Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features UGC 5460, a spiral galaxy that is located about 60 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major.&nbsp;



“This image combines four different wavelengths of light to reveal UGC 5460’s central bar of stars, winding spiral arms and bright blue star clusters. Also captured in the upper left-hand corner of this image is a far closer object: a star just 577 light-years away in our own galaxy,” said <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“UGC 5460 has hosted two recent supernovae named SN 2011ht and SN 2015as. It’s because of these two stellar explosions that Hubble targeted this galaxy, collecting data for three observing programmes that aim to study various kinds of supernovae.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-core-collapse-supernova-nbsp">A core-collapse supernova&nbsp;</h2>



SN 2015as is an example of a core-collapse supernova. This type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> occurs when the core of a massive star - typically with more than 8 times the mass of the sun - can no longer support its own gravity after exhausting its nuclear fuel. 



This causes the core to collapse under its own weight, leading to an extremely violent explosion. The collapse triggers the release of an enormous amount of energy, expelling the outer layers of the star into space.



In the aftermath of the explosion, a dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shockingly-bright-carbon-monoxide-detected-in-supernova-remnant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remnant</a> is created. This is often a neutron star or black hole, depending on the mass of the original star. Core-collapse supernovae are some of the most powerful events in the universe.



According to ESA, Hubble observations of SN 2015as will help researchers understand what happens when the expanding shockwave of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-dandelion-year-1181-leaves-behind-zombie-star-defying-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> collides with the gas that surrounds the exploded star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-stars-with-large-eruptions-nbsp">Rare stars with large eruptions&nbsp;</h2>



“SN 2011ht might have been a core-collapse supernova as well, but it could also be an impostor called a luminous blue variable. Luminous blue variables are rare stars that experience eruptions so large that they can mimic supernovae,” noted ESA.



“Crucially, luminous blue variables emerge from these eruptions unscathed, while stars that go supernova do not. Hubble will search for a stellar survivor at SN 2011ht’s location, and the explosion’s identity may be revealed at last.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-spiral-galaxy">What is a spiral galaxy?</h2>



Spiral galaxies are some of the most recognizable and beautiful structures in the universe. They are known for their distinctive arms that spiral outward from a central bulge.&nbsp;



These galaxies are typically composed of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter. The arms are often sites of intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>, where clouds of gas collapse to form new stars. 



In the center of a spiral galaxy lies a dense concentration of older stars and, often, a supermassive black hole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structure-of-a-spiral-galaxy-nbsp">Structure of a spiral galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



The structure of a spiral galaxy is generally divided into three main components: the disk, the bulge, and the halo.&nbsp;



The disk is where the spiral arms are located and contains most of the galaxy's visible stars and interstellar medium.&nbsp;



The bulge is a tightly packed region of older stars at the core, and the halo consists of a sparse collection of stars and globular clusters that surround the galaxy.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies can be classified into different types based on the tightness and number of their spiral arms, as well as the size of their central bulge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-galaxy">The Milky Way galaxy</h2>



Our solar system is located within a large spiral galaxy known as the Milky Way. The name refers to its appearance as a dim, milky band of light stretching across the night sky.&nbsp;



The term "Milky Way" comes from ancient Greek mythology, where it was associated the goddess Hera's milk spilling into the sky. In Greek, it was called "Galaxias Kyklos," meaning "milky circle."&nbsp;



Spanning about 100,000 light-years in diameter, the Milky Way is composed of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter. The galaxy has a distinct disk shape with spiral arms that wind outward from a central bulge, which houses a supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>. 



Our sun is located in one of the spiral arms - known as the Orion Arm - positioned roughly halfway from the center to the outer edge.&nbsp;



The Milky Way is part of a small group of galaxies called the Local Group, which includes the Andromeda Galaxy and several smaller galaxies.



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Hubble views a spiral galaxy with stellar explosions

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features UGC 5460, a spiral galaxy that is located about 60 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major.&nbsp; “This image combines four different wavelengths of light to reveal UGC 5460’s central bar of stars, winding spiral arms and bright blue star clusters. Also captured in the upper left-hand corner of this image is a far closer object: a star just 577 light-years away in our own galaxy,” said ESA. “UGC 5460 has...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a blanket of dust over the Tarim Basin - a vast, arid region in northwestern China. 



Mountain peaks are visible through a break in the dust. These peaks are part of Tekilik Shan, a subrange of the Kunlun Mountains.



Though not as widely known as some other mountain ranges in the area, Tekilik Shan plays a significant role in shaping local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-pushing-nature-toward-a-breaking-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> patterns and geography.



Its snow-covered peaks can rise above 13,000 feet, contributing to the dramatic elevation differences that define the basin’s borders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-storms-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Dust storms in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



Spring marks the height of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust storm</a> activity in the Tarim Basin, particularly in its southern region.&nbsp;



“It’s a time of year when regional wind patterns shift in ways that cause winds and storm systems to sweep in from the northwest,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/154126/a-curtain-of-dust-over-the-tarim-basin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“In early spring, when landscapes in this region are especially dry and have minimal vegetation, land surfaces warm rapidly under the Sun’s heat every morning, fueling convection that can help loft dust upward by the afternoon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingerlike-dust-formations-nbsp">Fingerlike dust formations&nbsp;</h2>



Satellite images revealed dust formations with fingerlike shapes that mirrored the landscape below. These projections aligned with valleys, which channeled and directed the airborne dust.&nbsp;



Ralph Kahn is an atmospheric scientist at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder and scientist emeritus at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.



