A team in central China has done something simple and bold, they directly dated dinosaur eggs instead of the rocks around them. The eggshell calcite from the Qinglongshan site yielded an age of 85.91 ± 1.74 million years.



This matters because it turns eggs from interesting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">fossils</a> into reliable timestamps for life on land during the Late Cretaceous, a time of shifting climates and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-eggshells-dated">Dinosaur eggshells dated</h2>



The fossils come from Qinglongshan in the Yunyang Basin of Hubei Province, where thousands of intact eggs rest in stacked layers with little distortion.&nbsp;



“We show that these dinosaur eggs were deposited roughly 85 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous period,” said <a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/3140051/overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Bi Zhao</a>, from the Hubei Institute of Geosciences (<a href="https://en.cug.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HIG</a>).



The group used carbonate <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/zircon-u-pb-dating" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U-Pb dating</a> on eggshell material, measuring uranium and lead atoms to calculate time since the shell formed. 



In their tests, the radiogenic signal sits in biogenic calcite, the carbonate built by the egg-laying animal, which behaved as a semi-closed system for uranium uptake after burial.



The <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2025.1638838/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> relied on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/laser-ablation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laser ablation</a>, a micro laser that vaporizes pinpoint spots of carbonate which are then analyzed by a mass spectrometer for uranium and lead ratios.&nbsp;



The resulting age is not from ash fall or nearby minerals, it is from the eggshell itself, which frees researchers from indirect age constraints that can mislead if volcanic layers formed earlier or later than the nest horizon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-carbonate-u-pb-works">How carbonate U-Pb works</h2>



Uranium isotopes in carbonates decay into lead at known, constant rates, and the proportion of parent to daughter isotopes reveals elapsed time. 



Cross checks, like repeated spots in different shell areas and agreement between fragments, keep the numbers honest, and the reported uncertainty of ± 1.74 million years reflects instrument precision and sample scatter, not guesswork.



Indirect <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1367912012005019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approaches</a> have anchored many Asian egg sites by dating interbedded tuffs, for example zircon based SIMS ages from the Tiantai Basin that bracket egg layers in the Laijia and Chichengshan formations at roughly 96 to 99 million years and 91 to 94 million years. 



That prior dating set a framework that eggshell ages can now refine where ash is missing.



Carbonate geochronology has matured fast, with careful comparisons between uranium thorium and U-Pb techniques on the same samples showing strong consistency over wide timescales. 



That broader look at geochronology <a href="https://gchron.copernicus.org/articles/7/335/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methods</a> helps explain why a tiny eggshell can carry a credible age.



The study team also separated signals, finding consistent ages from biogenic carbonates, and noisy or unusable signals from late pore filling calcite, a reminder that not all carbonates are equal for keeping time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-eggshell-site">Dinosaur eggshell site</h2>



The Qinglongshan reserve preserves egg clutches in red siltstones and sandstones, with many eggs still three dimensional and minimally deformed, a rare condition that helps both taphonomy and dating. 



The sampled clutch belonged to an oblate style of egg typical of the family <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Dendrobatidae/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dendroolithidae</a>, which is known for highly porous shells.



Those Yunyang eggs have been assigned to Placoolithus tumiaolingensis by <a href="https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app63/app005232018.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> that cleaned up the taxonomy and emphasized the diagnostic shell microstructure. That classification anchors the site in a broader Chinese record of dendroolithid eggs.



Porous eggshell architecture affects gas exchange and incubation, and the microstructure varies in ways that may reflect nesting style in a semi arid fluvial landscape. 



The new age puts those choices in a tight slice of time, late Coniacian to early Santonian, rather than a vague Late Cretaceous window.



Thousands of eggs across stacked horizons also open the door to building a basin scale timeline where shell ages from different levels track local ecological change, sedimentation rates, and any shifts in the nesting fauna.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-eggs_dating-method_china_credit-Bi-Zhao_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-eggs_dating-method_china_credit-Bi-Zhao_1s.webp" alt="Egg clutch sampled for chronological studies. Credit Dr. Bi Zhao" class="wp-image-1985991"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Egg clutch sampled for chronological studies. Click image to enlarge. Credit Dr. Bi Zhao</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-climate-context">Dinosaur climate context</h2>



Marine records indicate the Late Cretaceous did not stay uniformly hot. 



One North Atlantic sea surface temperature <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24937202/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record</a> shows a drop of about 7 degrees Celsius (12.6 degrees Fahrenheit), from around 35 degrees to below 28 degrees, between the earliest Campanian and the Maastrichtian.



Independent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18187651/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> from oxygen isotopes suggests brief glaciation episodes punctuated parts of the mid Cretaceous greenhouse, showing that climate could swing even when the world was generally warm. 



Inland Asia would have felt those shifts in precipitation, seasonality, and vegetation.



Pinned ages on terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">fossils</a> let scientists ask tighter questions about whether nesting density changed across cooler intervals or whether certain egg types rose or fell with climate. 



The eggshell ages at Qinglongshan now give one fixed point for such tests, and more layers can add the sequence needed to see patterns.



Cause and effect claims are premature at a single site, but a direct eggshell chronology makes it practical to compare neighboring basins and see whether bird and non avian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-sized-baby-dinosaur-unearthed-after-166-million-years/">dinosaur</a> nesting moved, paused, or persisted during regional climate transitions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next</h2>



The team plans to sample eggs from additional horizons at Qinglongshan, then from basins to the north and south, to build a regional timeline that can be compared with dated marine and volcanic records. 



That will clarify which changes are local quirks and which ones reflect broader environmental forcing across East Asia.



Applying the same protocol to eggs in the Xixia, Jiaolai, and Nanxiong basins would close large age gaps where ash beds are absent. 



Those basins have different egg assemblages, so a uniform clock could test migration ideas and turnover hypotheses without assuming rock ages transfer cleanly between sites.



Direct dinosaur eggshell dating also complements existing zircon frameworks rather than replacing them, since both tools answer different parts of the age question. 



Zircons pin eruptive or depositional moments for ash, while eggshells date the biological event of nesting, and together they can resolve the tempo of life on land.



With better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">timescales</a>, small details like pore geometry, clutch spacing, and shell thickness will be tied to environmental context, not guesswork. 



That is how a few careful ages can turn a crowded egg hillside into a precise chronicle of Late Cretaceous life in central China.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2025.1638838/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>.



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These dinosaur eggs tell an incredible story from 85 million years ago

A team in central China has done something simple and bold, they directly dated dinosaur eggs instead of the rocks around them. The eggshell calcite from the Qinglongshan site yielded an age of 85.91 ± 1.74 million years. This matters because it turns eggs from interesting fossils into reliable timestamps for life on land during the Late Cretaceous, a time of shifting climates and ecosystems. Dinosaur eggshells dated The fossils come from Qinglongshan in the Yunyang Basin of Hubei Province, where thousands of intact eggs rest in...

Parrots, renowned for their vibrant colors and remarkable imitative abilities, are increasingly targeted by illegal wildlife trade operations. A forensic project led by scientists at The Australian National University (<a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANU</a>) aims to bring perpetrators to justice, protect parrots, and safeguard global health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-toolkit-to-track-illegal-parrot-trade">DNA toolkit to track illegal parrot trade</h2>



Dr. George Olah, chief investigator at the ANU Fenner School of Environment and Society, is leading the development of a comprehensive DNA database designed to revolutionize parrot conservation efforts. 



This database, drawing inspiration from INTERPOL's I-Familia (which utilizes kinship matching to identify missing persons), will provide authorities with the scientific tools necessary to dismantle illegal trafficking networks.



“This research project is like CSI, but for parrots,” said Dr Olah. “For traded wildlife, we don’t yet have a widely used DNA database like the one INTERPOL is using, for instance, to identify missing persons through international police cooperation. Once we have it, we can analyse the trade network, showing which birds are coming from which islands." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-illegal-parrot-trade">Identifying illegal parrot trade</h2>



The innovative process involves:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sample-collection">Sample collection</h3>



Scientists will focus on parrot species classified as threatened or endangered, such as the iconic Yellow-crested Cockatoo or the vibrantly colored Sumba Eclectus.



