Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

We've known for a long time that military sonar, widely used for submarine detection and naval operations, can have devastating effects on dolphin populations. Now, however, researchers are learning that sonar is more harmful to dolphins than previously believed.



Scientists from UC Santa Cruz and their collaborators have achieved something monumental -- they've managed to directly measure the behavioral responses of these dolphins and unraveled some surprising findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sonar-sound-surprise">Sonar sound surprise</h2>



In a recent study, the international team sampled dozens of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-dolphin-breath/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphin groups</a>. They simulated and activated operational military sonars in controlled conditions, and then keenly observed how these dolphins reacted. 



“We see clear evidence of acoustic responses -- fine-scale changes in movement including directed, sustained, strong avoidance, and changes in group configurations,” said lead author Brandon Southall, a <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Cruz</a> research associate and senior scientist at Southall Environmental Associates (<a href="https://sea-inc.net/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SEA</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphins-reaction-to-sonars">Dolphins reaction to sonars</h2>



To observe these fast and playful creatures, the scientists had to employ advanced methods and technologies. They utilized aerial drone imagery, underwater listening devices, and even shore-based visual observatories.



John Durban, a co-author of the study and a senior scientist at SEA, explained how they further developed drone photogrammetry.



"In this study, we have been able to further develop this technique to geolocate dolphins with centimeter-level precision, enabling changes in behavior to be quantified in an objective way," noted Durban.



This combination of methodologies created a comprehensive picture of how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-dolphins-who-play-with-others-become-successful-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a>, renowned for their sociability, respond to sonic disturbances.



“While these behavioral changes occur and persist on variable time scales, they are surprising in that they collectively demonstrate responses at sound levels that are orders of magnitude lower than predicted in current regulatory impact assessments. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-smile-at-each-other-when-they-are-feeling-playful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">These animals</a> are clearly much more sensitive to noise exposure than we thought," Southall explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-sonar-on-dolphins">Impacts of sonar on dolphins</h2>



These social dolphins, often seen in groups that could range into the hundreds or even thousands, regularly come across potent military sonar systems. 



Worryingly, these systems are known to disturb, harm, and even kill other species. The study proposes that millions of animals might be impacted annually, despite past assessments predicting otherwise.



The findings of this study have profound implications for marine conservation efforts, particularly regarding human-induced noise pollution. 



With the revelation that dolphins are more susceptible to sonar disturbances than previously assumed, there is an urgent call for reevaluating current naval practices. 



This knowledge urges policymakers and environmentalists to integrate more stringent regulations on sonar usage, ensuring the preservation of marine life integrity. 



By aligning scientific insights with conservation policy, there is a potential to mitigate some of the anthropogenic impacts on these intelligent creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research">Future research</h2>



The research team emphasizes the need for continued investigations into the long-term impacts of noise exposure on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pebanista-yacuruna-giant-dolphin-species-discovered-peru-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a> and their ecosystems. 



Future studies could expand to include a broader range of species and environmental scenarios, ultimately enriching our understanding of marine acoustic ecology. 



The deployment of novel technologies, as demonstrated in this study, provides a promising pathway for comprehensive, non-invasive monitoring of marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-environmental-impacts">Broader environmental impacts</h2>



This study focuses on dolphins, but its findings are important for all marine life. 



Military sonar and other human-made noises impact many species, messing with their behaviors, habitats, and ways of communicating. 



By showing how vulnerable dolphins are to these disturbances, it highlights the urgent need for better protection of our oceans.



We must take a holistic approach to ocean conservation, recognizing the complex relationships within marine ecosystems and working to reduce human stressors. 



Protecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean biodiversity</a> is vital not just for marine species, but for the health of our planet, too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-concerns-on-sonars-and-dolphins">Increased concerns on sonars and dolphins</h2>



In recent times, the rising number of mass strandings of cetaceans coinciding with the operation of naval sonar systems has flagged concern regarding the potential threats posed by noise exposure. 



“Understanding how these animals respond to these types of acoustic signals is important for mitigating the impacts that this type of disturbance can have on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/dolphin-everything-you-need-to-know-about-these-magical-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social animals</a> that rely on acoustics for communication, feeding, and other critical facets of their lives,” said study co-author Caroline Casey, a researcher at UC Santa Cruz.



By advancing research in this field, scientists aim to promote deeper insights into interspecies interactions and ecological resilience, paving the way towards more informed and effective environmental stewardship.



So, the next time you think about dolphins, remember the other side of their story -- the one that we humans play a part in. What can we do to ensure their environment remains safe? Let's mull over that for a bit. After all, isn't awareness the first step towards change?



-----



The team also included Ari Friedlaender, a professor of ocean sciences at UC Santa Cruz, and a number of collaborators from institutions in the United States and the Netherlands.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.240650" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science.</a>



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Military sonar does a lot more damage to dolphins than previously disclosed

We've known for a long time that military sonar, widely...

Why does the rooster crow while the hen remains silent? This intriguing question led scientist Arnold Adolph Berthold, in the mid-19th century, to castrate a rooster. The result was telling: the rooster's morning crow ceased.&nbsp;



While Berthold did not know the exact substance responsible, we now understand that the sex hormone testosterone plays a key role in such male-specific behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testosterone-and-the-androgen-receptor">Testosterone and the androgen receptor</h2>



Although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/men-with-low-testosterone-have-a-higher-risk-of-mortality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">testosterone</a> is present in females and has important functions, it is classically referred to as the “male hormone.” It significantly contributes to sexual development, appearance, and aggressive behavior in males. 



To exert its function, testosterone binds to the so-called androgen receptor. This binding activates the receptor and triggers the production of certain proteins within the cell.&nbsp;



However, testosterone can also be metabolized into estrogen - the “female hormone” - which binds to a different receptor. This complexity raises the question: when we talk about testosterone and its effects, what is the role of the androgen signaling pathway?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormone-signaling-in-birds">Hormone signaling in birds</h2>



A team of scientists led by Benjamin Schusser (<a href="https://www.tum.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Munich</a>) and Manfred Gahr (<a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a>) delved deeper into this question using birds as a model. 



The researchers noted that, unlike mammals, avian cells possess cell autonomous sex identity, allowing somatic cells to develop sexual traits independent of hormonal influence due to the absence of sex chromosome dosage compensation.&nbsp;



“This unique characteristic has significant implications, potentially leading to the manifestation of sexual traits differing from gonadal sex expectations,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



The experts pointed out that male chickens with experimentally reversed gonads develop complete sexual ornaments typical of roosters, challenging the notion that these traits are driven by testicular hormones.&nbsp;



“Our study aims to unravel the intricate interplay between hormonal and cell autonomous mechanisms in avian sexual development by investigating the role of androgen signaling through androgen receptor knockout in chickens.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research</h2>



Using the CRISPR-Cas method, the researchers created genetically modified chickens lacking the androgen receptor. This allowed them to study, for the first time, the effects of androgen signaling on the development, appearance, and behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicken-domestication-humans-timeline-silk-road-evidence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chickens</a>.



