older stars.&nbsp;



The spiral arms, which extend from the central bulge, are regions of active star formation and are rich in young, hot stars, giving them a bright, bluish appearance.&nbsp;



These arms are also sites where interstellar gas and dust are concentrated, leading to the formation of new stars.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on the tightness of their spirals and the size of their central bulge, with classifications ranging from tightly wound arms in Sa galaxies to more loosely wound arms in Sc galaxies. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our home galaxy, is a prime example of a spiral galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-pavo">The constellation Pavo</h2>



Pavo, which means "peacock" in Latin, is a constellation in the southern sky. It was named by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius in the late 16th century, based on observations made during the Dutch explorations of the southern hemisphere. 



Pavo is one of the 12 constellations created by Plancius from the records of explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. 



The constellation is known for its distinctive shape, resembling a peacock with a long, curved tail. Pavo is not visible from most of the northern hemisphere, but it can be seen from the southern hemisphere, particularly during the winter months.



The constellation contains several interesting celestial objects, including the star Peacock, also known as Alpha Pavonis, which is the brightest star in the constellation. This star is a blue-white subgiant located about 179 light-years from Earth.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>/Euclid/Euclid Consortium/NASA&nbsp;



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Young stars illuminate a spiral galaxy in the constellation Pavo

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Columbia Glacier, a tidewater glacier located in Prince William Sound on the south coast of Alaska.



The Columba Glacier is one of the most rapidly changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glaciers</a> in the world and has been closely studied for the insights it provides into glacial mechanics and climate change impacts. 



"Since the early 1980s, the Columbia Glacier has retreated more than 20 km and lost about half of its total volume. This one glacier accounts for nearly half of the ice lost in the Chugach Mountains," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"The changing climate is thought to have caused its retreat. Until 1980, when its rapid and constant retreat began, the glacier’s terminus was observed at the northern edge of Heather Island, which lies near the end of Columbia Bay, the inlet into which the glacier currently flows before draining into Prince William Sound."



ESA noted that this satellite image, captured in September of 2023, reveals a mostly ice-free Columbia Bay dotted with numerous icebergs and fragmented sea-ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-calving-events">Dramatic calving events</h2>



The Columbia Glacier is known for its dramatic calving events, where large chunks of ice break off from the glacier's terminus and fall into the sea, becoming icebergs.



This process has been particularly active as the glacier has retreated, contributing to hazards for shipping in Prince William Sound.



The glacier has been the focus of extensive scientific research, serving as a case study for understanding the dynamics of tidewater glaciers and their responses to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. Studies have used satellite imagery, field observations, and modeling to track its changes over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impacts-on-the-columbia-glacier">Climate impacts on the Columbia Glacier</h2>



"Columbia is just one of the many glaciers suffering from the effects of climate change. Most of the glaciers around the world are losing mass," said ESA.



"However, before the advent of satellites, measuring their retreat and studying their vulnerability to climate change was difficult considering their size, remoteness and rugged terrain they occupy."



Now, noted ESA, different satellite instruments are available to gather information systematically and over large areas, providing an effective means to monitor change, keep track of all calving stages, and quantify the melting rate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-columbia-s-retreat-nbsp">Climate change and Columbia's retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Columbia Glacier flows from the Chugach Mountains into Columbia Bay. It was once one of the largest contributors to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cost-coastal-cities-over-1-trillion-in-damages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a> due to its significant ice loss.&nbsp;



The glacier's dynamics are influenced by its interaction with water, where the terminus meets the ocean. As the glacier flows into the sea, large chunks of ice calve off the front, leading to dramatic scenes of ice crashing into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shelf-sediment-ocean-composition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a>. 



This process has been intensifying due to warmer temperatures and changes in water circulation, which undermine the ice from below.



Columbia Glacier's retreat has significant implications for marine navigation and local ecosystems. The increase in icebergs calving into the bay poses hazards to ships, while the fresh meltwater impacts local water temperatures and salinity, affecting the habitat of fish and other marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-in-a-warming-climate">Melting glaciers in a warming climate </h2>



Glaciers, which are large masses of accumulated snow and ice, store about 69 percent of the world's freshwater. As the climate warms, these glaciers increasingly melt and release freshwater into nearby seas and the ocean at large.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influx-of-freshwater">Influx of freshwater</h3>



The influx of freshwater from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting glaciers</a> alters the salinity (salt concentration) of the ocean water. Since freshwater is less dense than saltwater, its addition can lead to stratification in which lighter, less salty water layers on top of denser, saltier water.&nbsp;



Stratification can disrupt ocean currents, which are driven in part by differences in water density and temperature. These currents are crucial for regulating global climate by distributing heat and nutrients around the planet.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-salinity-nbsp">Changes in salinity&nbsp;</h3>



Furthermore, changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salinity</a> can affect marine life, which often has narrow salinity tolerance ranges. For example, shifts in salinity can impact breeding cycles, migration patterns, and the availability of nutrients.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-carbon-cycle">Global carbon cycle</h3>



As the ocean's composition changes, its capacity to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere could also be altered, affecting the global carbon cycle and, by extension, climate change feedback mechanisms.



The melting of glaciers contributes to more pronounced changes in ocean conditions, impacting everything from global climate systems to local ecosystems in marine environments.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Columbia Glacier on the south coast of Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features Ksudach, a remarkable volcanic complex located on Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula.



“The peninsula is one of the world’s most active volcanic arcs due to tectonic plate movement, with the Pacific Plate subducting under the Eurasian Plate,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153779/ksudachs-nested-calderas-and-craters" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explosive-eruptions-of-ksudach">Explosive eruptions of Ksudach</h2>



Ksudach is classified as a shield <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-helps-scientists-forecast-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> due to the gentle slopes formed by its extensive lava flows. The combination of its shield-like structure and the prominent caldera system makes Ksudach a unique volcanic feature on the Kamchatka Peninsula.



“Several overlapping calderas and craters comprise the volcano. Calderas are large, bowl-shaped depressions created by the collapse of overlying material into an emptied subsurface magma chamber,” explained NASA.



“Craters are circular depressions created by volcanic activity, surface impacts, or explosions.”



This volcanic system has a fascinating geological history shaped by multiple explosive eruptions.&nbsp;



The most significant of these occurred around 240 AD, leaving behind a prominent caldera that now hosts scenic crater lakes, such as Lake Ksudach. 



“Lakes within the volcanic region are primarily recharged by rain and snowmelt from the winter season. This photo shows the water’s contrasting blue hues surrounded by green vegetation,” noted NASA.