To minimize harm to the birds, researchers will collect either a single feather or a minuscule amount of blood (typically from a nestling). This contains the necessary biological material for DNA analysis.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-analysis">DNA analysis</h3>



Cutting-edge nanopore technology enables rapid and cost-effective DNA sequencing. This technology works by passing individual DNA strands through tiny pores and detecting changes in electrical current, allowing scientists to determine the precise sequence of the bird's genetic code.



The sequencing process generates a unique genetic profile for each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parrots-intelligence-longevity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parrot</a>, acting like a biological fingerprint that differentiates it from other individuals in its species.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-database-development">Database development </h3>



Law enforcement agencies around the world can access these unique DNA profiles stored in a secure, centralized database.



When law enforcement intercepts suspected trafficked parrots, samples can be collected and analyzed in the same way. Investigators can potentially pinpoint where the seized birds were taken from in the wild by comparing their DNA against the database.



The database becomes a powerful reference tool, providing essential clues to help track criminal networks and identify smuggling hotspots involved in the illegal wildlife trade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-forensics-to-track-illegal-trading-of-parrots">DNA forensics to track illegal trading of parrots</h2>



This toolkit offers a two-pronged approach to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-zealand-worlds-largest-parrot/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parrot</a> conservation:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combating-illegal-parrot-trade">Combating illegal parrot trade</h3>



Currently, limited information is available when parrots are confiscated from illegal traders. Using DNA analysis, law enforcement can match the seized birds with the database, tracing them back to their original geographic area.



This traceability creates a 'breadcrumb trail,' offering valuable insight into the routes used by smugglers and potentially revealing established trafficking networks.



As this knowledge base grows, authorities can implement targeted interventions, disrupting supply chains and leading to the identification and arrest of the individuals involved in poaching and trafficking activities.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facilitating-reintroduction">Facilitating reintroduction</h3>



Confiscated parrots from illegal trade often cannot be readily returned to the wild, as their exact origins are unknown. This creates issues if they are the wrong subspecies for the intended release area, potentially harming local populations.



DNA analysis solves this problem. Wildlife officials can pinpoint the origin of confiscated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-red-crowned-parrots-are-thriving-in-urban-texas-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parrots</a> to ensure their release. They can return them to their true homes - the correct habitats.



The reintroductions are critical for boosting wild populations, particularly of threatened or endangered species. The technology enables not just successful rescues, but supports long-term conservation efforts and the restoration of natural ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-parrots-protecting-public-health">Protecting parrots, protecting public health</h2>



The illegal wildlife trade poses a significant threat to biodiversity and global public health. Wildlife trafficking is a primary vector for the spread of zoonotic diseases, those capable of transmitting from animals to humans (as evidenced by the COVID-19 pandemic). 



“So if we know more about the illegal wildlife market, we can safeguard not only the wildlife but humans too,”&nbsp;explained Dr Olah.



While initially focusing on Indonesia, a hotspot for illegal parrot trade, this project holds the potential for global expansion. The team envisions collaborations with law enforcement agencies worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-you-can-get-involved">How you can get involved</h2>



In the fight against illegal wildlife trafficking, knowledge truly is power. Here's how to start arming yourself with the information you need:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-educate-yourself-and-others">Educate yourself and others</h3>



Actively seek information about the illegal parrot trade from reputable sources like scientific journals, conservation organization websites, and documentaries. Understanding the scope of the problem is the first step towards effective action.



The illegal parrot trade is just one part of the larger illegal wildlife trafficking industry. Learn about the broader trade in endangered species, its drivers, and its far-reaching consequences for ecosystems and biodiversity.



Share your knowledge with your friends, family, and online communities. Raising awareness sparks conversations and creates a ripple effect, inspiring others to take action.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-support-conservation-organizations">Support conservation organizations</h3>



Thoroughly research different conservation organizations dedicated to protecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parrots-colorful-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parrots</a> and fighting wildlife trafficking. Examine their mission statements, track record, and financial transparency to ensure they align with your values and priorities.



Financial contributions can make a huge difference for conservation efforts on the ground. Choose organizations that use donations effectively and can demonstrate the impact of their work.



Many organizations welcome other forms of support. Volunteer your time and skills, participate in their campaigns, and spread the word about their work through your social networks.



This DNA-based conservation initiative represents a significant turning point in the fight to protect parrots and maintain a healthy, balanced world.



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Saving parrots in the illegal wildlife trade with DNA technology

Parrots, renowned for their vibrant colors and remarkable imitative abilities,...

Marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-microbe-may-help-in-the-fight-against-climate-change" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> have historically been less explored compared to animal and plant populations, which have significantly enriched our understanding of ecosystem processes and evolutionary adaptations. 



The difficulty in isolating, culturing, and analyzing the genetic material of marine microorganisms has meant their vast diversity has largely gone uncharacterized. 



However, the landscape is shifting due to advancements in molecular and computational methodologies. These technologies are unveiling the potential of marine microbes to act as indicators of global changes in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-color-has-changed-significantly-over-the-past-20-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-shifts-in-marine-microbes">Genetic shifts in marine microbes</h2>



In a recent study, experts analyzed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-microbe-regulate-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine microbial</a> populations to gauge the impacts of global change. By examining the collective data on these populations and their ecological roles, the researchers have identified an important trend. They found that even minor genetic shifts among marine microbes correlate more directly with gradual environmental shifts than changes within larger species.



"Small genetic changes in these populations could be more directly correlated with the slight but continuous environmental changes associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global change</a>, than the analysis of species," said study lead author Ramiro Logares from the Institut de Ciències del Mar (<a href="https://www.icm.csic.es/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICM-CSIC</a>).



Furthermore, Logares attributes the insights to the advent of new molecular techniques. These techniques allow for a broader, more detailed genetic exploration of microbial communities directly in their natural habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technological-revolution">Technological revolution </h2>



The application of advanced techniques such as metagenomics and metatranscriptomics has revolutionized our ability to study these elusive populations. The methods allow scientists to conduct studies without the need for traditional culturing techniques.



As a result, scientists can directly extract and analyze genetic data from uncultured aquatic microbial species. This analysis has revealed significant genetic diversity and distinct patterns of adaptation and differentiation, influenced by environmental factors like temperature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-diversity-of-marine-microbes">Genetic diversity of marine microbes</h2>



For the extensive study, the researchers reviewed over 150 scholarly articles. The analysis provides a comprehensive overview of how the genetic variability of microbial populations is linked to broader ecosystem processes and adaptations.



Logares emphasized the importance of this research: "Knowing the genetic diversity and population dynamics of marine microbes allows us to obtain valuable information on their resilience or vulnerability to global change."



Understanding how microbial populations adapt to changing conditions is essential for assessing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-extreme-weather-impact-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystem</a> health and functionality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-marine-microbial-research">The future of marine microbial research</h2>



Logares advocates for continued exploration into population genomics to deepen our understanding of microbial diversity. He believes that this will not only shed light on the complex architecture and functioning of the marine microbiome, but will also enhance our ability to devise more effective management and conservation strategies.



"The ocean microbiome currently faces multiple challenges derived from anthropogenic-induced climate change. For example, sea-surface warming, decreasing O2 and increasing CO2 levels, acidification, changes in water circulation, changes in nutrient inputs, and other biotic factors (such as new parasites or predators). Thus far, relatively few studies have investigated the reaction of marine microbes to global change," wrote the researchers.



"Selective changes derived from global change can have significant consequences in microbial community structure, populations, evolution, and ultimately, in the biogeochemical cycles they mediate." 



"As a response to the changing oceanic conditions, microbes are anticipated to undergo shifts in their geographic distributions, alterations in community structure, modifications in gene expression - including epigenetic changes - and adaptations to the new environmental conditions."



"However, the relative significance of these mechanisms in shaping the overall response remains uncertain. Population genomics has the potential to provide new insights into the relative relevance of these processes in the reaction of microbes to a changing ocean."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-marine-microbes">More about marine microbes</h2>



Marine microbes are incredibly diverse microorganisms that inhabit ocean environments, ranging from the sunlit surfaces of the seas to the dark depths of the ocean floor. They include bacteria, archaea, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-algae-steal-beneficial-genes-from-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a>, protozoa, and fungi, each playing a crucial role in oceanic ecosystems. 