According to Kahn, the dust may have been “self-lofting.” In this process, sunlight heats recently stirred-up surface dust, creating pockets of convection that lift it even higher into the air.



This interpretation is supported by hourly observations from Japan’s Himawari-9 geostationary satellite, which showed dust gradually rising into the Tekilik Shan throughout the day. By late afternoon, the storm had grown dense enough to obscure the mountains.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-atmospheric-dust">Decline in atmospheric dust</h2>



Long-term satellite data from MODIS suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-in-the-gulf-of-alaska-help-shape-the-global-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric dust</a> levels in this region have declined by about 1.5 percent each year since the early 2000s.&nbsp;



NASA researcher Hongbin Yu attributes this trend mainly to springtime changes - such as altered wind speeds, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil moisture</a>, or vegetation cover - rather than shifts in other seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Rainfall in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



“The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Takla-Makan-Desert" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Takla Makan Desert</a> is one of the driest, most barren expanses on Earth. Flanked by mountain ranges on three sides and parched by the resulting <a href="https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Rain_shadow" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rain shadow</a>, parts of the Tarim Basin receive no more than 10 millimeters (0.4 inches) of rain per year,” noted NASA.



“Dust storms can lead to public health problems in populated areas downwind by transporting small particles, bacteria, and viruses that infiltrate human respiratory systems.”&nbsp;



NASA added that dust storms can also affect Earth’s climate by scattering and absorbing incoming solar radiation and changing the properties of clouds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landscape-of-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Landscape of the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



The Tarim Basin is one of the largest endorheic basins in the world, meaning that its rivers do not drain into the sea but instead flow into interior lakes or evaporate.&nbsp;



The basin is encircled by three mountain ranges: the Tien Shan to the north, the Kunlun Mountains to the south, and the Pamirs to the west. These ranges create a powerful rain shadow effect, making the region exceptionally dry.



At the heart of the Tarim Basin lies the Taklamakan Desert, one of the most extreme deserts on Earth. The desert is known for its high dunes, intense temperature swings, and minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-will-wreak-havoc-on-mountain-ranges-as-warming-climate-turns-snow-to-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-and-geology">History and geology</h2>



Despite its harsh environment, the basin has been historically significant. It was a key section of the ancient Silk Road, with several oases such as Kashgar, Khotan, and Loulan serving as vital trading and cultural centers for centuries.



Geologically, the basin is rich in natural resources, particularly oil and natural gas, and has become a focal point for China's energy exploration and development.&nbsp;



The region’s challenging climate and remote location, however, make infrastructure development and human habitation difficult.&nbsp;



The image was captured on March 27, 2025 by the Operational Land Imager instrument on Landsat 8.



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Blanket of dust covers China’s Tarim Basin

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Sand dunes stand out in Kobuk Valley, Alaska. Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features two stretches of sand located within a boreal forest in northwestern Alaska known as the Great Kobuk Sand Dunes. 

The dunes have crests that rise as high as 100 feet above the surrounding forests. According to NASA, the dunes look like they belong in the Saharan Desert more than in the Arctic.

The sand dunes were created during recent ice age cycles when massive sheets of ice plowed through mountains and other rocky surfaces. This left behind an abundance of sand and silt that collected along the banks of glacial streams. Sand dunes stand out in Kobuk Valley, Alaska

Gradually, much of the sand was transported by streams and winds and deposited in the ice-free Kobuk Valley, which is located between the Baird Mountains to the north and the Waring Mountains to the south. Southeast Alaska, colloquially referred to as the Alaska Panhandle or Alaskan Panhandle, is the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Alaska, bordered to the east by the northern half of the Canadian province of British Columbia. The majority of Southeast Alaska's area is part of the Tongass National Forest, the United States' largest national forest. In many places, the international border runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains (see <a title="Alaska boundary dispute" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_boundary_dispute">Alaska boundary dispute</a>). The region is noted for its scenery and mild, rainy <a title="Climate" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate">climate</a>.

The image was captured on August 16, 2020 by the Operational Land Imager (OLI) on Landsat 8.

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sand dunes stand out in Kobuk Valley, Alaska

Sand dunes stand out in Kobuk Valley, Alaska. Today's Image...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features Lituya Bay, a fjord on the southeastern coast of Alaska.

In August of 2020, a strong current containing trees, muddy water, and chunks of ice was seen rushing against the tide near the head of the bay. These events are known as glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), or jökulhlaups.

“We can see clearly using Sentinel 2, Landsat 8, and Planet Labs imagery that a huge lake that had been dammed by Lituya Glacier drained abruptly in mid-August,” explained Bretwood “Hig” Higman, a geologist with Ground Truth Alaska. 

Desolation Lake, along with stream channels that run through the delta and into Lituya Bay, were significantly altered. 

“It appears that this massive outburst flood traveled underneath the Lituya Glacier, emerging from under its south end onto the gravel delta that now separates the glacier from Lituya Bay,” said National Park Service geologist Michael Loso. 

“The lake level dropped at least 60 meters (200 feet), implying a total flood volume of about half a cubic kilometer of water. For comparison, that is nearly an hour’s worth of average flow from the world’s most voluminous river: the Amazon.”

According to NASA, satellite images show that at least twelve similar glacial lake outburst floods have occurred since 2004.

“The amount of sediment pushed out from under the glacier by these events is really impressive, perhaps over 10 million cubic meters per event,” said Higman. “That has been enough to build a broad delta over parts of the bay that were 100 meters (300 feet) deep only a few decades ago.”

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lituya Bay on the southeastern coast of Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, a remote region above North America that contains more than 36,000 islands. 