“Traces of snow fill valleys within and outside the volcano’s caldera complex. These snow-covered areas highlight the drainage patterns from higher to lower elevations. Water that flows through these erosional pathways and into the caldera supports its vegetation and lakes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-landscape-of-ksudach-nbsp">Unique landscape of Ksudach&nbsp;</h2>



Ksudach's landscape also features pyroclastic deposits, lava flows, and hydrothermal features like fumaroles.&nbsp;



The surrounding environment - which is part of the UNESCO-listed Kamchatka Volcanoes - supports a diverse ecosystem with unique wildlife. 



Despite its remote location, Ksudach has drawn the attention of geologists, offering insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-volcanic-eruptions-are-more-harmful-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic processes</a> and the dynamics of caldera formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-earth-s-geology-nbsp">Dynamic nature of Earth's geology&nbsp;</h2>



The most well-documented eruption of Ksudach occurred in March 1907. This eruption ranks as one of the largest in Kamchatka in the 20th century, with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 5.



The eruption produced a colossal ash column that soared into the stratosphere, dispersing fine particles over vast distances and contributing to global atmospheric changes.&nbsp;



The sheer force of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/icelands-volcanic-eruptions-may-continue-for-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruption</a> unleashed pyroclastic flows - fast-moving avalanches of hot gas, ash, and volcanic debris - that raced down the volcano's slopes, obliterating everything in their path.&nbsp;



These flows, capable of reaching temperatures over 1,000°C, decimated vegetation and altered the topography of the surrounding region.&nbsp;



Simultaneously, tephra deposits blanketed the landscape in layers of thick volcanic material, smothering ecosystems and creating a barren wasteland.&nbsp;



Today, Ksudach is considered an active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> but remains dormant. The region is closely monitored due to its potential for renewed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-ring-of-fire-nbsp">Pacific Ring of Fire&nbsp;</h2>



The Kamchatka Peninsula lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean where tectonic activity is highly concentrated.&nbsp;



This geologically dynamic area features numerous volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, and frequent seismic activity - making it a hotspot for both natural beauty and scientific study. 



Kamchatka is home to over 160 volcanoes, with about 30 considered active, including Klyuchevskaya Sopka, the highest and one of the most active in the region.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-activity-nbsp">Volcanic activity&nbsp;</h3>



As the Pacific Plate dives into the Earth's mantle, it melts and generates magma that feeds Kamchatka’s volcanic systems.&nbsp;



This ongoing tectonic interaction also contributes to the broader activity of the Pacific Ring of Fire, which accounts for approximately 75% of the world's active and dormant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-shows-signs-of-waking-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> and about 90% of its earthquakes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-significance-nbsp">Broader significance&nbsp;</h3>



Beyond its geological significance, the Kamchatka Peninsula boasts a diverse ecosystem that is home to animals such as snow sheep, brown bears, red foxes, and unique plants that are adapted to its harsh environment. 



The coastal waters surrounding the peninsula support various fish species, including abundant salmon, as well as sea lions and killer whales.



The interplay of volcanic landscapes and pristine wilderness makes it a natural laboratory for understanding Earth's dynamic processes.



The image was captured by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Ksudach: A volcano shaped by explosive forces

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a blanket of dust over the Tarim Basin - a vast, arid region in northwestern China. 



Mountain peaks are visible through a break in the dust. These peaks are part of Tekilik Shan, a subrange of the Kunlun Mountains.



Though not as widely known as some other mountain ranges in the area, Tekilik Shan plays a significant role in shaping local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-pushing-nature-toward-a-breaking-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> patterns and geography.



Its snow-covered peaks can rise above 13,000 feet, contributing to the dramatic elevation differences that define the basin’s borders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-storms-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Dust storms in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



Spring marks the height of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust storm</a> activity in the Tarim Basin, particularly in its southern region.&nbsp;



“It’s a time of year when regional wind patterns shift in ways that cause winds and storm systems to sweep in from the northwest,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/154126/a-curtain-of-dust-over-the-tarim-basin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“In early spring, when landscapes in this region are especially dry and have minimal vegetation, land surfaces warm rapidly under the Sun’s heat every morning, fueling convection that can help loft dust upward by the afternoon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingerlike-dust-formations-nbsp">Fingerlike dust formations&nbsp;</h2>



Satellite images revealed dust formations with fingerlike shapes that mirrored the landscape below. These projections aligned with valleys, which channeled and directed the airborne dust.&nbsp;



Ralph Kahn is an atmospheric scientist at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder and scientist emeritus at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.



According to Kahn, the dust may have been “self-lofting.” In this process, sunlight heats recently stirred-up surface dust, creating pockets of convection that lift it even higher into the air.



This interpretation is supported by hourly observations from Japan’s Himawari-9 geostationary satellite, which showed dust gradually rising into the Tekilik Shan throughout the day. By late afternoon, the storm had grown dense enough to obscure the mountains.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-atmospheric-dust">Decline in atmospheric dust</h2>



Long-term satellite data from MODIS suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-in-the-gulf-of-alaska-help-shape-the-global-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric dust</a> levels in this region have declined by about 1.5 percent each year since the early 2000s.&nbsp;



NASA researcher Hongbin Yu attributes this trend mainly to springtime changes - such as altered wind speeds, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil moisture</a>, or vegetation cover - rather than shifts in other seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Rainfall in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



“The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Takla-Makan-Desert" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Takla Makan Desert</a> is one of the driest, most barren expanses on Earth. Flanked by mountain ranges on three sides and parched by the resulting <a href="https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Rain_shadow" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rain shadow</a>, parts of the Tarim Basin receive no more than 10 millimeters (0.4 inches) of rain per year,” noted NASA.



“Dust storms can lead to public health problems in populated areas downwind by transporting small particles, bacteria, and viruses that infiltrate human respiratory systems.”&nbsp;



NASA added that dust storms can also affect Earth’s climate by scattering and absorbing incoming solar radiation and changing the properties of clouds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landscape-of-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Landscape of the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



The Tarim Basin is one of the largest endorheic basins in the world, meaning that its rivers do not drain into the sea but instead flow into interior lakes or evaporate.&nbsp;



The basin is encircled by three mountain ranges: the Tien Shan to the north, the Kunlun Mountains to the south, and the Pamirs to the west. These ranges create a powerful rain shadow effect, making the region exceptionally dry.



