If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.



In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. 



But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.



The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.



Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.



“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. 



“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.



“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. 



“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”



When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.



“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. 



“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.



That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.



“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. 



But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.



That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

Scientists from <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Edinburgh</a> have made a worrying discovery about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-slow-antarctica-ice-melt-with-sunlight-reflecting-particles/">Antarctica</a>. The huge platforms of ice that surround the continent are getting thinner much faster than ever before. This accelerated melting increases the planet's vulnerability to the effects of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-ice-shelves">Role of ice shelves</h2>



In Antarctica, massive sheets of ice called ice shelves stretch out from the land, covering the ocean. These impressive formations start as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/">glaciers</a>, which are slow-moving rivers of ice flowing from the center of the continent towards the coast. When they reach the coast, instead of stopping, the glaciers keep spreading out over the water, eventually forming these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-shelves-are-much-thinner-than-previously-estimated/">ice shelves</a>.



Ice shelves play a critical role in the environment of Antarctica, serving as natural barriers that slow down the flow of ice from land into the ocean. This process is essential for maintaining the stability of the entire ice sheet and keeping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-last-ice-age-shows-how-rising-sea-levels-will-transform-coastal-habitats/">sea levels</a> stable around the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pinning-points">Pinning points</h2>



For nearly 50 years, scientists have been analyzing satellite images of Antarctica. They were particularly interested in tracking the fate of "pinning points," underwater mountains that act like anchors, keeping the ice shelves stable.&nbsp;



By carefully examining the images, they observed changes in these pinning points over time. The findings were alarming: the crucial anchors are disappearing, suggesting that the ice shelves are thinning and becoming less stable.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-data-of-ice-shelves">Historical data of ice shelves</h2>



The study revealed a concerning trend of ice shelves melting over time.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-1973-1989">1973-1989</h3>



The thinning of ice shelves was limited to small, localized areas, primarily concentrated in the Amundsen Sea Embayment and the Wilkes Land coastline. 



During this period, only 15% of pinning points showed a reduction in size. This initial phase suggested a period of relative stability for Antarctic ice shelves, with minimal loss of their ability to hold back ice flow (buttressing potential).



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-1989-and-2000">1989 and 2000</h3>



The picture changed significantly during this time. Thinning became more widespread, indicating an acceleration in the deterioration of ice shelves. This period also saw a jump in the proportion of pinning points losing size, with the number rising to 25%. 



The rapid increase in thinning suggested the ice shelves were becoming more vulnerable to climate change, potentially leading to faster movement of ice into the ocean.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-2000-to-2022">2000 to 2022</h3>



The most recent period continued the worrying trend. Thinning remained widespread, affecting even larger areas of ice shelves. Notably, the percentage of pinning points showing a decrease in size further increased to a concerning 37%.&nbsp;



This significant loss highlights an accelerated degradation of ice shelf stability. The weakening of pinning points directly impacts the ice shelves' ability to hold back ice, potentially leading to increased ice discharge and, consequently, a greater contribution to rising sea levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-climate-change">The role of climate change</h2>



Rising temperatures due to climate change are having a significant negative impact on Antarctica's ice shelves. These massive platforms of ice are being attacked from multiple angles.



Hotter air temperatures directly melt the surface of the ice shelves. This melting from above thins the ice, further reducing its ability to act as a barrier against the land ice flowing into the ocean.



Warming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-temperatures-were-a-driving-force-behind-2023s-record-heat/">ocean temperatures</a> are causing the water surrounding and beneath the ice shelves to become warmer. The warmer water melts the ice from the bottom, weakening its structure and making it easier to break apart.



Moreover, climate change is also altering snowfall patterns over Antarctica. While increased snowfall might seem helpful initially, it can add too much weight and cause the shelves to collapse. Conversely, decreased snowfall can reduce the overall mass of the ice shelves, making them less effective as barriers.



These combined effects highlight how climate change poses a major threat to the stability of Antarctica's ice shelves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-action">Urgent need for action</h2>



“What we are seeing around Antarctica is a sustained attack by climate warming to the buttresses, that slow the conversion of ice melting, into global sea-level rise. This reinforces the need for us to take action where we can to reduce global carbon emissions," said study co-author Professor Robert Bingham.



Potential strategies include switching to renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and choosing sustainable transportation options. Additionally, supporting ongoing research is vital to predict future changes and to inform crucial policy decisions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07049-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.&nbsp;



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Antarctica's protective ice barriers are melting at double the pace

Scientists from The University of Edinburgh have made a worrying...

Once vibrant and sprawling, coral reefs are now shrinking at an alarming pace. Imagine an entire state like Georgia losing all of its trees in just a few decades - that's the devastating speed at which coral reefs are vanishing.