The photo captures the northern side of Banks Island, the westernmost island of the archipelago. The Thomsen River - located within the Aulavik National Park - is also visible in the image.

According to NASA, the park is surrounded by Arctic tundra that is inhabited by muskox, snowy owls, and snow geese. 

Along the shore of Banks Island, and also in Mercy Bay, seasonal ice persists in this summertime photograph.

“Particularly obvious is the ‘pearl necklace’ of small ice floes worn by the coast,” said Robie Macdonald, a scientist at the University of Manitoba and the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans. 

“These lines of bergy bits indicate grounded ice that has collected at delta fronts, or along a thin shore margin at the point where the sea bottom rapidly deepens below ice keel depths.

The image was captured on a cloud-free day in July by the Operational Land Imager (OLI) on Landsat 8.

The bits of ice that line the coast are continuously melting, but are quickly replaced by new pieces of sea ice. 

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Banks Island in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago

The many names of the Brahmaputra River. Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the Brahmaputra, a river that is known by many different names as it flows through Tibet, India, and Bangladesh.

In the region where it winds through narrow gorges in Tibet, the river is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo. Near Namche Barwa, a mountain in the Tibetan Himalaya, it becomes the Siang. 

In the Tibetan Himalayan foothills of the northeastern Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, the river is called the Dihang. 

As it widens and flows through Assam, the river is known by the name Brahmaputra, followed by the Jamuna River, the Padma, and finally the Meghna in Bangladesh, just before the water meets the Bay of Bengal.

The image was captured on November 9, 2020 by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite. With its origin in the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Manasarovar Lake" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manasarovar_Lake">Manasarovar Lake</a> region, near the <a title="Mount Kailash" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Kailash">Mount Kailash</a>, located on the northern side of the <a title="Himalayas" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas">Himalayas</a> in Burang County of <a title="Tibet Autonomous Region" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region">Tibet</a> as the Yarlung Tsangpo River, it flows along southern <a title="Tibet" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet">Tibet</a> to break through the Himalayas in great gorges (including the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon) and into Arunachal Pradesh (India).It flows southwest through the Assam Valley as Brahmaputra and south through Bangladesh as the <a title="Jamuna River (Bangladesh)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamuna_River_(Bangladesh)">Jamuna</a> (not to be mistaken with Yamuna of India). In the vast <a title="Ganges Delta" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges_Delta">Ganges Delta</a>, it merges with the <a title="Padma River" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padma_River">Padma</a>, the popular name of the river <a title="Ganges" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges">Ganges</a> in Bangladesh, and finally, after merging with Padma, it becomes the Meghna and from here, it flows as Meghna river before emptying into the Bay of Bengal

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The many names of the Brahmaputra River

The many names of the Brahmaputra River. Today's Image of...

The folded mountains of central Pennsylvania. Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> the mountains of central Pennsylvania. The rolling hills and valleys are part of a geologic formation known as the Valley and Ridge Province that stretches from New York to Alabama.

The prominent folds of rock were pushed up during various plate tectonic collisions and mountain-building episodes during the Ordovician Period, as well as during the formation of Pangea.

Fisherman are drawn to the river valleys found in between the mountains. Spring Creek is considered one of Pennsylvania’s best trout fisheries and is a popular destination for fly fishing. The folded mountains of central Pennsylvania

The image was captured on November 9, 2020 by the Operational Land Imager (OLI) on the Landsat 8 satellite. Pennsylvania, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state in the Great Lakes, Appalachian, and Mid-Atlantic regions of the Northeastern United States. The Commonwealth is bordered by Delaware to the southeast, Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, Lake Erie and the Canadian province of Ontario to the northwest, New York to the north, and New Jersey to the east, while the Appalachian Mountains run through its middle.

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

The folded mountains of central Pennsylvania

The folded mountains of central Pennsylvania. Today's Image of the...

Simultaneous atmospheric rivers over Australia. Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features two huge bands of clouds known as atmospheric rivers stretching from the eastern Indian Ocean to Australia. The clouds transported streams of moisture that led to intense rainfall on both sides of the continent.

According to Australia’s Bureau of Meteorology, moisture-transporting atmospheric rivers occur all over the world and regularly hit Australia, but it is rare for two of the rainmakers to hit at once. This type of event, however, could become much more common as a result of climate change. Simultaneous atmospheric rivers over Australia

The image was captured by the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on the NOAA-NASA Suomi NPP satellite. Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. It is the largest country in Oceania and the world's sixth-largest country by total area. The population of 26 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard. Australia's capital is Canberra, and its largest city is Sydney. The country's other major metropolitan areas are Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide.

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Simultaneous atmospheric rivers over Australia

Simultaneous atmospheric rivers over Australia. Today's Image of the Day...

Dust plume stretches over the Mediterranean. Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> was captured by an astronaut onboard the International Space Station (ISS).

The photograph shows a large plume of dust stretching over the Mediterranean Sea and the island of Cyprus. To the West, the waning gibbous Moon is visible above Earth’s horizon.

By capturing coastlines and seas in the same image, it is easier to observe dust and aerosols lingering in the atmosphere. The edges of dust clouds are more distinguishable over water when there is a coastline available for reference. 

On this particular day, measurements taken by the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite indicate a high concentration of dust over Turkey.