At the heart of the Tarim Basin lies the Taklamakan Desert, one of the most extreme deserts on Earth. The desert is known for its high dunes, intense temperature swings, and minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-will-wreak-havoc-on-mountain-ranges-as-warming-climate-turns-snow-to-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-and-geology">History and geology</h2>



Despite its harsh environment, the basin has been historically significant. It was a key section of the ancient Silk Road, with several oases such as Kashgar, Khotan, and Loulan serving as vital trading and cultural centers for centuries.



Geologically, the basin is rich in natural resources, particularly oil and natural gas, and has become a focal point for China's energy exploration and development.&nbsp;



The region’s challenging climate and remote location, however, make infrastructure development and human habitation difficult.&nbsp;



The image was captured on March 27, 2025 by the Operational Land Imager instrument on Landsat 8.



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Blanket of dust covers China’s Tarim Basin

High above the crowded plains and winding rivers of Asia, the Hindu Kush-Himalayan mountains have always stood as guardians of life. 



Their snow-covered peaks store nature’s most precious resource: water. Each year, as temperatures rise, the melting snow feeds rivers that nourish nearly two billion people across the continent.



Now, that ancient cycle faces an unprecedented disruption. A new report reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rain-and-snow-are-difficult-to-forecast-at-near-freezing-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snowfall</a> across this mighty mountain range has fallen to its lowest level in 23 years. 



The implications are profound, threatening agriculture, drinking water, and the very survival of millions. Scientists warn that the changes are not only immediate but could shape the region’s future in devastating ways.



The Hindu Kush-Himalayan range stretches across eight countries - Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. These mountains hold the largest reserves of ice and snow outside the polar regions.



They have earned the name "Third Pole" for a reason: they sustain life on a continental scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snowfall-drops-across-hindu-kush-himalayas">Snowfall drops across Hindu Kush-Himalayas</h2>



According to the International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (<a href="https://www.icimod.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICIMOD</a>), the region’s snow persistence - the duration snow stays on the ground - has dropped by 23.6% compared to normal levels. This marks the lowest snowfall observed in over two decades.



"This trend, now in its third consecutive year, threatens <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-snow-complexity-can-improve-winter-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> security for nearly two billion people," the ICIMOD report stated, emphasizing the gravity of the situation.



Reduced snow levels mean less meltwater feeding the twelve major river basins that countless communities rely on. These rivers, including the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra, are vital arteries for drinking water, agriculture, and hydroelectric power. 



The Hindu Kush-Himalayan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-sea-ice-hits-record-winter-low-raising-global-alarm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">region</a> does not just affect those living on its slopes; it impacts hundreds of millions downstream.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-snowfall-weakens-rivers">Low snowfall weakens rivers</h2>



The new Snow Update Report from ICIMOD paints a stark picture. Lower snowfall this year will likely lead to weaker river flows, deeper reliance on already strained groundwater supplies, and a heightened risk of droughts.



Sher Muhammad, the lead author of the ICIMOD report, explained the unusual snowfall patterns. "This year the snowfall started late in January and remained low in the winter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ice-caps-may-only-exist-because-of-unusual-climate-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">season</a> on average," he told AFP.



This delay and reduction mean that spring and summer seasons will bring smaller and weaker rivers. Farmers depending on regular meltwater for irrigation could face catastrophic harvest losses. In cities, water shortages could become more frequent and severe.



Several countries have already issued drought warnings, bracing for the compounded threats of heatwaves, water scarcity, and food insecurity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rivers-face-major-water-loss">Rivers face major water loss</h2>



The loss of snow cover is not uniform across the Hindu Kush-Himalayas. Some areas are experiencing even sharper declines. The ICIMOD report highlights the Mekong and Salween river basins, which have lost nearly half of their snow cover.



These rivers are lifelines for millions in Southeast Asia, particularly in China and Myanmar. The drastic reduction in snow threatens the very foundation of agriculture, fisheries, and daily life in these regions.



Without significant snow reserves to replenish them, the rivers will run lower, warmer, and less able to sustain the communities that depend on them. This will intensify competition over water resources and strain regional relationships already tested by climate stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-regional-action">A call for regional action</h2>



Faced with these alarming trends, ICIMOD is urging its member nations to act swiftly. The organization emphasizes the urgent need for improved water management strategies, stronger drought preparedness, better early warning systems, and more robust regional cooperation.



Although the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region spans diverse political landscapes, the shared threat of water insecurity demands collective solutions. 



No single country can address these challenges alone. Joint investment in climate-resilient infrastructure, early detection systems, and cooperative agreements will be essential to avoid deepening crises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hindu-kush-himalayas-face-irreversible-change">Hindu Kush-Himalayas face irreversible change</h2>



Pema Gyamtsho, ICIMOD's director general, did not mince words when discussing the long-term implications of current climate trends.



"Carbon emissions have already locked in an irreversible course of recurrent snow anomalies in the HKH (Hindu Kush-Himalayas)," Gyamtsho said.



This sobering statement reflects a reality many scientists have warned about for years. Even if carbon emissions were to drop tomorrow, the effects already set in motion will continue to reshape the region’s environment for decades to come. 



Future generations in Asia will inherit a world with less snow, weaker rivers, and greater struggles for water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-broader-climate-warning">A broader climate warning</h2>



The snowfall crisis is not an isolated incident but part of a broader and accelerating trend. The UN's <a href="https://wmo.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Meteorological Organization</a> reported that Asia has experienced the most rapid glacier retreat on record in five of the past six years.



This relentless loss of ice and snow is rewriting the hydrological maps of Asia. It is making once-reliable water sources unpredictable and exposing millions to the twin dangers of floods and droughts.



As the snowpacks shrink and glaciers retreat, the ancient relationship between mountain, river, and community frays. Scientists and policymakers alike must recognize this as not just an environmental issue but a humanitarian one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hindu-kush-himalayas-need-quick-action">Hindu Kush-Himalayas need quick action</h2>



The Hindu Kush-Himalayas are sounding an unmistakable alarm. The crisis unfolding in these heights is a warning not only for Asia but for the world. 



Water scarcity, food insecurity, and climate migration could soon grow far worse without bold, coordinated action.



The time to respond is now, before snowmelt - once a symbol of renewal and hope - becomes a memory of the past.



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Snowfall drops in Hindu Kush-Himalayas, water crisis may follow

High above the crowded plains and winding rivers of Asia,...

In a world increasingly shaped by virtual reality, the way humans interact is changing. Avatars have quickly become vital players in online communication, from professional meetings to shopping experiences. 



Yet, how deeply they influence our thoughts and decisions is still being uncovered. One critical aspect now gaining attention is how avatars affect risk-taking behavior.