Chickens were particularly well-suited for this study. They are intelligent and social animals exhibiting gender-specific behaviors, such as roosters crowing in the morning. This made them ideal subjects to observe the consequences of disrupting the androgen signaling pathway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-outcomes-in-modified-chickens">Surprising outcomes in modified chickens</h2>



As expected, examinations of the young roosters showed they were infertile. Additionally, some typical external sexual characteristics were underdeveloped, including the comb, wattle, and earlaps.&nbsp;



Interestingly, other traits remained unaffected by the genetic modification: the tail feathers and the spurs were comparable to normal roosters.



“We were surprised to find that the male traits were only partially lost. The outer appearance of roosters is therefore not solely determined by the androgen signaling pathway,” explained Mekhla Rudra, a co-lead author of the study.



Young hens without the androgen receptor showed a very similar pattern. They were also infertile, and their typical head ornaments were much smaller than normal.&nbsp;



Consequently, young roosters and hens were almost indistinguishable in appearance - quite unlike chickens that carry the androgen receptor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-hormones-in-birds">The role of hormones in birds</h2>



Surprisingly, although adult females continued to produce testosterone, without the androgen receptors they never laid eggs nor ovulated, showing that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-reptile-or-the-egg-come-first-scientists-have-changed-their-minds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">egg</a> formation and laying are androgen-dependent.



The results demonstrate that testosterone plays an important role in both sexes. It is therefore too simplistic to describe it as a pure male hormone. The way the hormone works is complex and not yet fully understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-interplay-in-sexual-development">Complex interplay in sexual development</h2>



The study provides general insights into the sexual development of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polygamous-birds-carry-fewer-harmful-genetic-mutations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, revealing a complex interplay of hormone-dependent and hormone-independent mechanisms. 



By understanding these processes, scientists can better comprehend how hormones influence development and behavior across different species.



“These findings highlight the significance of androgen receptor mechanisms in fertility and sex-specific traits in chickens, challenging the concept of a default sex in birds and emphasizing the dominance of androgen signaling in avian sexual development,” the authors concluded.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-52989-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Female birds need a ‘male hormone’ for sexual development 

Why does the rooster crow while the hen remains silent?...

North Atlantic right whales are at the crossroads of endangerment and proactive resolutions. The latest estimates from the North Atlantic Right Whale Consortium point to a population that is teetering on the brink of extinction.



The data for the year 2023 reveals an alarming number of only approximately 372 of these gentle giants. This is a slight increase from the previous year's figure of 356, but it's clear that the situation is still dire.



These whales face numerous threats, primarily from vessel strikes and entanglement in fishing gear. In 2024 alone, at least four North Atlantic right whales were killed.



This urgent situation demands immediate action from global authorities like the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA), Fisheries and Oceans Canada, and Transport Canada. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-voice-for-the-whales">A voice for the whales</h2>



The troubled plight of North Atlantic right whales triggered hard-hitting reactions from <a href="https://oceana.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oceana</a>, a leading ocean advocacy group.



“While an increase in population is hopeful, the North Atlantic right whales washing up dead on our shores speak for themselves - we must stop killing them," said Gib Brogan, campaign director at Oceana in the United States.



"Five of this year’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-north-atlantic-right-whales-have-fewer-offspring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calves</a> were killed or are missing and presumed dead, including the first calf of the season who was struck by a boat and died a slow, painful, and preventable death."



Brogan noted that NOAA’s proposed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ships-are-disregarding-efforts-to-protect-north-atlantic-right-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vessel speed rule</a> to update slow zones for ships would have protected these whales when they were at their most vulnerable, but this plan is gathering dust&nbsp;after more than 800 days. 



"President Biden must approve and implement the updated vessel speed rule soon, before we see moms and calves on our shores this calving season instead of in our waters."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-halting-two-major-threats-to-whales">Halting two major threats to whales</h2>



Kim Elmslie, campaign director at Oceana Canada, emphasized the need for action. "Today’s news that the North Atlantic right population has increased slightly is positive, but the threats of vessel strikes and entanglement remain present." 



Elmslie noted that right whales have faced a devastating year, with nine deaths and five entanglements. She said that more must and can be done to stop the two major threats to right whale’s survival - vessel strikes and entanglements in fishing gear. 



"To ensure whales and fisheries can coexist in Canada, the government must implement ropeless fishing gear in high-risk areas. Additionally, all vessel slowdowns must be mandatory and be applied throughout the range where right whales are found to reduce ship strikes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-once-thriving-but-now-struggling">Once thriving, but now struggling </h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-atlantic-right-whales-critically-endangered-relocated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Atlantic right whales</a> were once a frequent sight off the shores. Moving at a leisurely pace, they were easy targets for aggressive whalers. Their population spiraled sharply downwards from 21,000 to less than 100 individuals by the 1920s.



Whaling was banned for this species in 1935. By 2010, they showed a promising rebound to about 483 individuals. But their numbers have been dwindling since, placing them back on the endangered list.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deadly-dangers-faced-by-whales">Deadly dangers faced by whales</h2>



Ship strikes are a significant threat, given that these whales swim slowly, close to the surface, and their dark color makes them difficult to spot. This, along with the inability to maneuver quickly, leads to fatal encounters with boats.



The tragic saga continues with many of the whales getting entangled in fishing gear, causing severe physical damage and hindering their mobility, reproduction, and feeding abilities. 



A shocking 85% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/right-whale-populations-reach-new-low/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> has experienced entanglement at least once, making it critical that changes are made in fishing practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overwhelming-public-support">Overwhelming public support</h2>



A recent national poll conducted in 2024 by nonpartisan polling company Ipsos captured the sentiment of the American public. 



The results depicted a unified voice, stating that 86% of American voters believe it is vital to protect North Atlantic right whales from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whales-face-a-number-of-threats-and-most-are-human-related/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-caused threats</a>.



Overall, 83% of respondents agreed that human activities, specifically those involving shipping, boating, and vertical-line fishing, should be adapted to ensure they do not harm these marine creatures.



This public opinion shines a light on the path forward. We must bring about significant policy changes and implement proactive measures to save these incredible creatures from the brink of extinction. 



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Can we stop the extinction of North Atlantic right whales?

North Atlantic right whales are at the crossroads of endangerment...

Life, as we know it, relies on the balance of energy and essential nutrients. Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), found in insects and arachnids, play a critical role in this equilibrium. 



These organisms are particularly crucial to birds, hedgehogs, and lizards, although the advantages hinge heavily on the kind of insects and spiders consumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-with-fatty-acids">Insects with fatty acids</h2>



You may be surprised to learn that aquatic insects like dragonflies or caddisflies are richer in omega-3 long-chain PUFA than their land-based counterparts.



Why? The base of the food chain in aquatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-light-sustains-biodiversity-over-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> is algae that are rich in omega-3 LC-PUFA.



Fatty acids pile up in food chains. Take mayflies, for instance, which consume the algae and are subsequently eaten by fish. The mayfly tends to contain more fatty acids than the algae it feeds on; however, the fish that preys on mayflies often has even more. 



There are a plethora of studies on this topic, as well as those exploring how plant or algal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> impacts the biomass in ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-insects-and-fatty-acids">Biodiversity, insects, and fatty acids</h2>



Cornelia Twining is the leader of the Food Web Ecophysiology group at the aquatic research institute Eawag and a professor at ETH Zurich.