The eastern Mediterranean Sea relies on atmospheric dust to deliver key nutrients for phytoplankton and microbial communities that form the base of the marine food chain. The Mediterranean Sea is a <a title="Sea" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea">sea</a> connected to the <a title="Atlantic Ocean" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, surrounded by the <a title="Mediterranean Basin" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin">Mediterranean Basin</a> and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by <a title="Western Europe" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europe">Western</a> and <a title="Southern Europe" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Europe">Southern Europe</a> and <a title="Anatolia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, on the south by <a title="North Africa" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa">North Africa</a>, and on the east by the <a title="Levant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant">Levant</a>. Although the sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, it is usually referred to as a separate body of water. Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago, the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely <a class="mw-redirect" title="Desiccated" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desiccated">desiccated</a> over a period of some 600,000 years during the <a title="Messinian salinity crisis" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messinian_salinity_crisis">Messinian salinity crisis</a> before being refilled by the <a title="Zanclean flood" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanclean_flood">Zanclean flood</a> about 5.3 million years ago.

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dust plume stretches over the Mediterranean

Dust plume stretches over the Mediterranean. Today's Image of the...

Cyclone Gati dumped a year’s worth of rain in Somalia. Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> shows Somalia being invaded by Cyclone Gati, the strongest storm to impact this region in more than 50 years.

After making landfall with wind speeds up to 105 miles per hour, the storm dumped more than a year’s worth of rain. Thousands of people have been displaced by flash floods, and at least eight have been killed. 

Within a short window of just 12 hours, Gati's max wind speed intensified from 40 to 115 miles per hour, which sets a new record for any storm in the Indian Ocean. Cyclone Gati dumped a year’s worth of rain in Somalia

Gati is also the first hurricane-strength storm system to make landfall in Somalia in recorded history.

Somalia, officially the Federal Republic of Somalia is a <a class="mw-redirect" title="Sovereign country" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_country">sovereign country</a> in the <a title="Horn of Africa" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn_of_Africa">Horn of Africa</a>. It is bordered by <a title="Ethiopia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> to the west, <a title="Somaliland" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliland">Somaliland</a>to the northwest, the <a title="Gulf of Aden" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden">Gulf of Aden</a> to the north, the <a title="Indian Ocean" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> to the east, and <a title="Kenya" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya">Kenya</a> to the southwest. Somalia has the longest coastline on <a title="Africa" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa">Africa</a>'s mainland.Its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains, and highlands. Hot conditions prevail year-round, with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall.

Somalia has an estimated population of around 15 million and has been described as Africa's most culturally homogeneous country. Around 85% of its residents are ethnic <a title="Somalis" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalis">Somalis</a>, who have historically inhabited the country's north. Ethnic minorities are largely concentrated in the south. The official languages of Somalia are <a title="Somali language" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_language">Somali</a> and <a title="Arabic" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic">Arabic</a>. Most people in the country are <a title="Muslims" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslims">Muslims</a>, the majority of them <a title="Sunni Islam" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam">Sunni</a>

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cyclone Gati dumped a year’s worth of rain in Somalia

Cyclone Gati dumped a year’s worth of rain in Somalia....

Helium has quietly become one of the most indispensable resources of modern life. It’s used in hospital equipment, spacecraft, deep-sea breathing mixtures, electronics manufacturing, and scientific instruments - yet its supplies are notoriously precarious.



Those precarious supplies nearly derailed the work of <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/people/nancy-washton" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nancy Washton</a>, a chemist at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (<a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNNL</a>), who oversees instruments that rely on helium to stay cool. 



She was forced to shut down a crucial nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer in 2022, when her supplier started cutting deliveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-the-helium-supply">Importance of the helium supply</h2>



Helium’s unique low boiling point, around -452 °F, makes it vital for cooling superconducting magnets found in MRI scanners, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-magnetic-fields-leave-marks-on-nuclear-matter/">nuclear magnetic</a> resonance devices, and other sensitive equipment. 



Its inert nature ensures it doesn’t react with other chemicals. Since it’s also very light, it’s used to fill balloons for meteorological measurements and essential airbags in cars.



This gas is so lightweight that it can leak into space over time, making it impossible to recapture once it’s gone. Existing supply lines rely on drilling deep into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-water-reshaped-earths-crust-1-6-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s crust</a>, where <a href="https://www.epa.gov/radiation/radioactive-decay" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radioactive decay</a> gradually produces helium. 



Producers separate helium from natural gas streams before shipping it off to meet scientific, medical, and industrial demand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squeeze-on-research-labs">Squeeze on research labs</h2>



“We are now living on the banked liquid helium that the vendors had,” said Washton, who also noted the price at one point reached $55 per liter to cool a magnet. Researchers around the world, including teams using <a href="https://www.bruker.com/en/products-and-solutions/mr/nmr.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NMR spectrometers</a>, have felt the pinch. 



This forced her to mothball some of PNNL’s superconducting instruments, disrupting important energy research.



Others have installed expensive recovery systems that can recollect much of the boiled-off gas, re-liquefy it, and reuse it. But recovery setups are costly, need careful maintenance, and can require new pipework throughout a lab. 



Smaller institutions often struggle with these expenses, raising concerns that cutting-edge research could suffer while budgets get stretched.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helium-supply-and-health-care">Helium supply and health care</h2>



Hospitals use more helium than any other sector, about one-third of the global market. The gas cools powerful magnets in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simple-scan-can-predict-risks-of-serious-heart-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MRI scanners</a>. If supply lines falter, scans may be delayed or canceled. 



Some new MRI models require as little as a single liter of helium, using sealed units that recirculate the gas. 



These machines often cost more and produce slightly lower magnetic field strengths, yet they offer hope for reducing helium demand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-industries-shrinking-supplies">Growing industries, shrinking supplies</h2>



Analysts expect global helium demand to double by 2035 because of its role in semiconductor and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dirty-power-the-hidden-climate-cost-of-electric-vehicles/">electric vehicle</a> battery manufacturing. 