Recent research led by Dr. Toshiko Tanaka and Dr. Masahiko Haruno at the National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (<a href="https://www.nict.go.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NICT</a>) reveals that avatars play a powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-avatars-are-making-people-take-more-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">role</a> in shaping human behavior. 



The study, published in PLOS Biology, offers fresh insights into how expecting feedback from an avatar can encourage people to take greater risks compared to feedback from real human faces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avatars-make-humans-take-more-risks">Avatars make humans take more risks</h2>



The study by Tanaka and Haruno highlights an important psychological shift. Participants showed an increased tendency toward risky behavior when interacting with avatars rather than real people. 



The key mechanism behind this shift lies in how the brain’s amygdala <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-adults-often-understand-emojis-but-hesitate-to-use-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a> uncertainty in feedback from avatars.



"Participants were more likely to take risks when facial expressions (such as admiration or contempt) were displayed by avatars than when the same expressions were shown on real human faces," the authors noted.



Their work fills a critical gap. Previous research mainly focused on how using one's own avatar impacts behavior. Few studies addressed how a communication partner appearing as an avatar might alter decision-making. 



With avatar-based communication expanding rapidly across industries, these insights arrive at an essential time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-avatar-and-human-reactions">Testing avatar and human reactions</h2>



To explore these dynamics, the researchers designed a task where participants engaged in a gambling game. 



Participants received dynamic facial-expression feedback either from an observer's real face or their avatar representation after each trial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sending-the-right-message-emojis-can-be-misinterpreted/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outcome</a>. This creative setup allowed the team to alternate between avatar and human interactions in a natural and controlled way.



A total of 28 individuals participated in behavioral experiments, while 51 individuals underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning. 



During the task, participants faced decisions between a guaranteed small reward and a larger, riskier reward. Each time they made a choice, their communication partner's expression reflected success or failure, either through a real human face or an avatar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avatar-feedback-leads-to-more-risk-taking">Avatar feedback leads to more risk-taking</h2>



Results from the experiments revealed something striking. When participants anticipated receiving feedback from an avatar, they chose the riskier option more frequently. This trend held true both in behavioral studies and during fMRI scans.



“We found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-has-a-profound-influence-on-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">people</a> tend to take more risks when their partner responds through an avatar rather than showing their real face. This seems to be driven by a change in how they process uncertainty - and interestingly, that change is reflected in the amygdala,” noted co-author Masahiko Haruno.



The fMRI data supported these behavioral observations. It showed that expecting avatar feedback created changes in how the amygdala responded to uncertainty. When interacting with avatars, participants viewed uncertain feedback more favorably, making them more willing to gamble.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-partners-and-brain-function">Communication partners and brain function </h2>



The computational modeling revealed that the increased gambling behavior was directly linked to an altered valuation of uncertainty. 



Specifically, a negative amygdala response to feedback uncertainty facilitated this heightened risk-taking. This brain-based response occurred both in avatar and human conditions but had a stronger effect when avatars were involved.



This finding highlights the amygdala’s importance not only in emotional reactions but also in decision-making during virtual interactions. It reveals that even subtle differences in how we perceive communication partners - avatars versus humans - can significantly alter brain function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-and-risk-sensitivity">Personality and risk sensitivity</h2>



Another fascinating discovery from the study was the link between personality traits and sensitivity to feedback uncertainty. Individual differences in emotional consideration for others predicted variations in both behavioral and neural responses to avatar interactions.



Those with stronger interpersonal emotional sensitivity exhibited different amygdala activity patterns. They were also more prone to changing their risk-taking behavior depending on whether they faced an avatar or a human.



Study co-author Toshiko Tanaka elaborated on the complexity of the experiments: “Using the same confederate and having them pass as just another participant every time wasn’t easy - it took a lot of effort to keep things feeling real for each new person.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-virtual-society">Broader implications for virtual society</h2>



As avatars continue to blend into our professional, educational, and social lives, understanding their psychological effects becomes crucial. The research provides evidence that avatars are not neutral mediums. They can actively shape how people assess risks and rewards, driven by deep neural processes.



With virtual environments becoming more realistic and immersive, the line between real and virtual communication partners will keep blurring. Designing systems that acknowledge these psychological impacts could lead to better, safer virtual interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-studies-on-avatars-and-humans">Future studies on avatars and humans</h2>



The study opens new avenues for research. Tanaka and Haruno plan to explore how other factors, like avatar gender and age or the type of decision-making task, influence outcomes. 



The experts aim to investigate how avatars can support informed decision-making in real-world applications, such as education, counseling, and commerce.



Understanding these influences will be critical for creating healthy digital environments. It will also help avoid unintended consequences where avatar-based interactions encourage reckless decisions.



This research was supported by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jst.go.jp/moonshot/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JST Moonshot R&amp;D Program</a>, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jst.go.jp/kisoken/crest/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JST CREST Program</a>, and a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-grants/grants01.html">Grant-in-Aid for Transformative Research Areas</a>.​<a href="https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-grants/grants01.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Japan Social Security Agency</a>.​



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://plos.io/43MGr63" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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People take more risks when talking to avatars

In a world increasingly shaped by virtual reality, the way...

Every few decades, technology reshapes how humanity understands itself. The AI revolution, unfolding rapidly over the last three years, stands as one of those pivotal moments. Now, it is not just words, but the speech and melody behind them that technology is beginning to uncover and understand.



With large language models like ChatGPT gaining prominence, it has become clear that machines can mimic human communication impressively well. Yet, a deeper layer of interaction has remained untouched - one that is not found in words alone.



A recent study from Professor Elisha Moses's lab at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute of Science</a> is now bringing this missing dimension into focus. 



The research reveals that the melody of speech - known as prosody - is a structured, independent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-people-are-born-to-enjoy-music-more-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language</a> in its own right. It has vocabulary, semantics, and syntax, waiting to be deciphered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speech-is-more-than-words">Speech is more than words</h2>



In everyday life, words form only a part of human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-hear-far-more-speech-at-home-than-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interaction</a>. Prosody - the music of speech - encompasses pitch changes, variations in loudness, tempo shifts, and tonal quality.



This expressive toolkit adds emotional and functional depth to communication, influencing meaning even when the words remain the same.



This is not a recent development. Studies show that both chimpanzees and whales use prosodic structures in their communication, suggesting that prosody predates language itself. In humans, a pause can change meaning dramatically. 



A subtle rise in tone can signal curiosity or challenge. Speech without prosody, as in robotic voices, sounds unnatural and flat.