These tiny life forms are essential in cycling nutrients, breaking down pollutants, and supporting the marine food web through processes like photosynthesis and decomposition.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">The planet’s atmospheric balance</h3>



Marine microbes are responsible for producing more than half of the Earth's oxygen, making them vital for maintaining the atmospheric balance. They also contribute significantly to the global carbon cycle, capturing vast amounts of carbon dioxide, thereby influencing climate patterns and the health of the environment.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Scientific research&nbsp;</h3>



Additionally, marine microbes have unique adaptations that allow them to thrive in extreme conditions, such as high pressure, low temperature, and varying salinity levels found in different parts of the ocean. This adaptability makes them an interesting subject for scientific research, potentially leading to breakthroughs in biotechnology, medicine, and environmental science.



Their genetic diversity and metabolic capabilities also make them a valuable resource for discovering new pharmaceuticals and enzymes that could have industrial applications. Despite their small size, marine microbes have a profound impact on the global ecosystem and human life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://microbiomejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40168-024-01778-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microbiome</a>.



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Marine microbes can tell us about global changes in the ocean

Marine microbes have historically been less explored compared to animal...

Live,Blue,Mussels,Underwater,On,A,Rock,In,The,Ocean,

Mussel shells have been showing a troubling trend caused by climate change, as observed in recent findings by the American Museum of Natural History. 



Over the past century, these shells have become increasingly porous. This change in mussel shell structure is largely attributed to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-sea-temperatures-can-alter-dna-in-marine-invertebrates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising temperatures</a> of coastal waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mussels-crucial-role-in-ecosystems">Mussels' crucial role in ecosystems</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-freshwater-mussels-are-threatened-by-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mussels</a> play an indispensable and multifaceted role within their ecosystems. They serve as both environmental stabilizers and critical contributors to marine biodiversity.



Leanne Melbourne, a Kathryn W. Davis postdoctoral fellow at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Museum of Natural History</a>, explains the importance of mussels. 



"Mussels are vital for numerous reasons: they form habitats on reefs, filter water, shield coasts during storms, and have significant commercial value," said Melbourne.



"It's concerning to see how human-induced environmental alterations are jeopardizing the shell formation in mussels and other mollusks. Understanding the future risks this poses is imperative," she added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mussel-shells-reveal-climate-changes">Mussel shells reveal climate changes</h2>



The study utilizes the museum’s extensive bivalve collection, which dates back to the late 1800s. This allows researchers to track environmental impacts over time.



Previous research typically involved laboratory settings to understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-has-nearly-doubled-in-the-last-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean warming</a> and acidification affect mussels, known scientifically as Mytilus edulis. 



However, Melbourne leveraged these historical specimens to gain insights into changes under natural conditions.



Nathalie Goodkin, a curator at the museum, emphasizes the value of museum collections in ecological studies. 



"They are excellent for observing long-term changes. Natural environments expose organisms to gradual changes and multiple stressors, unlike laboratory conditions which can only isolate specific factors," Goodkin explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mussel-shells-comparison">Mussel shells comparison</h2>



The focus of Melbourne’s research was on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mollusk-shells-reveal-new-clues-about-past-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shells</a> collected from the early 1900s and 1960s. These specimens were gathered from five distinct locations, ranging from Nahant Bay in Massachusetts to New York Harbor.



Subsequently, Melbourne compared these historical samples with modern specimens from the same areas, assessing factors such as shell thickness, surface area, volume, and porosity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-porous-mussel-shells-from-climate-change">Porous mussel shells from climate change</h2>



The study clearly showed that modern mussel shells are markedly more porous than those from earlier decades. The research suggests that rising sea temperatures, which have increased by up to 3 degrees Celsius since 1902, might be contributing to this change.



However, factors such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activity-is-rapidly-changing-weather-in-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Atlantic Oscillation</a>, which brought unexpectedly cold water temperatures in the 1960s, could also influence the variability in shell porosity.



Consequently, the increased porosity could compromise the structural integrity of the mussel shells, making them more prone to damage.



"The robustness of mussel shells is integral to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-mussels-are-ideal-for-ecosystem-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> services provided by mussel reefs. If their shells are weaker, they are more likely to break, potentially leading to the loss of these crucial organisms," Melbourne remarked. She stressed the need for further research to explore these effects at a material science level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-climate-change-on-mussels">Impact of climate change on mussels</h2>



Beyond making their shells more porous, climate change affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-robomussels-to-monitor-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mussels</a> in several other significant ways:



<ul>
<li>Reduced growth rates: Warmer waters can disrupt the growth patterns of mussels, leading to smaller sizes and less robust individuals.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Altered reproduction cycles: Temperature changes can impact the timing of reproductive cycles, potentially leading to mismatches in the availability of plankton needed by mussel larvae to survive.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Increased susceptibility to diseases: Higher temperatures can facilitate the proliferation of pathogens and parasites that can infect mussel populations, reducing their overall health and survival rates.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Changes in habitat: As ocean temperatures rise, the suitable habitat range for mussels can shift, forcing populations to migrate or face extinction in areas that become too warm.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Impact on shell composition: Apart from increased porosity, climate change can alter the chemical composition and strength of mussel shells, making them more vulnerable to predators and physical damage.</li>
</ul>



In summary, the study conducted by researchers at the American Museum of Natural History reveals a troubling trend in the increasing porosity of mussel shells along the U.S. East Coast over the past 120 years. 



The findings suggest that warming waters may be the primary culprit behind this phenomenon, which could have severe implications for mussel populations and the ecosystems they support. 



As climate change continues to alter marine environments, it is crucial that scientists conduct further research to better understand the specific effects of temperature change on these essential organisms and develop strategies to mitigate the potential risks to their survival and the services they provide.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0301874" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.



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Mussel shells are becoming highly porous due to warming waters from climate change

Mussel shells have been showing a troubling trend caused by...

Remember the social media sensation that wasn't the catchy "Baby Shark" tune, but actual footage of a newborn great white shark spotted by a drone? That glimpse into the lives of these majestic creatures was just the beginning of an exciting scientific discovery.



Marine scientists at <a href="https://www.calstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California State University</a> have recently demonstrated that juvenile great white sharks predominantly inhabit warm, shallow waters close to the shore, specifically within one kilometer. 



This study significantly advances our knowledge of the habitat preferences of juvenile great white sharks. Understanding these preferences is crucial for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-need-better-protection-to-maintain-functional-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark conservation</a> and public safety, especially as ocean temperatures continue to rise.



"Animals respond behaviorally to environmental conditions over a range of spatio-temporal scales, often in ways that shape their habitat use and movement patterns," wrote the study authors. 



"While seasonal environmental changes across a species’ entire range may dictate long-term migration patterns, many aquatic animals likely make movement decisions based on micro-scale differences in conditions which may vary based on ontogenetic stage."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-opportunity-to-study-juvenile-white-sharks">Unique opportunity to study juvenile white sharks</h2>



In a region off Padaro Beach near Santa Barbara, baby great white sharks, known as "pups," are found congregating in areas dubbed nurseries. These young sharks receive no care after birth and are left to thrive in the shallows unaccompanied by adult sharks. 



According to Dr. Christopher Lowe, this site provided a unique opportunity to study a large group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-white-sharks-are-moving-north-to-find-suitable-habitat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">juveniles</a> in their near-shore environment. 



"This is one of the largest and most detailed studies of its kind,," said Dr. Lowe. "The dense congregation of juveniles around Padaro Beach allowed us to observe how environmental conditions affect their movement patterns."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technology-meets-marine-biology">Technology meets marine biology</h2>



From 2020 to 2021, Dr. Lowe's team equipped 22 juvenile white <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> (JWS), aged one to six, with sensor-transmitters. These devices tracked water pressure, temperature, and the sharks' locations using acoustic 'pings' to coastal receivers. Data collection paused in winter when the sharks migrated to deeper waters.