"Unfortunately, knowledge about how insect and arachnid biodiversity might influence the availability of fatty acids in a food web is rather scant," said Twining. She, alongside her colleagues, is working hard to bridge this knowledge gap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-use-and-nutrient-availability">Land use and nutrient availability </h2>



Based on data including over half a million observations of approximately 7,600 insect and spider species across Switzerland, the research spanned 400 aquatic ecosystems and 300 terrestrial ecosystems.



These ecosystems varied in terms of land usage, ranging from natural habitats such as meadows and forests to city-center sites and agricultural areas.



“We were interested in how land use shapes energy and nutrient availability and whether there are key differences between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems,” said Ryan Shipley, researcher at the<a href="https://www.wsl.ch/en/about-wsl/locations/slf-davos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> WSL institute for snow and avalanche research SLF</a> and lead author on the study.



“Land use change ranks among the most urgent global challenges, making it essential to understand how human activities impact fundamental ecosystem functions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fatty-acid-content-in-insects">Fatty acid content in insects</h2>



The data analysis showed that in the studied communities, a decrease in insect and spider biodiversity resulted in a decline in biomass and key fatty acids content. 



"In terrestrial communities, we also see significant differences depending on land use," said Twining. Even when biodiversity is the same, insect and spider communities in a city park typically provide fewer omega-3 LC-PUFA than those in a forested area.



"This is partly due to the different species composition of these populations, and partly because the biomass is smaller in urban areas: there are also fewer predators like spiders or large beetles, which accumulate LC-PUFA in terrestrial systems," explained Twining.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-use-and-aquatic-ecosystems">Land use and aquatic ecosystems</h2>



What came as a surprise to scientists was that the land use effect is much less pronounced in aquatic communities. 



On land, the differences are more stark if predators like spiders, which accumulate high amounts of essential fatty acids, vanish from the ecosystem, the impact is substantial. "Yet, this does not imply that the diversity of aquatic insects is not equally important," Twining stresses.



Aquatic organisms are crucial sources of fatty acids for terrestrial food webs. In urban areas, where loss of insects and spiders is high due to increased human land use pressure, aquatic insects become an even more important source of essential fatty acids for birds, bats, or lizards. 



But these important "superfoods" are often tainted with pollutants in streams, rivers, and lakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-protecting-biodiversity">Importance of protecting biodiversity </h2>



“Our study shows how important it is to protect biodiversity, especially in agricultural and urban areas, and to improve water quality in order to preserve food webs for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-know-far-less-about-four-footed-animals-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> functioning," said Twining.



The research contributes to the Blue-Green Biodiversity Research Initiative - an Eawag-WSL collaboration focusing on biodiversity at the interface of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.



Funded by the ETH Board, the initiative reminds us why biodiversity is so crucial to the interconnectedness of our natural world.



So, next time you swat away a persistent fly or squash a crawling spider, remember, they're an essential link in the food chain, providing valuable nutrients for a multitude of creatures, including ourselves. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp6198" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Insects provide essential fatty acids to other animals

Life, as we know it, relies on the balance of...

The noses of many mammals, including dogs, ferrets, and cows, display intricate networks of grooves forming polygonal patterns.&nbsp;



Researchers at the University of Geneva have now uncovered how these patterns develop during embryonic growth using advanced 3D imaging and computer simulations.



The study reveals that the differential growth rates between skin tissue layers result in dome-shaped structures that are mechanically supported by underlying blood vessels.&nbsp;



This newly described morphogenetic process could provide insights into the formation of other biological structures that are influenced by blood vessels. The findings have been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.09.055" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-natural-patterns">Exploring natural patterns</h2>



The living world is filled with a wide variety of fascinating shapes and patterns. Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oldest-organisms-ever-discovered-show-dazzling-diversity-and-complexity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organisms</a> are instantly recognizable by their unique designs, such as the stripes on zebras or the spots on cheetahs. 



Even pine cones display characteristic spiral arrangements. These patterns are shaped by different morphogenetic processes, which govern the development of forms during an organism's early stages.



There are two main types of morphogenesis. One involves self-organizing chemical reactions, as described by Alan Turing's reaction-diffusion model, where interacting chemical substances can create consistent patterns like animal stripes or spots.&nbsp;



Another type is influenced by mechanical forces, such as differential growth rates. An example of this is the folding of the human brain's cortex, where the outer layer grows faster than the inner layers, resulting in convolutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-dog-nose-patterns">Formation of dog nose patterns</h2>



Michel Milinkovitch, a professor in the Department of Genetics and Evolution at the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Geneva</a>, and his research team study the developmental mechanisms behind life's diversity. 



“Finding specific examples of beautiful patterns in living organisms is easy. All we have to do is look around us! Our latest study focuses on the noses of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-see-with-their-noses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>, ferrets and cows, which exhibit a singular network of polygonal structures,” he explained.



In particular, the naked skin on the rhinarium - the nose area of many mammals - features a network of grooves that form polygons. These grooves help retain moisture on the nose, aiding in the collection of pheromones and scent molecules.&nbsp;



To better understand how these patterns develop, the Geneva team collaborated with scientists from the <a href="https://www.universite-paris-saclay.fr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University Paris-Saclay</a>, the <a href="https://www.vet-alfort.fr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfort National Veterinary School</a> (EnvA), and the Institute of Neurosciences in Alicante. They collected samples from dog, cow, and ferret embryos for their study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visualizing-dog-noses-in-3d">Visualizing dog noses in 3D</h2>



The researchers used “light sheet fluorescence microscopy” to observe these samples, allowing them to create three-dimensional images of biological structures. 



They found that the polygonal networks of folds in the outer skin layer, or epidermis, appear during embryonic development in all three <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-mammals-live-depends-more-on-climate-than-human-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammal</a> species. 



These epidermal patterns aligned perfectly with a network of stiffer blood vessels in the deeper dermis layer. Additionally, they observed that the cells in the epidermis proliferate more quickly than those in the dermis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-vessels-as-structural-supports">Blood vessels as structural supports</h2>



The research team developed a mathematical model and performed computer simulations to understand this growth process.&nbsp;



The model accounted for the differing growth rates between the epidermis and dermis, their relative stiffness, and the presence of blood vessels in the dermis.&nbsp;



“Our numerical simulations show that the mechanical stress generated by excessive epidermal growth is concentrated at the positions of the underlying vessels, which form rigid support points,” explained study lead author Paule Dagenais, a postdoctoral fellow at UNIGE.



“The epidermal layers are then pushed outwards, forming domes - akin to arches rising against stiff pillars.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-mechanism-in-morphogenesis">New mechanism in morphogenesis</h2>



The findings indicate that in the formation of mammalian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nose</a> patterns, the positioning of polygonal structures in the epidermis is dictated by the layout of rigid blood vessels in the dermis. 



These vessels create local constraints as the epidermis grows, resulting in the formation of grooves and domes at specific sites.&nbsp;



“This is the first time that this mechanism, which we call 'mechanical positional information,' has been described to explain the formation of structures during embryonic development,” said Milinkovitch.&nbsp;



“But we are confident that it will help explain the formation of other biological structures associated to the presence of blood vessels.”