"Our study lays the foundation for an automated system to compile a 'dictionary' of prosody for every human language and for different speaker populations," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-language-of-speech-melodies">The hidden language of speech melodies</h2>



Dr. Nadav Matalon and Dr. Eyal Weinreb, leading the research from Moses’s lab, decided to study prosody like an unknown language. 



The experts turned to vast databases of spontaneous English conversations: the CallHome Corpus and the Santa Barbara Corpus. Instead of relying on written or rehearsed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-reveal-how-music-can-heal-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speech</a>, they sought the chaotic beauty of real-life conversations.



The team's method involved breaking speech into Intonation Units (IUs). Each IU usually consists of one to four words, marked by coherent melody and rhythm. This structure allowed the team to represent each IU as a pitch-intensity vector and to cluster similar melodies without any prior assumptions.



"When the University of Oxford was tasked with compiling one, it asked the public to help with the workload by sending quotes showing the historical changes in the meaning of words," explained the researchers.



"One of the main contributors was a prisoner who spent more than 20 years reading books and sending quotes. In our study, instead of collecting information by ourselves over the course of decades, we analyzed massive collections of audio recordings, using AI."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-basic-speech-melody-patterns">Basic speech melody patterns</h2>



From this clustering, the researchers uncovered roughly 200 distinct prosodic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/upright-walking-may-have-sparked-human-creativity-and-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a>. This number stands in stark contrast to the thousands of words in the core verbal vocabulary of English. Each prosodic pattern, lasting around a second, acted like a "word" in the hidden language of melody.



Despite the differences in individual voices, these melodic shapes appeared consistently across spontaneous conversations. Each shape could have several linguistic functions depending on context, yet typically expressed a dominant emotional attitude such as enthusiasm, skepticism, or curiosity.



"We discovered that each pattern has several linguistic functions," explained Matalon. "For example, depending on the context, a pattern can define whether someone is asking a question or making a statement." 



"However, each pattern typically conveys one specific attitude of the speaker - such as curiosity, surprise or confusion - toward what's being said."



Understanding these prosodic patterns offers more than simple emotional coloring. It hints at a deeper, structured system where the melody itself carries grammatical-like information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speech-melodies-follow-simple-rules">Speech melodies follow simple rules</h2>



Beyond identifying basic prosodic "words," the researchers discovered rules for how these melodic units combine. They found that certain prosodic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-triggers-unique-prediction-zones-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> tend to appear in pairs, with one IU predicting the next through simple, memory-friendly rules resembling a Markov process.



"We noticed that there are patterns that tend to appear next to each other, in pairs, in spontaneous speech," explained Weinreb.



"It's a simple statistical system, in which the correct choice of the next unit in a sequence depends solely on the previous one. This system works well for spontaneous conversation because it requires planning only a few seconds ahead, which is just as long as short-term memory lasts."



Unlike written grammar, where sentences unfold over multiple clauses and ideas, spoken language often plans just one or two seconds ahead. This dynamic allows humans to communicate flexibly in real time, yet still follow an underlying structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spontaneous-speech-vs-scripted-speech">Spontaneous speech vs. scripted speech</h2>



One of the study’s more striking findings is the contrast between spontaneous and scripted speech. When the researchers analyzed professional audiobooks, they found that scripted speech lacked the natural prosodic pairings common in conversation.



While spontaneous speech relied on short IU pairs to build meaning, audiobooks showed longer, more rigid melodic sequences. Even amateur audiobook readings had more dynamic prosody than polished professional recordings.



These differences underscore the need to study real-world conversations, not just polished texts, to understand human communication fully. It also suggests that if AI systems are trained only on written or scripted language, they will miss essential elements of how humans really talk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-ai-could-hear-feelings">Future AI could hear feelings</h2>



Teaching AI to grasp prosody could profoundly change how machines interact with people. The researchers envision future systems that not only process words but also pick up emotional cues from the melodies in speech.



"Imagine if Siri could understand from the melody of your voice how you feel about a certain subject, what's important to you or whether you think you know better than her, and that she could adapt her response to make it sound enthusiastic or sad," said Weinreb.



"We already have brain implants that convert neural activity into speech for people who can't speak. If we can teach prosody to a computer model, we'll be adding a significant layer of human expression that robotic systems currently lack."



Prosody may even enhance brain-computer interfaces, making synthetic speech generated from neural activity sound more human and emotionally rich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-future-directions">Challenges and future directions</h2>



The study acknowledges that human speech carries intrinsic noise. Everyday conversation is filled with interruptions, repairs, and overlapping voices. Clustering prosodic patterns must navigate this chaos, and perfect separation of prosodic "words" remains elusive.



Still, the researchers are optimistic. Expanding datasets, refining clustering methods, and integrating prosodic and textual data may allow future models to predict both what is said and how it is meant. 



They also see opportunities to apply their methods to other languages, cultures, and special groups like children or elderly speakers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-speech-secrets">Unlocking speech secrets</h2>



This work was made possible by a collaborative team including Dr. Dominik Freche, Dr. Erez Volk from NeuraLight Inc., Dr. Tirza Biron, and Professor David Biron from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>. 



Together, they combined expertise in physics, linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science to unveil this hidden dimension of language.



Their collective effort now points to a future where machines might not just understand words but truly hear human beings - emotion, intent, and all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2403262122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Our speech is full of melodies that create language-like patterns

Every few decades, technology reshapes how humanity understands itself. The...

Imagine walking through a field where plants could tell farmers when they’re thirsty. Imagine farmers signaling back, warning their crops about an incoming dry spell so they could start conserving water. This idea, once confined to science fiction, is now a growing reality.



Researchers at the Center for Research on Programmable Plant Systems (CROPPS) at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> have taken a huge step toward making plant communication a two-way street. 



The team's latest study, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, unlocks a century-old mystery about how plants internally signal stress.



This breakthrough offers new possibilities for developing plants that not only "talk" to people but also respond to specific environmental cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-talk-through-signals">Plants talk through signals</h2>



Inside every plant, negative pressure holds <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-the-timing-of-water-that-matters-to-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> within its stems, roots, and leaves. This balance keeps them healthy, especially during dry conditions. 



When stressors disturb this pressure, it sets off a movement in the plant's internal fluids. These motions then carry mechanical and chemical signals throughout the plant to help restore balance.



"We are trying to build a foundational knowledge of understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-complex-biochemical-communication-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication in plants</a> happens," said Vesna Bacheva, a postdoctoral associate at CROPPS and a Schmidt Science Fellow. 