Additionally, an autonomous vehicle mapped the local water column's temperature, and artificial intelligence helped create a 3D model showing the juvenile white sharks' preferred temperatures and depths - enhancing our understanding of their behaviors in different conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daily-rhythms-of-juvenile-white-sharks">Daily rhythms of juvenile white sharks </h2>



The juvenile white sharks displayed distinct behavioral patterns. They dove deepest around dawn and dusk, likely for feeding, and stayed closer to the surface in the warmer afternoon sun, possibly to elevate their body temperatures.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="NACz7xCgbL-3569637-12187" type="single"]</div>



Emily Spurgeon, a research technician on Dr. Lowe's team and the study's first author, explained: "We found that juveniles adjust their vertical position to maintain a temperature range between 16 and 22 °C. Optimally, they stay between 20 and 22 °C to maximize growth efficiency within the nursery."



The study revealed that juveniles occupy much shallower waters than adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-whites-are-far-more-prevalent-than-expected-on-the-california-coast/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great whites</a>, who are seldom seen in nursery areas. The three-dimensional temperature variations significantly influence the juveniles' horizontal distribution. They move to deeper areas when seafloor temperatures rise and come closer together towards the surface as deeper waters cool.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-other-factors-in-shark-nursery-behavior">Exploring other factors in shark nursery behavior</h2>



While it's clear that temperature is a crucial factor attracting juvenile white sharks to these nursery areas, it's not the only consideration. "There are many locations along the California coast with similar environmental conditions, so temperature isn't the entire story," said Spurgeon. 



"While we do not know where JWS are predominantly foraging, it is likely that they are using particular areas within the aggregation site to increase their foraging success," noted the researchers.



"Tradeoffs must occur throughout JWS developmental period as individuals attempt to find and select areas with adequate environmental conditions to maintain efficient physiological performance, but also try to find sufficient food sources and avoid intra-specific conflicts." 



"They may therefore choose a micro-habitat that is a high prey resource environment to maximize their growth by speeding up their metabolic rate in warmer water."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-study-implications">Broader study implications </h2>



Upcoming research will explore potential individual behaviors and relationships, such as whether some juveniles move among different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-ever-great-white-shark-fossil-nursery-found/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nurseries</a> together. As these studies progress, they not only help in shaping effective conservation strategies but also minimize human-shark interactions. 



"The results of this study may be used to inform and improve habitat suitability models and species distribution models within a specific location and help predict potential locations of new aggregation sites as well as advise beach public safety officials," wrote the researchers.



"Knowledge on how JWS respond to the environment is vital for management and future space use predictive models to understand how these patterns will transform as micro-habitat thermal patterns are altered due to climate change."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2024.1290769/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Juvenile great white sharks prefer shallow coastal waters

Remember the social media sensation that wasn't the catchy "Baby...

Zebrafish stand out for their remarkable ability to regenerate heart tissue. This amazing capability starkly contrasts with their evolutionary cousin, the medaka fish, and humans, who suffer permanent scars from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-attacks-young-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart attacks</a>.



Zebrafish heart tissue regeneration is a captivating prospect for transformative advances in human cardiac care. A team of biologists at the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utah</a> has explored the mechanisms underlying this fascinating regerative ability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-secrets-of-zebrafish-heart-regeneration">Cellular secrets of zebrafish heart regeneration </h2>



"Adult humans respond to heart injury by forming a permanent scar, yet other vertebrates are capable of robust and complete cardiac regeneration," wrote the researchers.



"Despite progress towards characterizing the mechanisms of cardiac regeneration in fish and amphibians, the large evolutionary gulf between mammals and regenerating vertebrates complicates deciphering which cellular and molecular features truly enable regeneration."



By examining the cardiac injury responses of the zebrafish, known for its <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/organ-regeneration-offers-new-clues-about-the-immune-system/">regenerative capacity</a>, and the medaka, which lacks this ability, the researchers set out to uncover the underlying mechanisms of cardiac repair. 



"We thought by comparing these two fish that have similar heart morphology and live in similar habitats, we could have a better chance of actually finding what the main differences are," explained study co-author Clayton Carey, a postdoctoral researcher.



The research, although not conclusive, pinpoints several potential factors - particularly within the immune system - that may explain the regenerative capabilities of the zebrafish. "It told us these two hearts that look very similar are actually very different," noted Professor Jamie Gagnon, who led the research team



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experimental-insights">Experimental insights</h2>



To mimic heart attack conditions, the researchers used a cryoprobe. They crafted this device from copper wire and cooled it to extreme temperatures to selectively damage the fish's heart tissue.



They then made observations at various intervals following the procedure to assess how each species responded to the injury.



In zebrafish, the researchers observed a vigorous immune response, similar to that seen during viral infections. This response was notably absent in medaka.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-the-immune-system">The role of the immune system </h2>



The study showed major differences in immune cell behavior. Specifically, macrophages migrated to the injury site in zebrafish much more than in medaka.



"Zebrafish have this immune response that is typical of what you might see during a viral infection, called an interferon response," said Carey. Consequently, this response promotes new blood vessel growth and the replacement of damaged muscle with new cells.



"Our approach revealed key differences in both pre- and post-injury hearts that may be responsible for the contrasting regeneration outcomes. We found differences in immune cell recruitment and behavior, epicardial and endothelial cell signaling, and alterations in the structure and makeup of the myocardium," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reflections-on-evolutionary-loss">Reflections on evolutionary loss</h2>



Gagnon speculated that the ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zebrafish-regenerate-their-heart-tissue-after-injury/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regenerate heart</a> tissue might have been a common ancestral trait among teleosts. This group of ray-finned fish includes both zebrafish and medaka.



"My hunch is the ancestor of all animals could regenerate its heart after an injury, and then that’s been repeatedly lost in different types of animals," said Gagnon. He expressed a desire to understand why such a beneficial trait would be lost over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-new-insights-into-zebrafish-heart-regeneration">Critical new insights into zebrafish heart regeneration </h2>



"Medaka and zebrafish have been used extensively as laboratory model vertebrates and have similar care requirements and body plans," wrote the study authors. "While it was known that medaka are incapable of heart regeneration, it could have been assumed that medaka as fellow teleost fish would only have minor differences in cardiac structure." 



"Our study found a surprising number of distinguishing characteristics of the medaka heart compared to zebrafish. These differences included not only changes in cellular behaviors but also substantial changes in the structure of the myocardium itself."



"Given the number of notable differences we observed between zebrafish and medaka, a wider phylogenetic survey of cardiac injury responses will be particularly useful to identify features that correlate with heart regeneration or non-regeneration across the teleost phylogeny." 



"These observations highlight how biodiversity within shorter evolutionary distances can enable comparative studies that reveal fundamental insights about the gain or loss of complex traits."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-toward-the-future">Looking toward the future</h2>



The ultimate goal of the research is to use insights from zebrafish to develop treatments for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/regeneration-human-heart/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human heart</a> conditions.



"The more we learn about how animals can regenerate tissues, how those features have been lost in us and other animals, that’s going to help us think about our limitations and how we might engineer strategies to help us overcome those," explained Gagnon.



The ongoing research opens new avenues for potential therapies in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/circadian-medicine-light-therapy-could-help-millions-of-heart-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human medicine</a>, perhaps even leading to a future where heart damage is fully reversible.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/bio/article/13/4/bio060156/346486/Distinct-features-of-the-regenerating-heart" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Open</a>.



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Secrets of zebrafish heart regeneration could transform human cardiac care

Zebrafish stand out for their remarkable ability to regenerate heart...

Madagascar is famous for its lush rainforests, playful lemurs, and hidden dangers. Scientists have long known that even the top predators on this island are facing threats to their survival. But what they've recently discovered goes beyond the usual story of habitat loss. It's a hidden clash between endangered species, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lemurs-provide-a-window-into-the-evolution-of-hair/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lemurs</a> and fosas, with shocking implications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fosa-and-lemurs">Fosa and lemurs</h2>



While fosas might resemble a small cat or an oversized weasel, don't be fooled. They're actually unique members of a mongoose-like family of carnivores found only in Madagascar. 



These predators are built for success in Madagascar's forests. Their slender bodies and long tails make them experts at navigating the treetops.



Lemurs are the cornerstone of a fosa's diet. Unfortunately, this puts them in direct conflict with conservation efforts, as most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mouse-lemurs-of-madagascar-are-threatened-with-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lemur</a> species are endangered or critically endangered.