This discovery not only sheds light on the unique patterns seen in mammalian noses but also opens the door to understanding how similar processes might shape other biological forms during development.



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How did dog noses get their unique patterns?

The noses of many mammals, including dogs, ferrets, and cows,...

Rare elephant fossils found in India have illuminated a crucial activity that shaped the survival strategies of our human ancestors - animal butchery. 



Early butchery provides fascinating insights into the history of human evolution. In the late middle Pleistocene period, about 300,000 to 400,000 years ago, a group of ancient elephants died near a river in the Kashmir Valley.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-the-elephant-remains">Discovery of the elephant remains</h2>



The sediment preserved the prehistoric elephant remains for future generations. The scene included 87 stone tools, shining a light on the habits of early humans.



The elephant remains were discovered in 2000 near Pampore, a small town in India. However, the scientists did not know the elephants' cause of death or any possible human involvement. The mysteries surrounding these fossils remained unsolved for two decades.



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a> has recently dug deeper into the history of the bones, unveiling findings that contribute significantly to our understanding of early human life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-butchery-and-elephant-bones">Early butchery and elephant bones</h2>



The researchers discovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-behavior-provides-new-insights-into-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> bone flakes that hint at early humans striking the bones to extract rich, fatty marrow.



This finding represents the first evidence of animal butchery in India and provides insights into the diet and survival strategies of humanity's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-coexisted-with-dinosaurs-yes-according-to-shocking-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestors</a>.



The rarity of the fossils amplifies their significance. They belonged to an extinct elephant genus, Palaeoloxodon, which weighed twice as much as today's African elephants.



Only one other set of bones from this species had been found, making these fossils invaluable due to their completeness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-were-the-hominins">Who were the hominins?</h2>



The term "hominin" refers to modern humans, extinct human species, and all immediate ancestors.



"The question is, who are these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-early-hominins-use-stone-tools-like-chimpanzees-do-today/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominins</a>? What are they doing on the landscape and are they going after big game or not?” said Advait Jukar, a curator of vertebrate paleontology at the Florida Museum.



This question looms large in the paleontology world since the discovery of the Narmada human, the only fossil hominin found in the Indian subcontinent. The remains were discovered on the bank of the&nbsp;Narmada River in 1982.



Considering the Narmada human's intriguing mix of features from older and recent hominin species, early human dispersal in India piqued scientists' curiosity.



“Now we know for sure, at least in the Kashmir Valley, these hominins are eating elephants,” said Jukar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butchery-elephants-and-stone-tools">Butchery, elephants, and stone tools</h2>



Early humans used the basalt <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/400000-year-old-stone-tools-show-technological-adaptations-of-prehistoric-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> found at the Pampore site for marrow extraction.



Basalt is not native to the site's local area, which led the researchers to theorize that early humans brought raw materials in from elsewhere and then shaped them at the site.



The method of construction determined the age of the site and its tools, placing them between 300,000 and 400,000 years old.



Before this find, the first known instance of butchery in India was less than 10,000 years old. The study moves the timeline back considerably.



“It might just be that people haven’t looked closely enough or are sampling in the wrong place,” noted Jukar. “But up until now, there hasn’t been any direct evidence of humans feeding on large animals in India.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-story-of-palaeoloxodon">Story of Palaeoloxodon</h2>



The experts identified the complete specimen found in Pampore as the extinct elephant genus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-skull-found-in-india-adds-a-piece-to-the-evolutionary-puzzle/">Palaeoloxodon Turkmenicus</a>. This type of elephant fossil was discovered only once before.



In the back of the throat, researchers found intact hyoids, which are fragile bones attached to the tongue. Hyoid bones are distinctive between species and helped the experts identify the elephants.



Palaeoloxodon elephants originated in Africa about a million years ago before moving into Eurasia. Unlike living elephant species, Palaeoloxodon was known for its unusually large forehead.



P. turkmenicus showcased an intermediate stage in Palaeoloxodon evolution with an expanded forehead and no crest. This evidence highlighted early butchery practices linked to these elephants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Jukar believes the findings could fill in the story of how the genus migrated and evolved. "You just need a lot more effort to go and find the sites, and you need to essentially survey and collect everything."



This discovery has peeled away a new layer in human history. As researchers continue to explore humans of the past, they begin to understand more about humanity and what it stands to become.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277379124003950" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quaternary Science Reviews</a>.



Image Credit: Chen Yu, University of Helsinki



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Extinct elephant fossils reveal early evidence of animal butchery

Rare elephant fossils found in India have illuminated a crucial...

The Neotropics is one of Earth's richest vessels of biodiversity. It contains a colorful and diverse array of bird species and is home to around 30% of all bird species worldwide. 



Despite the ecological complexity and biodiversity of the region, climate change poses a severe threat to bird diversity in the coming decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unsettling-forecast-for-birds">Unsettling forecast for birds</h2>



Jeff Brawn, co-lead author of a recent study on birds of the Neotropics, is a professor emeritus in the <a href="https://nres.illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences</a> at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign.



“Compared to a more optimistic future precipitation scenario, we predict the ‘business-as-usual’ scenario will be potentially catastrophic for resident forest birds in the Neotropics,” said Brawn, noting that birds are just one part of a larger picture.



"We're just using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> as an illustration. We will likely see similar threats for mammals, reptiles, amphibians, arthropods, fungi, and plants. And the implications for agriculture are not insignificant either."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-scenarios-for-the-neotropics">Climate scenarios for the Neotropics </h2>



Brawn's team, including Professor David Luther from George Mason University (GMU) and Rong Fu from UCLA, predicted precipitation changes under two climate scenarios in the Neotropics by 2100.



The business-as-usual scenario, known as SSP-8.5, paints a grim future where greenhouse gas emissions continue unabated. 



On the other hand, the SSP-2.6 scenario represents an optimistic view where aggressive climate action leads to the transition to a low-carbon economy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-ranges-and-climate-challenges">Bird ranges and climate challenges</h2>



The team investigated how bird ranges overlap with climate issues by mapping predicted changes in dry season lengths across the Neotropics and overlaying the distribution of 3,000 forest bird species.



"We were able to say where the dry season is going to get longer or shorter, and to what extent, and how many species currently living in those places will be affected," explained Luther.



The SSP-8.5 scenario is discouraging. It projects that dry seasons will be extended by at least 5% across three-quarters of Neotropical lowland forests, impacting 2,000 species of resident birds. 



By contrast, only 90 bird species face longer dry seasons in the SSP-2.6 scenario, where just 10% of lowland forests become drier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-dry-seasons-in-the-neotropics">Longer dry seasons in the Neotropics </h2>



Longer dry seasons due to climate change could have far-reaching implications for tropical ecosystems and bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-behavior-productivity-being-directly-impacted-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species distributions</a>. 



"Think of a closed canopy rainforest. If it gets too dry, there's going to be a threshold where it'll open up and become a savannah,” Brawn said.



For Luther, the maps highlight areas of relative stability. "If we're going to plan future conservation efforts, we should put extra effort into those areas because they're less likely to dry out."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-deforestation">Climate change and deforestation</h2>



Despite the unsettling findings on the loss of bird diversity and ecosystems, the team believes the study paints a "rosy picture" as it doesn't account for the impact of deforestation from climate change. Therefore, the reality of the situation is even more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-species-are-shifting-their-habitats-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">critical</a>.