"Our framework provides a mechanistic understanding of what drives signals from one place to another and explains how mechanical and chemical signals could propagate."



Bacheva works alongside Abe Stroock, a professor of chemical and biomolecular engineering, and Margaret Frank, associate professor of plant biology.



"It's a very important step forward in an area that is surprisingly nascent in terms of true mechanistic understanding," noted Stroock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-mystery-from-over-100-years-ago">Solving a mystery from over 100 years ago</h2>



Scientists have long debated how plants send <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sensors-monitor-the-health-of-plants-by-interpreting-distress-signals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distress signals</a>. Some believed they used hormones or chemicals, while others thought mechanical forces were at play. Until now, a clear answer remained elusive.



The Cornell team developed a predictive model that explains how pressure changes within a plant can transmit both mechanical and chemical signals. Their work shows that the plant's vascular system - a series of pressurized tubes - plays a key role.



When a plant is wounded, such as when a caterpillar chews on a leaf, the pressure changes. This shift can cause a mass flow of water that carries stress chemicals to distant parts of the plant. These chemicals might, for example, prompt the plant to produce a toxic acid that fends off insects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pressure-calcium-and-defense-responses">Pressure, calcium, and defense responses</h2>



Beyond carrying chemicals, pressure changes might also open mechanosensitive channels near the plant’s vasculature.



 When these channels open, they release ions like calcium. A surge of calcium, known as a calcium flux, could trigger defensive genes to activate.



The team’s findings suggest a coordinated system in which mechanical forces and chemical signals work hand in hand. This discovery gives scientists new tools to think about how to enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-sophisticated-defense-system-when-pathogens-attack/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants' natural defenses</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-that-talk-and-listen">Plants that talk and listen</h2>



"We are trying to develop reporter plants that will tell us what they're experiencing at the moment," Bacheva said. These experimental organisms might change color when they are thirsty. Others might glow under special lights when they experience stress.



The vision doesn’t stop there. Future systems could allow farmers to send signals to their crops. For example, a farmer could alert plants about upcoming dry conditions, prompting them to ration their water.



"We're at a point at CROPPS where we are simultaneously investigating the molecular biology, biophysics, engineering design and integration toward agronomic reality with brand-new concepts and technologies," Stroock said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-step-toward-smarter-healthier-farms">A step toward smarter, healthier farms</h2>



The ability for plants to send and receive signals opens up exciting possibilities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birth-of-farming-driven-by-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming</a>. If they can tell farmers exactly when they need help, it could lead to healthier crops and less wasted resources. 



Farmers might be able to act faster, water more efficiently, and protect them before problems get worse.



The researchers hope this new understanding will inspire even more ways to connect with plants in the future. As the science moves forward, the dream of truly smart, responsive farms - where plants and people work together - feels closer than ever.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422692122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Plants could soon 'talk' to farmers - and listen too

Imagine walking through a field where plants could tell farmers...

Among the animal kingdom’s many mysteries, few are as fascinating as bonobos' social lives. 



Often called the "hippies" of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> world, bonobos have long intrigued scientists with their peaceful societies and strong female alliances. Unlike their more aggressive chimpanzee cousins, bonobos embrace cooperation over conflict.



Yet, a deeper puzzle hides within their gentle reputation. Female bonobos dominate social structures, even though males are physically larger and stronger. This unusual dynamic stands in stark contrast to most mammals, where strength usually rules. 



Recent research finally sheds light on how bonobo females turned the tables.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-bonobos-control-social-bonds-nbsp">Female bonobos control social bonds&nbsp;</h2>



In bonobo groups, females take the lead in reproduction. They decide when and with whom they mate. If a male attempts an unwanted advance, the female easily parries him. Males know better than to push further, respecting the females' decisions without violence.



This female control extends beyond the bedroom. High-value <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resources</a>, like fresh kills or prized fruits, also rest in female hands. They feed leisurely on the ground while males hover anxiously in the trees. 



Martin Surbeck from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> noted that this behavior is "totally bizarre for an animal like a bonobo."



Normally, larger body size would give males the upper hand. In most mammals, males dominate food, mating, and status by sheer force. Bonobos, however, defy this rule in surprising and illuminating ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-ideas-explain-female-power">Three ideas explain female power</h2>



Understanding bonobo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-say-no-to-unfair-trades-even-if-it-costs-rewards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">society</a> required examining three competing ideas. First is the self-organization hypothesis. It suggests that males could lose dominance over time due to repeated conflict losses.



In addition, the reproductive control hypothesis argues that female hidden ovulation limits male control over mating. Furthermore, the female coalition hypothesis proposes that solidarity among females built power.



"There were competing ideas for how, none of which had ever been tested in wild bonobos living in the jungles in which they evolved," said Barbara Fruth of the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/institutes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a>. To settle the debate, the researchers turned to long-term field data.



Over thirty years, scientists collected observations from six bonobo communities across the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> they uncovered would finally bring clarity to this evolutionary enigma.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-alliances-turn-the-power-balance">Female alliances turn the power balance</h2>



The evidence pointed overwhelmingly to one answer: coalitions. Female bonobos gained their power not by physical strength or reproductive tricks but through alliance-building. In 85% of observed coalitions, females banded together to target males.



"It’s exciting to find that females can actively elevate their social status by supporting each other," explained Surbeck. These alliances were not casual. They formed quickly, often within seconds of a triggering event, such as male aggression toward infants.



Once a coalition formed, its effect was loud and unmistakable. Screams pierced the forest so sharply that "you have to block your ears," Fruth recalled. Targeted males faced not just humiliation but sometimes severe injuries, forcing them to flee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a> for days or weeks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-power-varies-between-bonobo-groups">Female power varies between bonobo groups</h2>



Despite the strength of female coalitions, dominance was not absolute. Researchers found wide variation across bonobo communities. In some years, a male even held the top rank, particularly when supported by a powerful mother.



"It's more accurate to say that in bonobo societies, females enjoy high status rather than unchallenged dominance," said Fruth. Mothers played a crucial role. In communities where adult males had living mothers, males sometimes rose higher in the hierarchy.



Other communities, especially those with frequent female coalitions, saw females consistently outranking males. The key factor was the frequency and strength of female alliances, not the number of males or other demographic shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theories-to-explain-female-dominance">Theories to explain female dominance</h2>



The researchers thoroughly tested the alternative hypotheses but found little support. The self-organization hypothesis suggested that a higher proportion of males would lead to female dominance. However, the data showed no significant relationship.