Fosas typically rely on their stealth and ambush tactics to catch prey. This means scientists have had to piece together their diet from clues like leftover bones and poop.



Witnessing fosa hunts in action is incredibly rare and valuable for researchers. It helps them understand how these predators behave and the true impact they have on vulnerable lemur populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-madagascar-habitats">Madagascar habitats</h2>



Madagascar's <a href="https://www.madagascarfaunaflora.org/betampona-natural-reserve.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Betampona Strict Nature Reserve</a> is meant to be a haven for wildlife, but it's surrounded by farmland. This creates a habitat 'island' where animals are cut off from other populations of their own kind.



For the lemurs, isolation means their gene pool shrinks over time. This can lead to health problems and makes the population less resilient to changes in their environment.



With less ability to escape or find new resources, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lemurs-first-arrive-madagascar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lemurs</a> in Betampona could become easy targets for the fosas, putting even more strain on their survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-tactics-of-lemur-from-fosas">Survival tactics of lemur from fosas</h2>



Lemurs use two main forms of survival:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fight-or-flight-or-freeze">Fight or flight (or freeze)</h3>



We usually think of prey animals running for the hills when threatened. But in Betampona's small reserve, running might not be the best option.



Staying still and vigilant might confuse the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domestic-animals-contributed-to-the-downfall-of-rare-species-in-madagascar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fosa</a>, making the lemur seem less like a meal. It could also help the lemur track the predator's movements in case it needs to make a quick escape.



This tactic highlights the difficult choices lemurs face in an isolated habitat. Without the ability to flee far, they must adapt their survival instincts.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isolation">Isolation</h3>



Betampona's lemurs can't easily leave and find mates from other groups. This leads to them breeding with close relatives, a process called inbreeding.



Inbreeding weakens the population. Babies might be born with health problems or not survive at all. This makes it even harder for the species to bounce back from threats like fosa attacks.



A small, unhealthy lemur population is an easier target for predators. This puts even more pressure on their numbers, potentially pushing the species closer to extinction within the reserve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemur-fosa-conservation">Lemur fosa conservation</h2>



"It's not that the fosa is the bad guy. It's also in need of conservation," says Giovanna Bonadonna, a researcher involved in the study. This is where things get tricky. It's a reminder of a key conservation concept: ecosystems.



Humans changing the landscape, even with the best intentions of creating protected spaces, can have unintended consequences. Every species is connected in a delicate web.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-be-done">What can be done?</h2>



Madagascar's wildlife is so unique and so threatened that it requires a team effort stretching far beyond the island itself.



Organizations like <a href="https://stlzoo.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Saint Louis Zoo</a>, <a href="https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Missouri Botanical Garden</a>, and the <a href="https://livingearthcollaborative.wustl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Living Earth Collaborative</a> bring different strengths to the table:



<ul>
<li>Zoos: Expertise in animal care, breeding programs, and educating the public.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Botanical Gardens: Knowledge of plants, which are the foundation of any ecosystem.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Collaborative Networks: Combine resources and coordinate large-scale conservation projects.</li>
</ul>



These organizations share a common goal: preserving Madagascar's incredible biodiversity for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



This study about lemurs and fosas isn't just about those two species. It reveals how every creature, plant, and even the landscape itself are connected in a delicate web. True conservation means protecting habitats. That way, entire ecosystems can stay healthy and in balance.



We might picture an endangered animal, but this study forces us to look wider. A thriving ecosystem protects even the predators, because they play a vital role too.



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.11248" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Endangered lemurs are now prey for equally endangered 'fosas'

Madagascar is famous for its lush rainforests, playful lemurs, and...

We all know how trees and other greenery help keep our planet healthy. They pull carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas, out of the air and store it. But what about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-ecosystem-store-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>? Does a grazing cow or a hungry hippo actually affect how much carbon cycles our planet?



Scientists have recently created a new model that proves animals are key players in the global carbon cycle – and it's about time we paid attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-carbon-cycle">The carbon cycle</h2>



The carbon cycle describes how carbon moves around the Earth. It includes the following:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-capture-carbon">Plants capture carbon</h3>



Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use it during photosynthesis to create the energy they need to survive. This process stores carbon within the plants' tissues.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-consume-carbon">Animals consume carbon</h3>



Animals eat plants, taking in the carbon stored within plant material. Some of this carbon becomes part of the animal's body. The remaining carbon is released back into the environment.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-is-released">Carbon is released</h3>



Animals release carbon through several processes:



<ul>
<li>Exhalation: Animals breathe out carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Waste: Animal waste products contain carbon, which decomposers break down.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Decomposition: When animals die, their bodies decompose thanks to microbes. This process releases carbon into the soil or the atmosphere.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cycle-repeats">The cycle repeats</h3>



Carbon released back into the atmosphere or soil becomes available for other organisms. Plants can then take it up again, beginning the carbon cycle anew.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-include-animals-in-carbon-models">Why include animals in carbon models?</h2>



For many years, scientists primarily focused on plants and microbes when developing models to predict how carbon cycles through ecosystems. This approach assumed that these two groups were the main players in carbon storage and release.



However, recent research has revealed a significant flaw in this approach. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-animals-have-an-unexpected-role-in-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animals</a>, it turns out, play a surprisingly critical role in the carbon cycle. 



By excluding them from models, scientists were overlooking a major factor influencing how much carbon is stored and released within ecosystems.



"Future modeling of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountains-both-carbon-sinks-and-carbon-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dynamics</a>, important for understanding climate change and designing nature-based carbon sequestration projects, should take animals into consideration as well," the researchers explained. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-animals-help-in-carbon-cycle">How animals help in carbon cycle</h2>



Animals impact the carbon cycle in tons of ways, both directly and indirectly:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutrient-cycling">Nutrient cycling</h3>



Animal waste acts as a natural fertilizer. It contains essential nutrients that enrich the soil, promoting plant growth. Healthier and more abundant plants can absorb increased amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stimulating-plant-growth">Stimulating plant growth</h3>



Herbivores consume plant matter, but their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-animals-play-a-key-role-in-stabilizing-soil-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grazing</a> also stimulates plant regrowth. This forces plants to work harder to rebuild their tissues, leading to increased photosynthesis and greater carbon dioxide uptake.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystem-disturbance">Ecosystem disturbance</h3>



Animals physically interact with their environment by trampling vegetation, digging, and wallowing. These actions disturb the soil, which can accelerate plant growth cycles and increase the rate at which dead organic matter decomposes. While decomposition releases some carbon, the overall effect boosts carbon storage due to the increase in plant growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-inclusion-in-carbon-cycle-models">Animal inclusion in carbon cycle models</h2>



The team led by Matteo Rizzuto from <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> conducted a crucial experiment, comparing a standard carbon cycle model with a modified one that factored in both herbivores and predators. The results were eye-opening.



On average, when the models included animals, ecosystems demonstrated a twofold increase in carbon sequestration. 



This means that ecosystems with animals were twice as effective at removing and storing carbon from the atmosphere compared to those models that didn't account for animals.



Interestingly, the highest carbon storage occurred in models with only herbivores present. When predators were introduced, the amount of stored carbon decreased. 



However, it's important to note that this level was still significantly higher than in models with no animals at all. 



This underscores the intricate relationships within ecosystems and how different animal groups influence carbon cycling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-animals-in-carbon-cycle-models">Significance of animals in carbon cycle models</h2>



By understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-poop-stores-1-65-billion-tons-of-carbon-annually/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> kingdom's role in the carbon cycle, scientists can refine existing climate models. These enhanced models give us a more precise prediction of how much carbon the Earth's ecosystems can naturally store.



This knowledge is crucial for developing effective strategies to combat climate change. It tells us where to focus conservation efforts to maximize the planet's natural ability to fight rising carbon dioxide levels.



The research confirms that maintaining healthy animal populations helps store carbon in ecosystems. This knowledge paves the way for innovative conservation strategies that act as natural carbon sinks.



Protecting animal habitats and supporting balanced ecosystems isn't just about biodiversity. It can also serve as a powerful tool in mitigating climate change, working alongside strategies like reforestation.



This research shows that from worms to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildebeest-suffer-genetically-from-blocked-migration-routes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildebeests</a>, every creature has its role. Taking care of wildlife is vital for the health of our planet. 