“If there's fewer trees, it's hotter and drier,” Brawn said. “Unfortunately, thousands of hectares of tropical forest disappear every year."



The researchers hope these alarming insights expedite policy action. However, climate policy is just one piece of a larger puzzle.



The good news? "These are all things we can solve, if we choose to. We can do the right thing," Luther said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-birds-in-the-neotropics">Saving birds in the Neotropics </h2>



The complex challenges facing the Neotropics demand a concerted and multi-disciplinary approach.



Researchers, conservationists, policymakers, and local communities must collaborate to implement sustainable solutions. Integrated strategies that combine scientific research with traditional ecological knowledge provide the most effective avenues for positive change.



Efforts to preserve biodiversity must consider the socioeconomic realities of the region, ensuring economically viable and culturally inclusive conservation initiatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technological-innovations">Technological innovations</h2>



Technological advancements play a role in addressing environmental and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-birds-can-handle-climate-variability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate challenges</a>. Remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) technologies enable more precise monitoring of ecosystem changes and effective conservation planning.



Moreover, advancements in renewable energy and sustainable agricultural practices offer opportunities to mitigate the impact of climate change.



Brawn and his colleagues advocate for harnessing these technologies. They argue adopting innovative tools empowers communities and helps safeguard the Neotropics biodiversity.



Humanity stands at the crossroads of a monumental decision. Will it transition towards a world of mitigated carbon emission and preserve the ecology of places like the Neotropics or continue on a path of unbridled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-records-shatter-2024-set-to-be-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> change, risking thousands of bird species?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.17544" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Hundreds of bird species face extinction risks in the Neotropics

The Neotropics is one of Earth's richest vessels of biodiversity....

Mighty polar bears, the iconic symbols of Arctic snow and ice landscapes, are developing a peculiar problem. It's not the lack of food or the shrinking ice caps -- these are well-known, and devastating, problems.



No, it's something entirely unexpected and strangely ironic for a creature at home in the ice and snow -- buildup of painful "iceballs" stuck on between the toes and on the bottoms of polar bears' feet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-icy-polar-bear-paws">Icy polar bear paws</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> recently discovered lacerations, hair loss, ice buildup and skin ulcerations primarily affecting the feet of adult polar bears, and other parts of their bodies.



Some even had ice blocks up to a foot (30 centimeters) in diameter stuck to their foot pads, leading to deep bleeding cuts that impaired their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-struggling-to-survive-longer-summers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ability to walk</a>. 



This bizarre phenomenon was first documented in a study published the journal Ecology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-response-to-climate-change">Unexpected response to climate change</h2>



The researchers, in their quest to understand this strange occurrence, propose a few theories. 



They suggest that the transition from a chronically below-freezing climate to one riddled with unpredictable freeze-thaw cycles is to blame for the icing injuries.



“In addition to the anticipated responses to climate change for polar bears, there are going to be other, unexpected responses,” said lead author&nbsp;<a href="https://environment.uw.edu/faculty/kristin-laidre/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kristin Laidre</a>, a senior principal scientist at the UW Applied Physics Laboratory and a professor in the UW School of Aquatic and Fishery sciences. 



“As strange as it sounds, with climate warming there are more frequent freeze-thaw cycles with more wet snow, and this leads to ice buildup on polar bears’ paws.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polar-bear-feet-covered-in-ice-balls">Polar bear feet covered in ice balls</h2>



Kristin Laidre and co-author Stephen Atkinson undertook a decade-long study, from 2012 to 2022, of two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-confirms-direct-link-between-polar-bear-survival-and-harmful-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bear populations</a> living above 70 degrees north latitude.



In the Kane Basin population, nestled between Canada and Greenland, they found evidence of icing-related injuries in 31 of the 61 polar bears observed. 



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-transformation-ice-melt-plant-growth-vegetation-cascading-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East Greenland</a>, the second population under observation, 15 of the 124 polar bears exhibited similar injuries.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/polar-bears_arctic_iceballs_paws_feet_credit-Kristin-Laidre-UWashington_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/polar-bears_arctic_iceballs_paws_feet_credit-Kristin-Laidre-UWashington_1s.webp" alt="This photo shows the rear paws of a polar bear temporarily sedated for research in East Greenland in 2022. The bear has large chunks of ice frozen onto its feet, which the researchers removed. It is one of two polar bears showing this type of buildup, which appears to be a new phenomenon affecting some polar bears in the Far North. Credit: Kristin Laidre/University of Washington" class="wp-image-1948280"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This photo shows the rear paws of a polar bear temporarily sedated for research in East Greenland in 2022. The bear has large chunks of ice frozen onto its feet, which the researchers removed. It is one of two polar bears showing this type of buildup, which appears to be a new phenomenon affecting some polar bears in the Far North. Credit: Kristin Laidre/University of Washington</figcaption></figure>



Two bears in particular from separate locations in Greenland in 2022 had massive ice balls stuck to their feet. 



“I'd never seen that before,” Laidre said. “The two most affected bears couldn't run -- they couldn't even walk very easily. When immobilizing them for research, we very carefully removed the ice balls."



"The chunks of ice weren't just caught up in the hair. They were sealed to the skin, and when you palpated the feet it was apparent that the bears were in pain.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recent-phenomenon">Recent phenomenon</h2>



Researchers, alongside Indigenous subsistence hunters, have been monitoring these two polar bear populations since the '90s. 



However, they have never reported these types of injuries before, indicating it is a recent, and worrying, phenomenon.



Polar bears, adept at navigating icy terrains, have small bumps on their foot pads that provide grip on slippery surfaces. 



These bumps, larger than those on other bear species, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-some-black-bears-actually-brown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brown and black bears</a>, ironically makes it easier for wet snow to freeze and accumulate on their paws. 



This problem, interestingly, is also prevalent amongst sled dogs in the north, as well as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/meet-the-newfoundland-dog-everyones-favorite-bear-dog/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Newfoundland dogs</a> in the Rockies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-the-polar-bear-ice-balls-mystery">Solving the polar bear ice balls mystery</h2>



Laidre and her colleagues hypothesize three possible reasons for the increasing ice buildup -- all linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-warming-four-times-faster-than-global-average/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate warming</a>. 



The first is more rain-on-snow events creating moist, slushy snow that clumps onto their paws, which then freezes solid once temperatures drop.



The second possibility is frequent warm spells causing surface snow to melt and refreeze into a hard crust. The heavy polar bears break through the ice crust, injuring their paws on its sharp edges.



Finally, both populations inhabit "fast ice," areas connected to the land where freshwater glaciers meet the ocean. 



Warming in these environments leads to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-new-clues-about-rapid-arctic-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thinner sea ice</a>, which allows seawater to infiltrate the snow. This damp snow then freezes onto the bears' feet, causing injuries.



However, both populations seldom swim long distances in spring, which would help thaw and dislodge any accumulated ice from their feet, due to the warmer water temperature compared to the air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unknown-consequences">Unknown consequences</h2>



While the bears are undoubtedly affected by this new challenge, the researchers are wary about drawing broader conclusions about the overall health of the two populations. 