Despite this, no large-scale artificial method exists to produce helium. It is created naturally in our planet’s crust at a slow rate, and it continually drifts out of the atmosphere. 



Supply disruptions are common, fueled by events like maintenance shutdowns at processing plants and geopolitical conflicts. 



Qatar, Algeria, and the United States remain key suppliers, but mishaps and trade sanctions can put deliveries in jeopardy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scrambling-for-new-sources">Scrambling for new sources</h2>



Major natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gas-stove-pollution-why-dont-we-have-the-full-story/">gas</a> exporters hope to tap additional helium reserves. Tanzania’s recent <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2016-06-27-huge-helium-discovery-%E2%80%98-life-saving-find%E2%80%99" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">discovery</a> of a large helium field is slated to begin production in 2025, marking the first time helium will be extracted at scale without relying on fossil fuels.



Qatar also plans to bring a new helium plant online by 2027. These projects could help ease market jitters. 



Yet some experts, including Oxford’s Christopher Ballentine, warn that the logistics and financing for these fields may take years to materialize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ensuring-tomorrow-s-supply">Ensuring tomorrow’s supply</h2>



Over the years, governments have tried to manage helium by maintaining strategic stockpiles. The <a href="https://www.blm.gov/press-release/blm-completes-sale-federal-helium-system#:~:text=Federal%20Helium%20Reserve%20in%20Amarillo,of%20present%20and%20future%20generations." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Federal Helium Reserve</a>, once the planet’s largest source, was sold in 2024 to a private firm.&nbsp;



Concerned groups such as <a href="https://www.cganet.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Compressed Gas Association</a> cautioned that this sale might bring added uncertainty to an already volatile market. Predicting stable <a href="https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.6.2.20220404a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">output</a> has grown difficult, and prices have soared accordingly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-racing-against-time">Racing against time</h2>



“This is serious and we need to deal with it,” said Washton. She suggests that ordinary people could be caught off guard if helium shortages intensify. 



If future shortages worsen, everything from routine hospital scans to advanced semiconductor production might be impacted.



Stakeholders are cautiously optimistic that new helium fields, smaller MRI machines, and better recycling measures will prevent a dire shortfall. 



But the gas’s rare qualities mean replacements are tough to find. Efforts are underway to reuse every drop possible, even if that requires pricey equipment and careful planning.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/76/9/18/2908156/Helium-prices-surge-to-record-levels-as-shortage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Today</a>.



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World's helium supply is running very low, and the race is on to prevent the next shortage

Helium has quietly become one of the most indispensable resources...

A growing body of scientific work is revealing a remarkable feature of certain microbes. They can “breathe” in a way that produces electricity instead of relying on oxygen, suggesting unusual survival strategies that could inspire future clean energy solutions.



This <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867425002892" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">discovery</a> came to light when researchers noticed that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/previously-overlooked-viruses-may-secretly-shape-bacterial-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> thrive in conditions with little or no oxygen by sending out electrons into their environment.



Soon after, they found a key detail: these bacteria hand off electrons through certain molecular carriers, enabling them to keep growing while essentially “exhaling” electric current. Caroline Ajo-Franklin of <a href="https://www.rice.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rice University</a> helped guide this project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-produce-electricity">Bacteria produce electricity</h2>



Some species, including <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9481105/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shewanella</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/geobacter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geobacter</a>, have long been <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro2113" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">known</a> to transfer electrons to external surfaces, even metal oxides, while growing in oxygen-limited zones. 



Scientists realized these organisms produce a small but steady electric current through this process.



Biki Bapi Kundu is a Rice doctoral student and first author of the study who took a closer look at an everyday bacterium and figured out the mechanism behind its power output.&nbsp;



“This newly discovered mechanism of respiration is a simple and ingenious way to get the job done,” said Bapi Kundu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-generate-energy-without-oxygen">Microbes generate energy without oxygen</h2>



These electricity-generating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-recreate-an-ancient-war-trick-to-defeat-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> do not rely on the usual electron acceptors, like oxygen. Instead, they latch onto conductive surfaces. 



By pushing electrons onto external materials, they gain energy to keep going in oxygen-deprived spots. 



Researchers now know that certain bacteria use a special molecule known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867425002892" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">naphthoquinone</a> to help pass electrons to their outside world.



Once those electrons move out, the cells generate energy in a self-sustained system. The process bears similarities to how a battery releases current.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-transfer-electrons-like-a-battery">Microbes transfer electrons like a battery</h2>



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> gain an advantage by freeing up electrons they would otherwise hold onto. Through that exit pathway, they can break down carbon sources more efficiently than in standard fermentation processes.



It seems that this feature might be lurking in a wider range of microbes than previously thought. One research group discovered that these electricity-making strategies are not limited to organisms specifically adapted to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-virus-discovered-in-the-deepest-part-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme habitats</a>.



“Our research not only solves a long-standing scientific mystery, but it also points to a new and potentially widespread survival strategy in nature,” said Ajo-Franklin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uses-for-electricity-producing-bacteria">Uses for electricity-producing bacteria</h2>



Because electricity-producing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-their-memories-to-fight-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> can relieve the buildup of electrons, they have potential uses in various industrial applications. 



Some scientists foresee improved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteriophages-could-revolutionize-fracking-wastewater-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wastewater treatment</a>, where these microbes might help remove pollutants while sending out an electric signal.



This line of work could also help with biomanufacturing. While certain processes bog down from electron imbalances, electricity-generating organisms might balance the system by shuttling electrons away in real time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-vision-for-clean-energy">Long-term vision for clean energy</h2>



With a bit of engineering, these cells might even harness carbon dioxide through renewable power. The concept mimics photosynthesis in plants, but here, bacteria could rely on external electricity in a controlled setting.