The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JG008026" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences</a>.



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Including animals in carbon cycle models boosts ecosystem health

We all know how trees and other greenery help keep...

Ever watched a fly zoom past or a bee hover delicately over a flower, and wondered how they manage it? Unlike birds and other flying animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-insects-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> don't have direct muscle control in their wings. 



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a> have delved deep into this question, revealing the complex mechanics behind insect flight, a capability that has profoundly influenced the evolution of life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-secret-s-in-the-hinge">The secret's in the hinge</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-flying-insects-fight-the-wind-to-reach-food-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insect</a> wings are attached to the body by a hinge that is far more complex than any simple joint. This specialized hinge facilitates subtle rotations, precise tilting, and intricate motions, granting the insect incredible agility during flight. 



Internal muscles control the hinge, acting in a concerted way to manipulate the wings. Each muscle receives direct commands from the insect's brain, resulting in coordinated and precise alterations in wing movement that dictate the insect's flight path.



"The fly wing hinge is perhaps the most mysterious and underappreciated structure in the history of life," explained Professor Michael Dickinson. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flying-is-an-insects-superpower">Flying is an insects superpower</h2>



Flight offers substantial benefits that have contributed significantly to the ecological success of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-feast-on-migrating-insects-in-the-pyrenees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>. Here's how aerial movement impacts their lives:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhanced-foraging">Enhanced foraging</h3>



Taking to the skies vastly expands an insect's foraging range. They can quickly locate food sources that would be difficult or tedious to reach on foot, increasing their chances of finding a meal and boosting energy intake.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-dating-pool">Expanding the dating pool</h3>



The ability to fly makes it significantly easier for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-silent-language-decoding-the-chemical-signals-of-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> to locate potential mates. Individuals can cover vast distances and increase the odds of encountering a suitable partner, contributing to successful reproduction and species continuation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improved-predator-avoidance">Improved predator avoidance</h3>



Flight provides insects with a swift escape route. They can rapidly gain altitude or outmaneuver predators, increasing their chances of survival and ultimately, reproductive success.



Unlike birds, bats, and pterosaurs, who evolved flight through the modification of their forelimbs, insects took a radically different approach. Their wings are not modified limbs, but unique outgrowths of their body wall. 



This unique evolutionary trajectory and specialized wing system is one crucial reason behind the incredible diversification and dominance of insects around the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-behind-insect-flight">Complexity behind insect flight</h2>



Scientists at Caltech are exploring the intricacies of insect flight, focusing on the remarkable aerial capabilities of the fruit fly. Their research reveals the complexity and precision of these small creatures’ flight mechanisms.



"We didn't want to just predict the wing motion; we wanted to know the role of the individual muscles," said study first author Johan Melis. "We wanted to tie together the biomechanics of the wing hinge to the neural circuits that control it."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-behind-insect-flight">Mechanisms behind insect flight </h2>



In the wing hinge of a fly, a specific set of 12 muscles directly controls the movement of the wings. Each of these muscles receives signals directly from the fly's brain, guiding their precise and quick actions necessary for flight. 



To understand the significance of this, compare it to a hummingbird, which is also renowned for its agile flight. Despite its small size, a hummingbird relies on thousands of neurons to coordinate the complex movements needed for its flight maneuvers. 



Essentially, while both creatures are masters of flight, the fly achieves similar levels of control and agility with far fewer neural resources, indicating a highly efficient and specialized flight control system within these tiny insects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-and-insect-flight">Machine learning and insect flight</h2>



To better visualize these processes, the researchers engineered fruit flies with wing muscles that emit a glow when active. This genetic modification allowed clearer observation of muscle activity during flight.



The team used high-speed cameras and microscopes to gather extensive data, recording over 80,000 wingbeats from their test subjects. This highlights the dynamic and rapid nature of insect flight.



Finally, to manage and interpret this vast amount of information, machine learning algorithms were utilized. These tools analyze the data and generate detailed maps that show how the fly's muscles work together seamlessly to control flight, often making adjustments faster than the blink of an eye.



This exploration not only increases our understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-insects-seem-to-be-attracted-to-light-has-long-been-a-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> fly but also enhances our appreciation for the complex biological systems that govern seemingly simple actions like flight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wing-movements-facilitated-by-the-insect-s-hinge">Wing movements facilitated by the insect's hinge</h2>



The ultimate objective of this research extends beyond simply understanding the intricate wing movements facilitated by the insect's hinge. Scientists strive to unravel how these complex wing motions are orchestrated by the insect's brain. 



The wing hinge, despite its remarkable design, is merely a tool – it's the brain that issues the commands and directs aerial maneuvers.



As some of the first creatures to take to the air, insects hold invaluable insights into the evolution of early flight control systems. Their brains contain the neural circuits that allowed for this remarkable adaptation, blueprints that offer a glimpse into the origins of flight.



Moreover, an insect's brain seamlessly coordinates flight and their numerous walking legs. This showcases an incredible ability to control vastly different movement systems, requiring sophisticated neural networks and information processing within their compact brains.



The connection between the physical structures that enable flight – like the hinge and muscles – and the neural commands that control them is fundamental to understanding the amazing aerial abilities of insects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The Caltech team hopes to create intricate models that fully combine the muscle control, the mechanics of the hinge, the way air flows around the wings, and the fly's inner command center. 



By studying other insects like mosquitos and bees, they could reveal how different wing structures and brain systems give insects their unique flying styles.



"We want to understand the circuitry between the biomechanics and the neurobiology. Very few times in evolution has an animal had one very successful form of locomotion - walking - and simply added another one - flying. This means that the brains of insects must have all the circuitry to regulate to completely different means of moving," said Dickinson.



Understanding the incredible engineering that underpins insect flight is about more than just satisfying our curiosity. This research might ultimately lead to better flying robots – such as tiny drones with the adaptability of a housefly. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07293-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Insect flight is powered by an extraordinary structure

Ever watched a fly zoom past or a bee hover...

The North Pacific Ocean serves as a vast, natural laboratory for understanding the complex ecology of salmon, a crucial species both ecologically and economically. Recent research from the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Fairbanks</a> has greatly enhanced our understanding of salmon migration behavior at sea.



This study integrates decades of international research on salmon, offering new insights into their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-migrating-towards-poles-escape-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> patterns and temperature preferences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supermap-for-salmon-migration">Supermap for salmon migration</h2>



Since the 1950s, various countries and agencies have conducted high seas salmon surveys. However, never before have these individual studies been amalgamated into a single, comprehensive database.



This large-scale integration allows for an unprecedented overview of the marine stages of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/california-hatchery-salmon-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salmon life</a> cycles. 



"This is a portion of the salmon life cycle that arguably gets overlooked, at least in terms of the grand investment in salmon research," said Curry Cunningham, an assistant professor at UAF's College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences. 



Professor Cunningham also shared his personal connection to the subject. "As someone who always wondered where all these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-commercial-fish-industry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> went when they left Bristol Bay, seeing that pattern come to life was so satisfying."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salmon-hotspots-and-migration">Salmon hotspots and migration</h2>



The compiled data includes over 44,000 gear hauls across the North Pacific, capturing more than 14 million salmon. This ocean-based data contrasts sharply with the more commonly studied river habitats, providing a broader perspective on salmon ecology.



Through detailed mapping, the researchers have pinpointed key areas where different salmon species congregate.



Notably, the maps reveal a gathering hotspot for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/california-chinook-salmon-almost-extinct-due-to-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinook salmon</a> in the Bering Sea. They also track the migration routes of maturing sockeye from the North Pacific and Gulf of Alaska towards the Alaska Peninsula, navigating through passes into the Bering Sea throughout the spring and summer months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-tolerance-and-migration">Temperature tolerance and migration</h2>



"It’s not as if all these salmon are going to some party in the middle of the Pacific. This gives us a broad look at where they go," explained Joe Langan, the study's lead author and a postdoctoral fellow at UAF during the project.



This comprehensive mapping of salmon not only clarifies migration paths but also sheds light on the varying temperature tolerances among species. 