“We’ve seen these icing-related injuries on individual polar bears,” Laidre said. “But I would hesitate to jump to conclusions about how this might affect them at a population level. We really don’t know.”



There is no doubt that the surface of Arctic sea ice is transforming as the climate changes and temperatures continue rising.



"The sea ice has less snow in late spring and summer, and the snow that does exist is experiencing earlier, episodic melt and more frequent rain. All these things can create challenging surface conditions for polar bears to travel on," adds fellow researcher Melinda Webster.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-knowledge-and-action">Bridging knowledge and action</h2>



The new data on polar bears presents a clear call-to-action for the scientific community and policymakers alike. 



As this newly emerged issue of ice balls on polar bears' feet demonstrates the more nuanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iss-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impacts of climate change</a>, it is vital that comprehensive research continues to predict and uncover other unforeseen consequences.



Collaborative efforts among scientists, indigenous communities, and governments are necessary to develop mitigation strategies that can help protect these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-conservation-leaps-forward-with-new-tracking-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emblematic creatures</a>.



By sharing indigenous knowledge and integrating it with cutting-edge scientific research, there lies a hopeful path toward addressing these complex climate challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions">Future directions</h2>



Looking forward, researchers acknowledge the imperative need for a more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-observation-technology-will-transform-climate-monitoring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robust climate monitoring</a> framework across the Arctic. 



This involves deploying advanced technologies such as satellite imagery and drone surveillance to observe environmental changes continuously.



Furthermore, expanding interdisciplinary research, which unites climatology, ecology, and data science, can yield refined <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-models-underestimate-sea-ice-melt-and-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predictive models</a>. 



By interpreting these dynamic climate patterns more accurately, scientists can better anticipate ecological impacts and propose timely interventions.



Current discoveries, like those outlined by Kristin Laidre and her colleagues, pave the way for these future endeavors, ensuring that the Arctic's ecological tapestry is preserved for generations to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-polar-bears-feet-from-ice-balls">Saving polar bears feet from ice balls</h2>



When asked what might be done to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-conservation-leaps-forward-with-new-tracking-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">help these magnificent creatures</a>, Laidre has a succinct response: “We can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and try to limit climate warming.”



With the Arctic warming at twice the rate of the global average, this unexpected and worrying ailment faced by the polar bears serves as a stark reminder of the far-reaching effects of climate change. 



The damage, it appears, reaches far beyond what we can see and predict. It's another urgent call to action for us to tread more lightly on this beautiful planet we call home.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.4435" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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Polar bears are suffering from painful 'ice balls' stuck on their feet

Mighty polar bears, the iconic symbols of Arctic snow and...

International Snow Leopard Day is celebrated each year on October 23 to raise awareness about the importance of protecting these endangered cats and their habitats.&nbsp;



Snow leopards, native to the mountains of Central and South Asia, are facing intense threats from habitat loss, poaching, and declining prey populations due to human activity.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honoring-the-king-of-the-jungle-on-world-lion-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">big cats</a> are classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Their population is estimated to be between 3,500 to 7,000 individuals in the wild, though precise numbers are difficult to determine due to their elusive nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-ghosts-nbsp">Mountain ghosts&nbsp;</h2>



Snow leopards are often called the "ghosts of the mountains" because of their ability to blend into their rocky surroundings. They are incredibly difficult to spot in the wild.



The mountain cats are powerful jumpers, capable of leaping up to 50 feet (15 meters) in a single bound. This ability helps them navigate steep, rocky mountain terrain and catch prey.



Their thick, grayish-white fur provides excellent camouflage against the snow and rocks of their habitat. Their long, bushy tail helps with balance and can also wrap around their bodies for warmth during cold nights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-lifestyle-of-snow-leopards">Extreme lifestyle of snow leopards </h2>



Snow leopards live in some of the world’s highest and harshest environments. They are typically found at elevations between 9,800 and 17,000 feet in the mountain ranges of Central and South Asia, including the Himalayas.



Snow leopards are solitary and secretive animals, preferring to roam vast territories on their own. They are most active at dawn and dusk, and communicate mainly through scent marks and vocalizations.



These big cats rely on their stealth and patience to hunt prey such as blue sheep, ibex, and other mountain animals. They can stalk prey from as far as 200 feet away before making their move.



Unlike most big cats, snow leopards do not roar. They communicate with other sounds, such as growls, hisses, meows, and a unique call known as a "chuff."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-importance-of-snow-leopards-nbsp">Ecological importance of snow leopards&nbsp;</h2>



Snow leopards play a crucial role in maintaining the health and balance of their habitats. By protecting them, we can help to safeguard entire ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-prey-populations-nbsp">Controlling prey populations&nbsp;</h3>



As top <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-the-carnivores-that-eat-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>, snow leopards regulate the populations of herbivores such as ibex, blue sheep, and other mountain animals. 



By controlling these prey populations, the leopards prevent overgrazing, which could otherwise lead to the degradation of vegetation and soil erosion in fragile mountain environments.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-plants-and-other-animals-nbsp">Supporting plants and other animals&nbsp;</h3>



Snow leopards indirectly support plant diversity by keeping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-with-high-body-temperatures-often-become-herbivores/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivore</a> populations in check. This helps maintain a balanced ecosystem where various species of plants, insects, and animals can thrive, contributing to overall biodiversity in the region.



When the cats make a kill, they often leave behind remains that are consumed by scavengers like vultures, wolves, and smaller carnivores. This supports the wider ecosystem by providing a food source for other species.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indicator-species">Indicator species</h3>



Snow leopards serve as an indicator species, meaning their presence and well-being reflect the overall health of the high-altitude ecosystems they inhabit. 



Healthy populations of these wild cats suggest that their mountain ecosystems, including prey species and vegetation, are also in good condition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symbols-of-strength-nbsp">Symbols of strength&nbsp;</h2>



In some Central Asian cultures, snow leopards are viewed as symbols of strength, independence, and mysticism due to their rarity and resilience in the harsh mountain landscape.



The cats' ability to adapt to a rapidly changing environment, including human encroachment and climate change, further reinforces their symbolic strength. They have the remarkable capacity to endure and persist despite shrinking habitats and threats from poaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-international-snow-leopard-day-nbsp">International Snow Leopard Day&nbsp;</h2>



International Snow Leopard Day was established in 2013, following the adoption of the <a href="https://globalsnowleopard.org/bishkek-declaration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bishkek Declaration</a>.&nbsp;



For this initiative, 12 countries that host snow leopard populations - Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan - agreed to collaborate in their conservation efforts.



The countries set a goal to secure at least 20 healthy snow leopard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-ecosystems-are-in-urgent-need-of-protection/">ecosystems</a> by the year 2020, ensuring the species' survival in the wild and the integrity of the environments they inhabit.



The Bishkek Declaration highlights the importance of international cooperation and community involvement in conserving snow leopards and their habitats.



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Snow Leopard Day 2024: Honoring the elusive mountain ghost

International Snow Leopard Day is celebrated each year on October...

Recent research into how dinosaurs managed to run on their massive body frames has helped scientists gain a better understanding of how the act of "running" evolved in animals over time.