In the future, we may see specialized microbial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communities</a> that maintain their own flow of electrons, feeding into sensors and energy devices. 



Researchers note that these bacteria may also prove handy in areas where oxygen is scarce, like underground or potentially even in space technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-as-real-time-sensors">Bacteria as real-time sensors</h2>



Experts believe electricity-making cells could bring improvements to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-health-ai-can-identify-insects-based-on-their-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental monitoring</a>. Their electrical signals change when toxins are present, so they can provide real-time alerts about pollution or water quality.



Some hope that such systems might open the door to new diagnostic tools as well. The natural inclination of these microbes to shuttle electrons might allow them to perform tasks that previously demanded more complex instruments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



These findings expand our perspective on microbial metabolism. Once thought to be limited to fermentation under oxygen-free conditions, many ordinary bacteria may hold hidden skills for electron transfer. 



The implications extend across fields from bioengineering to synthetic biology. Researchers are optimistic that this work will encourage a deeper examination of how microbes manage energy in their native habitats. 



By understanding these strategies, scientists can look for ways to steer or optimize electron transfer on a larger scale.



Academics point out that an improved knowledge of microbial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edge-state-atoms-how-electrons-find-their-groove-in-frictionless-flow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron flow</a> could open new doors in sustainable technology. 



If cultivated in controlled bioreactors, these organisms might help curtail industrial waste and boost the output of valuable chemicals.



At the same time, study authors are cautious about the next steps. They say that scaling up these systems requires more data and design know-how, but they remain confident about the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867425002892" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Life finds a way: Some bacteria "breathe" by producing electricity instead of relying on oxygen

A growing body of scientific work is revealing a remarkable...

Astronomers have spotted something that appears to stretch around ten billion light years across. This so-called Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall is being reevaluated, and it might be more extensive and nearer to Earth than earlier calculations suggested.



Its immense size has fueled discussions about how matter spreads out in the cosmos. Some see it as an oddity that cannot be explained by standard maps of the universe, while others say more data will shed light on its nature.



One person at the center of these efforts is <a href="https://www.uah.edu/announcements/16621-welcome-dr-jon-hakkila-new-associate-provost" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Jon Hakkila</a> from the <a href="https://www.uah.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alabama in Huntsville</a>. He and his team have examined the way <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4434/13/2/16" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gamma-ray bursts</a> signal the edges of this structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hercules-corona-borealis-supercluster">Hercules–Corona Borealis supercluster</h2>



Researchers label this structure a supercluster because of how it gathers countless galaxies in one region. 



They rely on <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/What_is_red_shift" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">redshifts</a> to estimate distances and found that multiple galaxies, linked by these bursts, cluster in an area bigger than anything else known.



“It is larger than the size of most anything to which it might be compared,” said Dr. Hakkila at the end of a discussion featured in recent observations. 



His remark highlights how standard theories about universal uniformity cannot fully account for this sprawling arrangement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bursts-matter">Why bursts matter</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-confirm-lone-black-hole-wandering-through-our-galaxy/">Astronomers</a> use gamma-ray bursts to measure cosmic distances because these bursts shine more brightly than typical stellar processes. 



They can be powered by supernova events or by merging neutron stars and are detectable across vast stretches of space.



Since these bursts come from catastrophic stellar endings, they appear wherever stars exist in large numbers. 



By tracking them, observers gain a glimpse of how far matter extends, even in places that defy straightforward study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-hercules-corona-borealis-compares">How Hercules–Corona Borealis compares</h2>



This wall isn’t the only oversized feature that’s caused a stir. 



Structures like the <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2016/11/aa28567-16/aa28567-16.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sloan Great Wall</a>, the <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014RMxAC..44..201C/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Huge Large Quasar Group</a>, and the <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2016/11/aa28567-16/aa28567-16.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Giant Quasar Arc</a> have all pushed against the expected boundaries of cosmic uniformity.



Still, the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall dwarfs them. 



At around ten billion light years long, it’s nearly twenty-five times the size of the Sloan Great Wall, which was already thought to be massive when it was discovered in 2003.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-scientists-still-have-doubts">Why scientists still have doubts</h2>



Some astronomers caution that the current GRB dataset might not be complete enough to draw final conclusions. 



The precision of burst positions and redshifts isn’t always high, and small errors can create the illusion of larger structures than what actually exists.



There’s also the issue of sampling bias, since parts of the sky are harder to observe due to dust or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/35-years-of-hubble-the-telescope-that-changed-our-view-of-the-universe/">telescope</a> access. Until more consistent coverage is available, there’s always the chance that what looks like a wall might just be a trick of patchy data.



Any structure beyond about 1.2 billion light years in size is generally viewed with caution by theorists, because the <a href="https://astro.wku.edu/astr106/structure/cosmologicalprinciple.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmological principle</a> implies matter should look uniform at enormous distances. Yet this giant wall sits right at the limit of what current models can handle without adjustments.



“The jury is still out on what it all means,” said Dr. Hakkila during a recent briefing. Some models can accommodate something so grand, but others fall short.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hercules-corona-borealis-not-fully-mapped">Hercules–Corona Borealis not fully mapped</h2>



One of the biggest hurdles in confirming the wall’s full outline is the limited number of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) available with known distances. 



The team used <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2312.10050" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">542 GRBs</a> in their study, and only about half of those were in the right part of the sky to trace this particular structure.



Because the detection of GRBs depends on many factors - like the brightness of the event, telescope availability, and even sky conditions - the data is naturally uneven. 