For instance, sockeye and chum salmon thrive in temperatures just a few degrees above freezing, whereas coho and steelhead avoid the coldest waters. Chinook and pink salmon occupy the middle range of these temperature extremes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-salmon-in-a-warming-world">Future of salmon in a warming world</h2>



These findings hold particular significance in the current context of climate change, highlighting the critical role of temperature tolerances in shaping how different salmon species might adapt to increasingly warming waters. 



As global temperatures rise, aquatic ecosystems experience significant shifts, which in turn affect the habitat ranges and migration patterns of marine species. Salmon, with their varied migration and temperature preferences, serve as a prime example of how climatic changes can drive evolutionary and migratory adaptations.



Understanding the specific temperature ranges that different salmon species can tolerate provides essential insights into predicting their responses to environmental changes. 



For instance, species thriving in cooler waters may face challenges as these areas warm, potentially pushing them to seek colder, deeper, or more northern waters, altering their traditional migration routes and times. 



Conversely, species with higher temperature tolerances might expand their range, encountering new competitors and predators, which could impact their survival and reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



The research involved meticulous examination of historical data, some of which dated back to the 1950s. This required the retrieval of long-forgotten reports from various sources. Additionally, it involved their standardization and integration into a coherent dataset.



Skip McKinnell, a retired expert from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada and a veteran of early high seas surveys, described the process as "more of a search and rescue mission rather than convincing anyone to provide their data."



The collective efforts of these researchers have transformed the once scattered and isolated studies into a robust resource that enhances our understanding of salmon migration and overall ecology on a global scale.



Moreover, this research documents the fascinating life cycle of these important fish. It equips scientists and policymakers with the knowledge necessary to better protect them in a rapidly changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/faf.12825" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fish and Fisheries</a>.



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Salmon migration routes discovered using historical data

The North Pacific Ocean serves as a vast, natural laboratory...

Have you ever wondered what would happen if a bumblebee fell into a puddle on a rainy day? You might picture them valiantly swimming to the edge…but the truth might surprise you. Scientists from <a href="https://www.uoguelph.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Guelph</a> have published a remarkable study suggesting that some bumblebee queens might have the ability to survive underwater for several days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bumblebees-and-their-essential-roles">Bumblebees and their essential roles</h2>



Before we explore their surprising underwater talents, let's take a moment to appreciate bumblebees for who they truly are: vital members of our ecosystem. Unlike honeybees that live in large colonies, bumblebees tend to live in smaller groups, often with just a single queen bee and a handful of workers. 



Additionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-have-an-incredible-sense-of-smell-to-find-their-way-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebees</a> are incredibly busy and efficient pollinators. As they flit from flower to flower, bumblebees aren't simply collecting nectar for a sweet treat. Their fuzzy bodies pick up pollen grains from one flower, and when they visit another flower, some of those pollen grains rub off, fertilizing the plant and allowing it to reproduce. 



This process, called pollination, is essential for the health and diversity of plant life. In fact, around a third of the food we eat relies on pollinators like bumblebees to bring their magic touch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-faced-by-bumblebees">Challenges faced by bumblebees </h2>



Unfortunately, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/queen-bumblebees-are-emerging-too-early-from-hibernation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebees</a> are facing some serious challenges. The widespread use of pesticides harms these important insects, and the loss of natural habitats due to development reduces the places where they can build their nests and find food. 



Climate change is causing more extreme weather events, including flooding. This disrupts the nesting and hibernation areas of many insects that live in the soil, including bumblebees. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accidental-survival-of-bumblebees-underwater">Accidental survival of bumblebees underwater</h2>



The researchers in this study were initially interested in how pesticides in the soil affected hibernating bumblebees. However, their work took an unexpected turn, leading to this astonishing discovery.



Dr. Sabrina Rondeau, who led the study, accidentally left hibernating bumblebee queens exposed to water in her lab. She expected a disastrous outcome but was amazed to find most of the bees survived. 



This surprising observation led to a more in-depth experiment to see just how long bumblebees might live underwater. "I've been studying bumblebees for a very long time. I've talked about it to a lot of people and no one knew that this was a possibility," said Dr Rondeau.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-bumblebee-endurance-underwater">Testing bumblebee endurance underwater</h2>



In their study, scientists investigated the survival capabilities of 143 queen bumblebees by subjecting them to different lengths of submersion underwater. The durations ranged from just a few hours to an entire week. 



This experiment aimed to test how well these bees could withstand extended periods in water, a situation they might encounter more frequently due to climate change-induced flooding.



The results of the experiment were quite remarkable. Over 80% of the queen bumblebees that were submerged for a week did not merely survive the ordeal; they also remained vigorous and healthy for a considerable period afterward. 



Specifically, these bees continued to show normal activity and survival rates up to eight weeks after they were returned to dry conditions. This finding highlights an unexpected resilience among the queen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/european-bumblebees-face-extinction-as-their-habitats-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebees</a>, suggesting that they possess a robust ability to adapt to extreme environmental challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-bumblebee-s-underwater-survival">Significance of bumblebee's underwater survival</h2>



"This is incredibly encouraging news for the future of these crucial pollinators," said Dr. Rondeau. Still, the study brings up intriguing questions for future research. 



Could this trait help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/californias-bumble-bees-are-vanishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebees</a> cope with the effects of climate change? Do other bumblebee species share this underwater resilience? And how exactly do bumblebees do this?



Bumblebees play an essential role in our ecosystems, acting as pollinators for a variety of plants, including many crops humans rely on for food. Their health and survival are closely tied to our own agricultural and ecological success. 



Thus, their ability to withstand environmental stressors not only highlights their resilience but also underscores the importance of taking action to ensure their continued survival.



This fascinating discovery reminds us of the incredible ways animals adapt to their environment, something we might need to keep in mind as the climate shifts. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-our-buzzing-allies">Supporting our buzzing allies</h2>



The recent discovery of queen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/queen-bumblebees-resting-hibernation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebees</a>' ability to survive underwater highlights the remarkable adaptability of animals in the face of environmental changes. Their survival is directly linked to our ecosystems and agricultural success. Here's how we can support them:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planting-for-pollinators">Planting for pollinators</h3>



One of the simplest yet most effective ways to aid bees is by cultivating bee-friendly habitats. Planting wildflowers and native plants in our gardens provides bees with the necessary nutrients they derive from nectar and pollen. Such environments not only support their nutritional needs but also offer safe havens against environmental stresses.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-pesticide-impact">Reducing pesticide impact</h3>



Pesticides pose a significant threat to bees and other pollinators. These chemicals, often used in agricultural and residential settings, can be lethal to bee populations. By adopting natural pest control methods and advocating for policies that restrict pesticide use, we can help mitigate these risks. 



romoting organic farming techniques and encouraging local communities to reduce pesticide use can significantly enhance the safety of bee habitats. These efforts help create healthier environments for these essential pollinators.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-more-about-bees">Learning more about bees</h3>



Increasing public awareness about the importance of bees and the challenges they face is crucial for their protection. Education can lead to better protective measures and policies. Community initiatives like gardening projects, local pesticide bans, and educational programs can drive significant change. 



Learning more about bees and sharing this knowledge helps cultivate a community committed to supporting and sustaining these essential pollinators.



The discovery of bumblebees' underwater survival ability is more than just a scientific curiosity; it serves as a call to action. By taking steps to protect these vital creatures, we can ensure their survival and the health of our global ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2023.0609" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Can bumblebees hold their breath and survive underwater?

Have you ever wondered what would happen if a bumblebee...

The discovery of a second massive jawbone, over two meters in length, on a beach in Somerset, UK, has recently piqued the interest of paleontologists. This fossil, along with the first one found, has been identified as belonging to a previously <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_couple-swimming_credit-gabrielugueto_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unknown species of giant ichthyosaur</a> named Ichthyotitan severnensis - a marine reptile from prehistoric times. 



Researchers estimate that this creature would have spanned more than 25 meters in length, akin to the size of a blue whale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-the-marine-reptile-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Discovery of the marine reptile Ichthyotitan severnensis</h2>



This significant find was made by Justin and Ruby Reynolds, a father and daughter duo from Braunton, Devon. During a fossil hunting trip in May 2020 at Blue Anchor, Somerset, 11-year-old Ruby stumbled upon the first fragment of this colossal jawbone.&nbsp;



Realizing the importance of their find, they contacted Dr. Dean Lomax, a leading ichthyosaur expert and a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> as well as a research fellow at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol.</a> Lomax. 