Let's travel back 106 million years, to a time when small, feathered dinosaurs roamed the Earth. This new study suggests that these little creatures were pulling off some impressive stunts using their wings, even without the capability to fly.



The research team focused on a fossil trackway found in South Korea. This preserved slice of history belonged to a dinosaur the size of a sparrow. 



What makes this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alpkarakush-kyrgyzicus-new-dinosaur-was-t-rex-cousin-has-protruding-eyebrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric path</a> so interesting is how it demonstrates the dinosaur used a unique "flap-running" technique to achieve impressive speeds.



What is this "flap-running"? Imagine the quick scuttle and fluttering of a domestic fowl. Except, picture this taking place millions of years ago in a dinosaur about the size of your hand!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-flap-running-with-wings">Dinosaurs flap-running with wings</h2>



These findings challenge the traditional view of evolution. Previously, it was thought that flight evolved in a linear process, from gliding to powered flight. 



This new discovery highlights the complexity and adaptability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/qunkasaura-pintiquiniestra-new-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered-in-spain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird ancestors</a>, demonstrating that wing usage played a crucial role in locomotion before the actual evolution of flight.



Moreover, the findings also enrich our understanding of extinct species' biomechanics and their transition from ground-dwelling to flight-capable creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-locomotion">Unique locomotion</h2>



“With this new find, we’ve demonstrated these really tiny, feathered dinosaurs were using their wings for a kind of locomotion only seen in birds today,” said <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> Biology Professor Hans Larsson.



It seems these ancient creatures were up to something innovative that modern birds have carried forward into the present.



The study was spearheaded by Alex Dececchi at <a href="https://dsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dakota State University</a> in the United States and Michael Pittman at The Chinese University of Hong Kong (<a href="https://www.cuhk.edu.hk/english/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CUHK</a>)’s School of Life Sciences. 



Together, with a team of researchers from South Korea and the U.S., they have given us a fascinating glimpse into the past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-flap-running">Dinosaurs flap-running</h2>



The revelation of flap-running provides a nuanced understanding of the evolutionary trajectory of avian flight. 



It suggests that flight did not emerge from a straightforward set of innovations but through a series of complex adaptations.



The ability to flap-run would have offered these tiny theropods a survival advantage, enabling rapid escape from predators and efficient movement across varied terrains. 



In this context, the evolutionary path appears to be more of a branching process with multiple explorations, highlighting the adaptability and resourcefulness of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-with-huge-blade-like-horns-discovered-in-montana/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric creatures</a> in an ever-changing environment. 



This discovery invites further exploration into the transitional forms and intermediary behaviors that punctuated the rise of avian flight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-avian-flight">Modern avian flight</h2>



The study's insights extend beyond paleontological curiosity, offering implications for modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-pterosaur-flight-soaring-vs-flapping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">avian flight mechanics</a>.



Understanding how these ancient winged dinosaurs utilized their wings not only informs us about their evolutionary past but also potentially reveals aspects of contemporary bird flight we may not fully grasp. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/dinosaur_Dromaeosauriformipes-rarus_wings_running_credit-Alex-Boersma-PNAS_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/dinosaur_Dromaeosauriformipes-rarus_wings_running_credit-Alex-Boersma-PNAS_1s.webp" alt="Illustrated reconstruction of Dromaeosauriformipes rarus running along the muddy shore of an ancient lake. Credit: Alex Boersma/PNAS" class="wp-image-1948266"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustrated reconstruction of Dromaeosauriformipes rarus running along the muddy shore of an ancient lake. Credit: Alex Boersma/PNAS</figcaption></figure>



Modern birds, from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-benefit-from-social-networks-during-migration/">songbirds</a> to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-decline-of-african-raptors-linked-to-multiple-pressures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">raptors</a>, exhibit a range of flight techniques and efficiencies that could trace their origins back to these primal movements.



By studying these ancestral techniques, scientists can gain a more comprehensive understanding of avian physiology and biomechanics, ultimately enriching our knowledge of biodiversity and the intricacies of life on our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-fossil-trackways">Insights from fossil trackways</h2>



Examining fossilized trackways offers a unique window into understanding the locomotive behaviors of ancient creatures. 



The specific trackway discovered in South Korea not only illuminates the movement strategies of these small theropods but also sheds light on the environments they inhabited.



By analyzing the substrate and patterns of the preserved footprints, scientists can infer details about the gait and speed of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feathered-dinosaurs-had-scaly-skin-like-modern-day-lizards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathered dinosaurs</a>. 



Such insights help reconstruct ecological contexts, indicating whether these dinosaurs traversed swampy landscapes, forested areas, or open plains.



This broader environmental understanding is critical in piecing together the intricate puzzle of prehistoric ecosystems and their dynamic interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-flap-running-of-dinosaurs">Learning from flap-running of dinosaurs</h2>



The revelation of flap-running in small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theropods</a> prompts a reevaluation of other similar adaptations in the paleobiological record.



This research underscores the importance of revisiting fossil evidence with a fresh perspective, as even minute details can revolutionize our understanding of evolutionary processes. 



Furthermore, these findings highlight the interconnectedness of survival strategies across different species, suggesting that analogous adaptations may have arisen independently in various lineages. 



The implication is a call for interdisciplinary collaboration to explore these complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-are-helping-astronomers-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary narratives</a>, integrating paleontology, biomechanics, and environmental science to unravel life's historical tapestry. 



Through such a comprehensive approach, we can better appreciate the diversity and ingenuity present in the natural world both in ancient times and today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next">What’s next?</h2>



This research opens up a new avenue of inquiry about the origins of bird flight. It is a clear illustration that evolution isn't always a straightforward process, and complex adaptations can occur, even in the tiniest of creatures.



Indeed, the journey of a thousand miles (or in this case, millions of years) starts with just a single step. Or perhaps, a fascinating flap-run!



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2413810121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS)</a>.



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Feathered dinosaurs used wings to run, not fly, in what's now called 'flap-running'

Recent research into how dinosaurs managed to run on their...

The amphibian world, home to fascinating creatures like frogs and toads, is hanging by a thread. These anurans are facing an uncertain future, all thanks to our ever-warming planet, which is drying out frog and toad habitats.



In a recent paper, an international team of researchers paints a stark picture of the struggles ahead for these creatures, pointing to their rapidly disappearing habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-an-invisible-thief">Climate change: An invisible thief</h2>



As we broach this topic, let's understand why we're even discussing a 2.7°C increase in global temperature by the century's end. This seemingly small figure can make big waves, leading to transformations in our climate and ecosystems that are anything but small.



With climate change running amok, many amphibians face a significant threat. The researchers raise a red flag towards the loss of water in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-addressing-environmental-threats-to-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anuran</a> habitats.



Less water means that these habitats may shrink or vanish completely. With the impacts of deforestation, fungal outbreaks, pollution, and warming temperatures, amphibians have their share of problems, and this situation simply adds to the pile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-change-in-frog-and-toad-habitats">Change in frog and toad habitats</h2>



The researchers set out to predict which and how many of these watery havens might suffer due to drought. Now, you might wonder why this is such a big deal.