That unevenness makes it harder to rule out random clustering or signal confusion without more coverage from upcoming missions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Astronomers are eager to figure out exactly where this wall starts and ends. 



“Since the most distant extent of the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall is hard to verify, the most interesting finding is that the closest parts of it lie closer to us than had previously been identified,” said Dr. Hakkila.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-debris-now-threatens-working-satellites/">New satellites</a> under development may sharpen the data needed to sort out lingering unknowns. 



In the meantime, scientists see the current findings as a reason to reevaluate large-scale structures and how they might push the boundaries of our cosmic road maps.



A proposed European mission called <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1907.00616" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">THESEUS</a> (Transient High Energy Sky and Early Universe Surveyor) could change everything. 



With its wide field of view and heightened sensitivity, it may detect thousands of new gamma-ray bursts, especially from very distant or faint sources.



If launched, THESEUS would give researchers the dense data they need to finally outline the full size of the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall—or prove that it doesn’t stretch quite as far as it seems.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2015/12/aa24829-14/aa24829-14.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universe 2025</a>.



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'Largest structure in the universe' is even bigger than astronomers imagined and still a huge mystery

Astronomers have spotted something that appears to stretch around ten...

A new investigation at a high‑Andean temple reveals that the distant ancestors of the Inca wielded psychoactive plants as a political tool. 



Archaeologists have uncovered bone tubes still coated with traces of mind‑altering snuff, showing that Chavín lords used controlled visions to cement their rule almost three millennia ago.



The discovery comes from a project led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a>, <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a>, and partner institutions across South America. 



The experts analyzed artifacts from Chavín de Huántar, a vast ceremonial center that sits 10,000 feet above sea level in the Peruvian Andes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-use-of-psychoactive-plants">Ancient use of psychoactive plants</h2>



Inside narrow passageways and hidden rooms, the team found small hollow bones carved into elegant inhalation tubes. 



Chemical testing detected nicotine from wild tobacco relatives and residue from vilca beans, whose potent compounds are related to DMT.



Microscopic work confirmed plant particles embedded in the ancient surfaces. The date of the deposits makes this the oldest direct evidence for psychoactive plant use yet known in the high Andes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rituals-shaped-social-order">Rituals shaped social order</h2>



The placement of the tubes mattered. They were sealed within private chambers that could hold only a handful of people. That setting implies exclusive ceremonies, not widespread communal feasts.



The evidence matches a broader pattern of Chavín architecture, which funnels visitors through labyrinths toward dimly lit sanctuaries where sights, sounds, and fragrances overwhelm the senses.



“Taking psychoactives was not just about seeing visions. It was part of a tightly controlled ritual, likely reserved for a select few, reinforcing the social hierarchy,” said Daniel Contreras, an anthropological archaeologist at the University of Florida and a co‑author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chavin-rituals-meant-to-stun">Chavín rituals meant to stun</h2>



Stone corridors at Chavín already distort light and echo footsteps. Researchers have also recovered giant trumpets fashioned from imported conch shells. 



The deep blasts of those horns, amplified by the tunnels, would have rattled bone. Add intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-presence-hallucinations-impact-on-social-perception/">hallucinations</a>, and followers might have felt a raw presence of gods or spirits.



“The supernatural world isn’t necessarily friendly, but it’s powerful,” Contreras said. “These rituals, often enhanced by psychoactives, were compelling, transformative experiences that reinforced belief systems and social structures.”



By staging such events, leaders wrapped their authority in cosmic mystery. Participants emerged convinced that rank and building labor served a higher design. 



Craftspeople who carved the monumental granite slabs and farmers who fed the workforce likely saw themselves as part of a living myth, not as servants under duress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-belief-used-for-power">Belief used for power</h2>



“One of the ways that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealth-inequality-began-shaping-human-societies-10000-years-ago/">inequality</a> was justified or naturalized was through ideology - through the creation of impressive ceremonial experiences that made people believe this whole project was a good idea,” Contreras said.



The snuff tubes thus fit a larger strategy. Earlier Andean settlements show few signs of strict hierarchy. By Chavín times, around 800 BCE, society had acquired priests, skilled artisans, and regional trade routes. 



Control over sacred knowledge, including plant lore, helped elites turn soft power into hard architecture and coordinated labor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychoactive-plant-mixture">Psychoactive plant mixture</h2>



Vilca beans grow in lowland forests far from Chavín’s icy heights. Their presence points to long‑distance exchange networks and to careful botanical skill.



When roasted, mixed with lime, and inhaled, the powder produces vivid visions, rapid heartbeat, and disorientation. 



Wild tobaccos add <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nicotine-pouches-are-a-new-dangerous-trend-among-teens/">nicotine</a>’s stimulant rush and sharp aroma. Combined, these plants could propel users into what seemed another realm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bringing-invisible-details-to-light">Bringing invisible details to light</h2>



Contreras has worked at the site for nearly 30 years in a project directed by Stanford archaeologist John Rick.



Their excavations have mapped hidden galleries, sculpted stone icons, and water channels that once gurgled beneath temple floors. The new chemical analyses bring invisible details to light, showing not only what people did but also what they felt.



“It’s exciting that ongoing excavations can be combined with cutting‑edge archaeological science techniques to get us closer to understanding what it was like to live at this site,” Contreras said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-vision-to-empire">From vision to empire</h2>



The Chavín phenomenon spread a shared artistic style and worldview up and down the Peruvian coast and sierra. Later Andean states inherited its taste for grand plazas, stone imagery, and elite ritual.