They then reached out to Paul de la Salle, a seasoned fossil collector who had discovered the first giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-lizards-were-thriving-during-the-age-of-dinosaurs/">jawbone</a> in 2016 along the same coastline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-multimillion-year-old-jigsaw-puzzle">A multimillion-year-old jigsaw puzzle</h2>



“I was amazed by the find,” Lomax said. “In 2018, my team (including Paul de la Salle) studied and described Paul’s giant jawbone and we had hoped that one day another would come to light. This new specimen is more complete, better preserved, and shows that we now have two of these giant bones - called a surangular - that have a unique shape and structure. I became very excited, to say the least.”



Fueled by this initial success, Justin, Ruby, Paul, Lomax, and several family members returned to the site to search for more pieces. Their efforts were fruitful, eventually piecing together more fragments that fit perfectly together, like a multimillion-year-old jigsaw puzzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-species-of-giant-marine-reptile-nbsp">New species of giant marine reptile&nbsp;</h2>



The analysis revealed that these jawbones belonged to a new species of giant ichthyosaur, which they named Ichthyotitan severnensis or "giant fish lizard of the Severn." 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/">fossils</a>, dating back approximately 202 million years to the end of the Triassic Period, represent some of the last members of the Shastasauridae family before they disappeared due to a global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-event-shows-how-life-responds-to-extreme-changes/">mass extinction </a>event.



This discovery also aligns with findings of other large ichthyosaurs, such as Shonisaurus sikanniensis from Canada and Himalayasaurus tibetensis from China, although the new species appears around 13 million years after these relatives.



Dr. Lomax invited Ruby and Justin to join his research team in studying and naming this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-150-year-old-bones-identified-as-ichthyosaur-jaws/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric creature</a>. Ruby, now recognized as a young scientist, said that “it was so cool to discover part of this gigantic ichthyosaur. I am very proud to have played a part in a scientific discovery like this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-limits-of-vertebrates-nbsp">Biological limits of vertebrates&nbsp;</h2>



Further investigations into the bones by Marcello Perillo, a master’s student from the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/en/university/university">University of Bonn</a>, confirmed the ichthyosaur origin and revealed that the creature was still growing at the time of its death.&nbsp;



“We could confirm the unique set of histological characters typical of giant ichthyosaur lower jaws: the anomalous periosteal growth of these bones hints at yet to be understood bone developmental strategies, now lost in the deep time, that likely allowed late Triassic ichthyosaurs to reach the known biological limits of vertebrates in terms of size,” Perillo explained.



“To think that my discovery in 2016 would spark so much interest in these enormous creatures fills me with joy. When I found the first jawbone, I knew it was something special. To have a second that confirms our findings is incredible. I am overjoyed,” de la Salle said.



“This research has been ongoing for almost eight years. It is quite remarkable to think that gigantic, blue whale-sized ichthyosaurs were swimming in the oceans around what was the UK during the Triassic Period. These jawbones provide tantalizing evidence that perhaps one day a complete skull or skeleton of one of these giants might be found. You never know,” Lomax concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0300289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a> and the jawbone will soon go on display at the <a href="https://www.bristolmuseums.org.uk/bristol-museum-and-art-gallery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bristol Museum and Art Gallery</a>.



Image Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy.



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Largest known marine reptile discovered is a giant ichthyosaur

The discovery of a second massive jawbone, over two meters...

Ever misplaced your keys or forgotten where you parked? Imagine if you had the remarkable memory of a mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chickadees-are-genetically-inclined-to-have-a-remarkable-memory/">chickadee</a>. Despite their small size, with brains just larger than a pea, these nimble birds masterfully remember the locations of tens of thousands of food caches.&nbsp;



Mountain chickadees hide seeds in tree bark, under dead leaves, and within pine cones throughout mountainous terrains. Their ability to recall these locations during the harsh winter months is crucial for their survival amid the cold and snow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remarkable-memory-of-mountain-chickadees-nbsp">Remarkable memory of mountain chickadees&nbsp;</h2>



A research study led by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado, Boulder</a> and the <a href="https://www.unr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nevada, Reno</a> has identified nearly a hundred genes that are linked to the birds’ spatial memory, which is their ability to pinpoint and recall the locations of these hidden caches. 



Furthermore, the experts suggest that there might be a trade-off between having robust <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-term-memory-starts-at-age-2-study-finds/">long-term memory</a> and the ability to quickly forget old memories to make room for new ones. This discovery has the potential to deepen our understanding of how spatial memory evolves not just in animals, but also in humans.



“Chickadees are impressive birds,” said senior author Scott Taylor, the director of CU Boulder’s Mountain Research Station and an associate professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.&nbsp;



“They can remember tens of thousands of locations where they cached food across an entire winter and a new set of those the next winter. Their spatial memory is much more developed than many other birds that don't have to have this strategy to survive cold winters.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



To assess how these birds manage such a feat, Taylor’s colleagues at the University of Nevada, Reno, led by biologist professor Vladimir Pravosudov, put together a creative test. They set up multiple feeder arrays in California’s Sierra Nevada mountains, each consisting of eight bird feeders filled with seeds.&nbsp;



Each feeder was equipped with a gate that had a radio frequency reader capable of detecting a tag placed on the chickadees. The setup required the mountain chickadees to remember which feeders they could access as each gate was programmed to open only for certain birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spatial-learning-among-mountain-chickadees-nbsp">Spatial learning among mountain chickadees&nbsp;</h2>



Pravosudov’s team observed and recorded the number of times each bird visited the incorrect feeders before finding the right one. The underlying theory was that mountain chickadees with superior spatial memory capabilities would show a lower rate of errors.



Additionally, using blood samples, the scientists sequenced the genomes of 162 tagged chickadees, creating the largest dataset ever for exploring the genetic basis of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ravens-develop-sophisticated-cognitive-skills-by-the-age-of-four-months/">cognitive abilities</a> in chickadees.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-of-spatial-memory-in-birds">Genetics of spatial memory in birds</h2>



By correlating the birds’ genetic information with their performance in the feeder test, the team identified 97 genes associated with the chickadees’ spatial learning and memory. Birds with specific genetic variants at these genes demonstrated fewer incorrect attempts before successfully locating their designated feeders.



According to co-author Sara Padula, a Ph.D. student in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, a large proportion of these variants are linked to neuron formation in the hippocampus, a part of the brain that plays a fundamental role in learning and memory. “Understanding the genetic basis of this trait will allow us to understand how the trait evolves,” said Taylor.



Moreover, he pointed out that the common ancestor of all North American chickadees cached food. However, among the seven species of chickadees found today, two do not.&nbsp;



“They live in a milder environment where food is generally available year-round. Now that we know the gene regions that underlie spatial memory, we can look at what variation looks like in these species that have lost caching,” said Taylor.



“This study substantially advanced our understanding of the genetics of spatial memory in birds and behavioral genetics more broadly,” added co-author Georgy Semenov, a research associate in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-good-long-term-memory-may-have-a-disadvantage">Good long-term memory may have a disadvantage</h2>



The research also highlighted a potential downside to having an excellent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-rely-on-an-autism-gene-for-memorization/">memory</a>. After a few days of the initial task, Pravosudov’s team reassigned new feeders to the birds. Surprisingly, mountain chickadees that excelled in the initial tests struggled with adapting to the new feeders. They found it challenging to discard old memories and form new ones.



“In a more variable environment, what our collaborators found suggests that chickadees with good long-term memory may have a disadvantage. For example, if there is an unexpected snowstorm, these birds may keep trying to visit caches that have been buried in the snow, rather than forgetting them and looking for other caches,” Padula said.



As climate conditions continue to change, birds that can adapt quickly by forming new memories might have a better chance of survival. “Because of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-climate-change-happening-too-fast-for-birds-to-keep-up/">climate change</a>, we might expect these selective pressures that have been shaping chickadee’s special memory for thousands of years to shift significantly,” Taylor concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.03.058" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Mountain chickadees have an extraordinary memory

Ever misplaced your keys or forgotten where you parked? Imagine...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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