Frogs and toads require moisture to breathe. No water, no air, no frogs - it's as simple, and as heartbreaking, as that.



To make these predictions, the team got down to business using a range of tools to map out potential drought-prone areas across the globe. They also took into account factors like ecosystem sensitivity to drought and anticipated behavioral changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wood-frogs-achieved-significant-biological-evolution-25-years-salt-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different climate scenarios</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parched-future-for-amphibians">Parched future for amphibians </h2>



From all this rigorous research, what emerges is a bleak scenario. The findings suggest that by 2100, between 7% and 30% of current frog and toad habitats could be so dry that our amphibious friends can't survive there anymore. 



Furthermore, between 15% and 36% of these areas may face drought due to regular heatwaves.



It seems that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-a-third-eye-for-direct-light-sensing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anurans</a> can't catch a break. They're likely to keep confronting escalating risks as ecosystems continue to fall prey to human encroachment. Pollution isn’t likely to let up anytime soon either. 



Plus, toads and frogs have the specter of natural threats, such as spreading fungal infections, to contend with.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-the-habitats-of-frogs">Saving the habitats of frogs</h2>



The dire predictions outlined in the study demand an urgent response. Conservation efforts must be intensified to safeguard the future of these vulnerable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seven-new-tree-frogs-named-after-star-trek-captains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a>.



Key strategies include habitat restoration, reinforcing legal protections, and developing scientific action plans that mitigate the impact of climate threats. Initiatives such as creating amphibian sanctuaries and promoting biodiversity-friendly agriculture can help preserve the delicate ecosystems these animals depend on. 



Cross-disciplinary collaboration among scientists, policymakers, and communities is crucial to implementing effective measures. 



By enhancing public awareness and education on the importance of amphibians, we can galvanize collective action, ensuring these fascinating organisms continue to thrive alongside us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-ecosystem-shifts">Broader ecosystem shifts</h2>



The repercussions of declining anuran populations extend beyond the amphibians themselves, indicating broader shifts within ecosystems. Frogs and toads play pivotal roles in their habitats, acting as both predators and prey. 



Their presence helps control insect populations, reducing the spread of vector-borne diseases, and their absence could disrupt the intricate food web balance. Amphibians also serve as environmental indicators; their declining numbers signal broader ecological distress. 



This cascading effect poses significant challenges for conservationists and highlights the urgency of addressing climate change impacts holistically.



Protecting anurans is, therefore, more than an act of preservation; it is a crucial step in maintaining the health and stability of our global ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taking-action-for-amphibians">Taking action for amphibians</h2>



Stepping back, it's clear - the amphibian world is teetering on the brink. Will we allow their symphony of croaks to be silenced forever? Or can we take a moment to consider our actions and their implications for these creatures?



The choice is ours to make. After all, it's not just about the habitats of frogs and toads. It's about the delicate balance of our shared world and our responsibility to protect it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-024-02167-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Frogs and toads face new risks as their habitats dry up

The amphibian world, home to fascinating creatures like frogs and...

There's a new heavyweight in town, and no, we're not talking about the next boxing champion. It's the alcohol-loving Oriental hornet, an insect that can go head to head - or should we say drink for drink - with the best of us.



In a recent study, a group of behavioral ecologists, zoologists, and crop protection experts from Tel Aviv University have found that these buzz-worthy insects have the highest-known tolerance to alcohol in the animal kingdom.



"Ethanol, a natural by-product of sugar fermentation, can be found in various fruits and nectar. Although many animals routinely consume ethanol in low concentrations as part of their natural diets, its inherent toxicity can cause severe damage," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oriental-hornets-and-alcohol">Oriental hornets and alcohol </h2>



Fermented foods like cheese, bread, and some fruits naturally produce alcohol as they break down. While eating rotten fruit may sound unpleasant to us, it’s a normal part of the Oriental hornet's diet. 



How does this insect eat ethanol-rich food without acting drunkenly? Scientists in Israel found that these insects aren't just a little bit tolerant to alcohol, they're practically teetotalers. 



Even after consuming foods with a whopping 20% ethanol content, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hornets-are-the-most-important-pollinators-for-some-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hornets</a> showed no signs of drunkenness.



What happens when they have the equivalent of an 80-proof meal? A very brief period of slight tipsiness, then they sober up and fly off as if nothing happened. For comparison, a fruit fly would likely die from consuming such levels of alcohol.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-sobriety">Science behind sobriety</h2>



The mystery of the Oriental hornet's impressive alcohol tolerance lies within its unique physiological mechanisms. Research indicates that the hornet's liver-equivalent organs have potent enzymes specifically adapted to metabolize alcohol efficiently. 



These enzymes break down ethanol at a rapid rate, significantly reducing its intoxicating effects. This evolutionary trait serves an ecological advantage, allowing hornets to exploit food sources that other animals may shy away from due to high alcohol content. 



Additionally, the hornet's robust nervous system seems less prone to alcohol-induced impairment, ensuring that their survival activities, such as foraging and defending their nests, remain unaffected even after feasting on fermented delicacies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-alcohol-diets-of-hornets">High-alcohol diets of hornets</h2>



Adaptations to a high-alcohol diet have significant ecological implications for the Oriental hornet. Living in environments where naturally fermenting fruits are abundant, these hornets have carved a specialized ecological niche for themselves. 



Their ability to consume alcohol-rich foods without adverse effects reduces competition for resources, as few other species can tolerate such levels of ethanol. 



Moreover, by consuming overripe fruits, hornets contribute to the cycling of nutrients and seed dispersal in their habitats, playing a critical role in maintaining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/streetlights-make-tree-leaves-too-tough-for-insects-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological balance</a>. 



Their alcohol tolerance might also offer insight into avenues for pest control strategies, utilizing their unique dietary preferences while safeguarding crops from destruction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-that-support-alcohol-tolerance">Genes that support alcohol tolerance</h2>



Remember when your biology teacher explained how genes work? Well, everything you learned about genetics goes hand in hand with why Oriental hornets can handle their alcohol so well.



Upon closer examination, researchers discovered that these hornets are packing some heavy-duty genetic artillery. Multiple copies of a gene known as alcohol dehydrogenase are present in their DNA. 



This gene is directly involved in breaking down alcohol in the body, which explains why these hornets can drink up without any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-ants-art-science-sustainable-food-source-ant-cuisine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adverse effects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-breakdown-by-oriental-hornets">Alcohol breakdown by Oriental hornets</h2>



The brewer's yeast, which ferments and produces ethanol, has a symbiotic relationship with the hornets. They live and reproduce in the hornet's intestines, aiding in alcohol breakdown, and in return, the hornets help the yeast to spread.



The research team was led by several scientists from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a> in Israel. These experts specialize in behavioral ecology, zoology, and crop protection.



The study has garnered the attention and respect of the scientific community for its pioneering research on the relationship between the Oriental hornet and alcohol tolerance.



Next time you find a hornet feasting on your overripe fruit, you might just pause and marvel at nature's unexpected boozy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-invasion-yellow-legged-hornet-spotted-in-the-u-s-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">champions</a>. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410874121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.</a>



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Oriental hornets have the highest alcohol tolerance of any animal

There's a new heavyweight in town, and no, we're not...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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