By demonstrating the intentional use of psychoactive plants in tightly managed settings, the study bridges the gap between small egalitarian hamlets and the vast empires that eventually ruled the Cordillera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-modern-glimpse-of-ancient-minds">A modern glimpse of ancient minds</h2>



Today, visitors to Chavín de Huántar walk through restored corridors where carved fangs and staring eyes still pierce the dim light. 



Knowing that select priests once knelt here, inhaled potent smoke, and proclaimed cosmic truths changes how we read those walls.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeologists-find-hallucinogenic-seeds-in-ancient-bones-black-henbane/">bone</a> tubes, simple yet sophisticated, remind us that chemistry, belief, and social order have long been intertwined. In the high Andes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meditation-reveals-common-altered-states-of-consciousness/">altered consciousness</a> was more than a personal journey - it was statecraft written in breath and stone.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2425125122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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How psychoactive plants helped build an ancient empire

A new investigation at a high‑Andean temple reveals that the...

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Grading student work can take up countless hours for teachers, especially when assignments call for deep thinking, explanations, or scientific modeling. However, a new study suggests that artificial intelligence (AI) could help ease that burden - but only if used carefully and alongside human input.



The research was led by Xiaoming Zhai, associate professor and director of the <a href="https://coe.uga.edu/research/labs/ai4stem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI4STEM Education Center </a>at <a href="https://www.uga.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a>’s Mary Frances Early College of Education. The study explores how well Large Language Models (LLMs) can assess student work compared to human graders.



“Asking kids to draw a model, to write an explanation, to argue with each other are very complex tasks,” Zhai said. “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-teaching-other-robots-its-no-longer-science-fiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Teachers</a> often don’t have enough time to score all the students’ responses, which means students will not be able to receive timely feedback.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-grading-vs-human-judgment">AI grading vs. human judgment</h2>



The study focused on middle school students’ responses to science questions aligned with the Next Generation Science Standards. One question, for example, asked students to create a model showing how particles behave when heat energy is added. 



The correct answer would explain that molecules speed up as they heat and slow down when cooled. The research team fed student answers into an LLM called Mixtral and asked it to grade them. 



But unlike most AI grading studies, where the AI is trained using examples of human‑scored answers, this study took a different approach. Here, the LLM had to create its own grading rubric and apply it to student work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trading-accuracy-for-speed">Trading accuracy for speed</h2>



The researchers found that Mixtral could grade responses very quickly. However, it tended to rely on shortcuts, such as looking for specific keywords, rather than assessing the actual depth of the students’ understanding.



“Students could mention a temperature increase, and the large language model interprets that all students understand the particles are moving faster when temperatures rise,” Zhai explained.



“But based upon the student writing, as a human, we’re not able to infer whether the students know whether the particles will move faster or not.”



In other words, the AI might give points to a student simply for mentioning the right terms, even if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-logic-lives-experts-identify-the-brain-region-responsible-for-reasoning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reasoning</a> behind the answer is unclear or incorrect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-ai-with-human-standards">Improving AI with human standards</h2>



The study suggests that LLMs need better guidelines to match human grading standards. Specifically, AI models perform better when they use detailed rubrics created by teachers, which outline exactly what to look for in a good response.



Without these rubrics, the AI only reached about 33.5% accuracy when compared to human grading. With access to human‑created rubrics, that accuracy jumped to just over 50%.



“The train has left the station, but it has just left the station,” Zhai said. “It means we still have a long way to go when it comes to using AI, and we still need to figure out which direction to go in.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-human-reasoning-still-matters"><a></a>Why human reasoning still matters</h2>



One key difference between human graders and LLMs is how they handle complex or incomplete answers. 



According to the researchers, while LLMs will mark a student’s response as correct if it includes certain keywords,. However, it cannot evaluate the logic the student is using.



This happens because LLMs tend to “over‑infer,” assuming a student understands a concept based on surface clues. Human teachers, though, look for evidence of clear thinking and accurate reasoning. 



Without explanations for why certain answers earned specific grades, the AI lacks the context to make fine‑tuned decisions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teachers-want-help-not-replacement"><a></a>Teachers want help, not replacement</h2>



Despite these limitations, many teachers are interested in using AI <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/man-vs-machine-why-students-still-write-better-than-ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a> to speed up routine grading.



“Many teachers told me, ‘I had to spend my weekend giving feedback, but by using automatic scoring, I do not have to do that. Now, I have more time to focus on more meaningful work instead of some labor‑intensive work,’” Zhai said. “That’s very encouraging for me.”



Rather than fully replacing human graders, the researchers suggest that AI systems should serve as assistants. This way, it frees teachers to concentrate on tasks that require human judgment, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creativity-improves-life-satisfaction-and-overall-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creativity</a>, and connection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next-for-ai-grading"><a></a>What comes next for AI grading</h2>



The research highlights both the promise and the challenges of using AI in classrooms. While current LLMs can process large batches of student work quickly, they still need better instructions, oversight, and refinement to deliver meaningful feedback. 



Teachers remain essential for guiding the use of these tools, setting expectations, and ensuring fairness. As AI technologies continue to evolve, the hope is that future models will become more adept at understanding not just keywords but the quality of student reasoning.



With thoughtful design and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-humans-and-ai-work-better-together/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human‑AI collaboration</a>, these tools could become powerful allies in helping teachers support student learning - without sacrificing weekends to piles of ungraded papers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10758-025-09836-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technology, Knowledge and Learning</a>.



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Grading with AI: Faster than teachers, but not smarter

Grading student work can take up countless hours for teachers,...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

Hubble views a spiral galaxy with stellar explosions

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