Likewise, the reproductive control hypothesis, based on hidden ovulation and prolonged fertility signals, did not fully explain the female advantage. Synchronization of sexual swelling among females did not correlate with greater female power.



While hidden ovulation may reduce male aggression overall, it does not guarantee female dominance. It is coalition-building, not mating strategies, that most consistently empowers bonobo females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-bonobos-rise-through-alliances">Female bonobos rise through alliances</h2>



Female coalitionary aggression showed a strong association with female power across communities. Where females more often banded together, they won more conflicts against males and held higher ranks.



This finding highlights a striking evolutionary strategy. In most mammals, including primates, females rarely form aggressive alliances. Bonobos stand apart, using group action rather than individual strength to tilt power dynamics.



Interestingly, even in the absence of kinship ties, immigrant bonobo females built strong social bonds. This behavior challenges long-held assumptions that cooperation depends on genetic relatedness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-for-male-behavior-and-society">Consequences for male behavior and society</h2>



Bonobo males, facing strong female alliances, shift their strategies accordingly. Instead of aggression, males invest in maintaining peaceful relationships with females. Coercive mating, common in many primates, is rare among bonobos.



Males gain reproductive success by staying close to receptive females and avoiding conflict. In this environment, violence backfires while cooperation wins mates. Such dynamics reveal an evolutionary route where peace, not aggression, yields greater success.



In communities with strong female coalitions, males sometimes become isolated after aggressive incidents. Some males even leave the community temporarily after facing intense female retaliation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unity-beats-physical-strength">Unity beats physical strength</h2>



The bonobo case challenges the traditional view that strength alone governs social structures. Instead, social support networks play a vital role in shaping dominance hierarchies.



Surbeck’s research adds to a growing body of evidence suggesting that female empowerment in mammals can arise through multiple pathways. In spotted hyenas, for example, female dominance stems from social support and reproductive control.



Fruth reflects, "I'm still puzzled why, of all animals, bonobos were the ones to form female alliances." Although the reasons remain mysterious, the findings offer hope. They hint that even in fiercely competitive environments, solidarity can surpass force.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-bonobo-research">The future of bonobo research</h2>



While much progress has been made, questions linger. How do individual personalities affect coalition formation? Why do some communities show stronger female solidarity than others? What environmental or historical factors shaped these behaviors?



Future studies will aim to unravel these complexities. Researchers also hope to explore how these findings could shed light on human social evolution. After all, bonobos, along with chimpanzees, are our closest living relatives.



Understanding the roots of power, cooperation, and gender relations in bonobos might help us reflect on our own evolutionary journey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-kind-of-power">A different kind of power</h2>



In the end, bonobo societies remind us that power does not always stem from size, strength, or aggression. Sometimes, it arises from unity, shared purpose, and rapid, courageous action.



Among bonobos, females carved a unique path - one built not through fear but through collective strength. It is a path that challenges assumptions, sparks wonder, and perhaps, whispers lessons to our own species across the evolutionary gulf.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-07900-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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Female bonobos stay in charge even though males are stronger

Among the animal kingdom’s many mysteries, few are as fascinating...

NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover has never been shy around cameras. From iconic selfies to being spotted from space, its activities have been well-documented over the years.



But something new happened on February 28, the 4,466th Martian day - or sol - of its mission. Curiosity was caught mid-drive, possibly for the first time, by one of NASA’s Mars orbiters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-glimpse-of-curiosity">A rare glimpse of Curiosity </h2>



The <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-orbiter-spots-curiosity-rover-making-tracks-to-next-science-stop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> was taken by the HiRISE (High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment) camera, which is aboard NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> operate this camera, which offers a sharp view of the Martian surface. In the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-orbiter-spots-curiosity-rover-making-tracks-to-next-science-stop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photo</a>, Curiosity appears as a small, dark speck at the front of a long trail of tracks stretched across the Red Planet.



The tracks cover about 1,050 feet (320 meters) and reflect roughly 11 drives that started on February 2, 2025. 



During these moves, Curiosity crawled along at a top speed of just 0.1 mph (0.16 kph), making its way from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-finds-sulfur-crystals-martian-rock-hints-at-possible-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gediz Vallis</a> channel toward its next science destination: a region that may hold boxwork formations created by ancient groundwater billions of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-curiosity-is-still-roaming-mars">Why Curiosity is still roaming Mars</h2>



Curiosity wasn’t just sent to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> to take pretty pictures. Its mission, which began with a dramatic landing in 2012, is all about asking a big question: Was Mars ever able to support small forms of life? 



To answer that, the rover has been exploring the ancient environments of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gale-crater-reveals-secrets-of-water-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gale Crater</a>, drilling into rocks, analyzing soil, and studying the planet’s climate and geology. 



Every discovery Curiosity makes helps build a clearer picture of what Mars was like, billions of years ago. Some of its biggest finds so far include evidence of ancient rivers, lakes, and the chemical ingredients necessary for life.



Even after more than a decade, Curiosity is still hard at work, pushing uphill to study higher and older layers of Martian history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-curiosity-s-journey">A closer look at Curiosity’s journey</h2>



Curiosity’s arrival at its next stop isn’t on a set timeline. Several factors can affect its progress, including how its navigation software handles the landscape and how steep the terrain becomes. 



Engineers at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California work hand-in-hand with scientists to plan each day’s drive carefully.



“By comparing the time HiRISE took the image to the rover’s commands for the day, we can see it was nearly done with a 69-foot (21-meter) drive,” said Doug Ellison, Curiosity’s planning team chief at JPL.



HiRISE is built for incredible detail. Most of its images are in black and white, with a strip of color down the center to boost spatial resolution. 



Although HiRISE has captured Curiosity in color in the past, this time the rover happened to fall inside the black-and-white section of the image.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracks-that-tell-a-story">Tracks that tell a story</h2>



In the latest image, Curiosity’s tracks stretch across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clues-beneath-mars-surface-reveal-possible-habitats-for-ancient-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian surface</a> and lead up to the base of a steep slope. 



Since the image was taken, the rover has successfully climbed that slope. If everything goes smoothly, Curiosity is expected to reach its new science site within the next month or so.



The trail it left behind could remain visible for months, unless Martian winds sweep the marks away. 



Every track, every footprint on Mars tells part of the story of a journey that's been unfolding for more than a decade - and is still going strong.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next-for-mars-exploration">What comes next for Mars exploration</h2>



Curiosity’s journey is just one piece of the bigger picture, a stepping stone in our long-term efforts to explore another world. 



NASA and other space agencies are already planning the next steps to explore Mars even further, using the lessons learned from past and current missions.



Missions like Perseverance are already collecting rock samples that could someday be brought back to Earth for detailed study.



Future plans include launching more helicopters, building complex sample return missions, and even sending <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-can-survive-mars-space-journey-but-their-kidneys-will-be-permanently-damaged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astronauts</a> to the Red Planet in the 2030s - a goal that once seemed like pure science fiction.



Each discovery Curiosity makes helps shape and inspire these future missions. It reminds us that even the slow, careful drive of a lone rover can lay the groundwork for humanity’s bigger dreams beyond Earth.



Information for this article came from a <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-orbiter-spots-curiosity-rover-making-tracks-to-next-science-stop/">press release</a> by NASA's JPL.



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Curiosity rover captured in action for the first time

NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover has never been shy around cameras....

Over the years, aquarists and biologists have marveled at the dramatically thick lips of several African cichlid species. These unique fish, found in lakes Victoria, Malawi, and Tanganyika, have puzzled researchers who seek to understand how and why such large lips evolved.



This fascination has led to fresh investigations by scientists comparing lip structures, tissue composition, and gene expression in these fish. 



The research effort is led by Dr. Nagatoshi Machii from the <a href="https://www.isct.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tokyo Institute of Technology</a>, whose group has examined microscopic details and molecular data to pinpoint what drives lip enlargement in certain cichlids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cichlid-lips-and-parallel-evolution">Cichlid lips and parallel evolution</h2>



Researchers have documented that cichlids across different lakes display similar traits, even though they are not closely related. Such repeated emergence of shared features is known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/parallel-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parallel evolution</a>, a process often fueled by environmental pressures.



“Parallel evolution is evidence of natural selection that drives adaptive solutions to the environment,” wrote Jonathan Losos, an evolutionary biologist based at Harvard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-as-natural-laboratories">Lakes as natural laboratories</h2>



The isolated ecosystems of Lake Victoria, Malawi, and Tanganyika act like nature’s own research stations. Each lake evolved its own line of cichlid species, yet many developed the same traits independently - a perfect setup to study parallel evolution.



By comparing species across these lakes, scientists can spot patterns that might be missed in a single location. It’s a rare opportunity to test how evolution repeats itself under similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-stress-harms-the-brains-of-low-status-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a> but with different starting points.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unmasking-the-lip-building-proteins">Unmasking the lip-building proteins</h2>



Detailed analyses indicate that thick cichlid lips contain a proteoglycan-rich layer (a structural element found in various tissues, including bone, cartilage, tendons, and skin, that play crucial roles in tissue organization, hydration, and mechanical properties) not seen in normal-lipped fish. 



Proteoglycans are large molecules with attached sugar chains, sometimes linked to extra water retention.



One study on cichlids with enlarged lips showed that certain proteins, including chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, were in high abundance. This composition may give these hefty lips their signature plumpness by increasing connective tissue volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lip-growth-starts-young">Lip growth starts young</h2>



The team found that differences in gene expression begin earlier than expected. Even in juvenile cichlids, before their lips fully thicken, the genes responsible for building extracellular matrix components are already more active in species that develop larger lips.



This suggests the groundwork for lip hypertrophy is laid early in life and then reinforced as the fish matures. The continuous expression of these genes throughout development points to a tightly regulated system that ensures these lip traits persist across generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-behind-oversized-cichlid-lips">Genes behind oversized cichlid lips</h2>



Scientists also noted changes in genes involved in the Wnt signaling network (a complex network of proteins that plays a critical role in how cells grow, divide, move, and develop. 



It’s especially important during embryonic development, but it also helps maintain and repair tissues in adults). This pathway influences a wide array of growth and developmental processes in many animals.



Some cichlids with oversized lips showed heightened expression of Wnt-related genes at both juvenile and adult stages. This suggests the pathway may stay active over time, nudging tissues to expand and accumulate more extracellular material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tissue-connection-mirrors-human-biology">Tissue connection mirrors human biology</h2>



Recent findings have drawn an unexpected link between the oversized lips of cichlids and conditions seen in humans. The same proteoglycans found in fish lips are also involved in human skin disorders like <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/keloid-scar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keloids</a>, where excess connective tissue causes raised, fibrous scars.



In both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> and humans, these molecules seem to attract and hold large amounts of water, helping tissues expand. Researchers believe that understanding how these proteins behave in cichlids may offer new insights into how connective tissues grow - or overgrow - in other animals, including us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-role-in-cichlid-feeding">Possible role in cichlid feeding</h2>



Biologists have long debated the ecological benefits of bulky lips. Past <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8025722/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> suggests these lips might help fish probe rocky crevices or minimize tissue damage as they forage.&nbsp;



Another line of research hints that extra lip surface could boost contact with environmental cues. This might aid in locating prey, which would be especially useful in the maze-like habitats of the African Great Lakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-not-all-cichlids-have-big-lips">Why not all cichlids have big lips</h2>



Despite the shared environments of the East African Great Lakes, not every cichlid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-evolve-rapidly-by-switching-between-simple-and-complex-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> ends up with hypertrophied lips. That’s because this trait appears to be polygenic, meaning it depends on many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-fix-faulty-genes-before-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> working together - each with a small influence.



Environmental pressures like foraging style or diet likely interact with genetic tendencies. In species where the benefit of thick lips isn’t strong enough, the genes driving lip growth may remain quiet or develop differently, even if the molecular tools are present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Genetic studies have pinpointed multiple points in the cichlid genome that may influence lip thickness. Each locus seemingly offers a small push toward fuller lips, forming a broad and complex mechanism for the trait.&nbsp;



Investigations into parallels between enlarged fish lips and certain human connective tissue conditions have also started. Some scientists hope comparisons might clarify how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen</a> and other structural molecules work in different organisms over many generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/99160" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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The molecular secret behind the giant lips of African cichlids

Over the years, aquarists and biologists have marveled at the...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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This South Asian bird has a metallic blue crown and iridescent blue-green feathers with brilliantly colored eyespots. During courtship, the vibrant feathers are raised into a fan and put on display. Surprisingly, these extravagant feathers can also be used for flight.

Indian Peacock

The bright colors of the poison dart frog signal a warning to predators of the frog’s toxicity, also known as aposematic coloration. These frogs stand out even in the tropical forests of Costa Rica and Brazil, with some of the brightest shades of yellow, copper, red, green, and blue on the planet.

Indian Peacock

News coming your way