However, a recent discovery by leading scientist Mark Hay and his colleague Cody Clements from <a href="https://gatech.edu/node/1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia Institute of Technology</a> offers a glimmer of hope. The experts have identified an unexpected, yet crucial factor in the health and survival of coral reefs: sea cucumbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underwater-rainforests">Underwater rainforests</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-coral-reefs-crackle-with-the-sounds-of-busy-inhabitants/">Coral reefs</a>, also known as underwater rainforests, support a vast array of marine creatures and shield coastlines from storms and erosion. However, these vital resources are declining due to climate change, pollution, and overfishing. Experts emphasize the need for their conservation.&nbsp;



“It’s like if all the pine trees in Georgia disappeared over a period of 30 to 40 years,” said Hay. “Just imagine how that affects biodiversity and ecosystems of the ocean.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-reefs-and-sea-cucumbers">Coral reefs and sea cucumbers</h2>



While often overlooked, sea cucumbers play a crucial role in keeping coral reefs healthy and stable. These creatures, resembling soft, leathery cucumbers, are found on the ocean floor all over the world.&nbsp;



Sea cucumbers belong to the same group as starfish and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-identify-the-parasite-causing-mass-mortality-in-sea-urchins/">sea urchins</a>, known as echinoderms. Their primary function is to break down debris and recycle nutrients, a critical process for maintaining healthy and balanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-stress-causes-undetected-changes-in-marine-ecosystems/">marine ecosystems</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-removal-of-sea-cucumbers">Removal of sea cucumbers</h2>



The scientists conducted a unique experiment in French Polynesia and Palmyra Atoll. They carefully removed sea cucumbers from specific areas of the reef, while leaving other areas untouched. This allowed the team to directly compare the health of corals with and without the presence of sea cucumbers.&nbsp;



By studying the consequences of removing these creatures, the researchers gained insights into their role in protecting corals from disease and death. The experiment was designed to closely resemble natural conditions, ensuring that the results accurately reflect the true impact of sea cucumbers on coral reef health.&nbsp;



The study revealed the important, but often underestimated, role sea cucumbers play in protecting coral reefs from disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decrease-in-coral-reefs">Decrease in coral reefs</h2>



The experts found that coral reefs where sea cucumbers have been removed experience much higher rates of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-oceans-intensify-viruses-that-kill-coral-reefs/">coral disease</a> and death.&nbsp;



Sea cucumbers play a vital role in keeping the sand and soil around coral reefs clean. They act like natural vacuum cleaners, eating bits of dead plants and animal waste that sink to the bottom. This constant cleaning helps prevent the buildup of harmful bacteria and other substances that could harm the coral.&nbsp;



The study shows that by removing these potentially harmful materials, sea cucumbers help create a healthier environment for the coral to thrive, making them less likely to get sick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recycling-nutrients">Recycling nutrients</h2>



Sea cucumbers aren't just reef janitors; they're crucial for keeping the entire ecosystem healthy. They act like recyclers by eating dead plants and animals on the seafloor. Inside their bodies, these materials are broken down and transformed into essential nutrients. These nutrients are then released back into the water, functioning like fertilizer for the diverse creatures living in the reef.



Without sea cucumbers, the reef faces a double threat. First, the absence of their cleaning action allows organic matter to accumulate, leading to the growth of harmful bacteria and substances that can damage the corals. Second, the missing link in the nutrient cycle creates an imbalance.&nbsp;



Without sea cucumbers converting organic matter into usable nutrients, the reef loses its nutritional foundation, impacting the overall well-being and diversity of life in the ecosystem. This can affect not only the corals themselves, but everything that depends on them for survival.



“If you remove all the scum suckers in the great fish tank of Earth, you’re going to get a dirty tank eventually,” said Clements. “People have paid lip service to the idea that sea cucumbers could be important for a long time, but we didn’t know the scale of their importance until now.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threat-of-extinction-nbsp">Threat of extinction&nbsp;</h2>



The study reveals a worrying issue: sea cucumber populations, once plentiful in many regions, are now decreasing rapidly due to being caught in large numbers.&nbsp;



The high demand for sea cucumbers in certain foods and traditional medicine has led to a significant drop in their numbers. Sea cucumbers are a crucial food source for many marine animals, and their disappearance would cause a ripple effect throughout the food chain, potentially leading to population decline in other species. This would ultimately reduce the variety of life in the ocean (biodiversity).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-cucumber-conservation-nbsp">Sea cucumber conservation&nbsp;</h2>



Sea cucumbers are crucial to healthy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-atlantic-ocean-may-soon-enter-its-declining-phase/">oceans</a>, but they face threats from overharvesting.&nbsp; “If we don’t cut back on pollution, if we don’t cut back on overharvesting, and if we don’t cut back on global warming, there isn’t much hope. It’s a challenge, but you can either give up and go home, or you can keep working on it,” said Dr. Clements.&nbsp;



To ensure their survival and protect marine ecosystems, we need to take several steps. We must regulate how many sea cucumbers can be caught to prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-is-a-major-threat-to-coral-reef-fish/">overfishing</a>.&nbsp;



In addition, the creation of marine protected areas would establish specific areas of the ocean where sea cucumbers could thrive without being disturbed. Furthermore, adopting sustainable trade practices - which prioritize responsible harvesting and consumption - is essential.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-45730-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Sea cucumbers protect coral reefs from disease and death

Once vibrant and sprawling, coral reefs are now shrinking at...

Researchers have recently unveiled a fascinating aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-when-butterflies-evolved-and-what-plants-they-used-for-food/">butterfly evolution</a>. They found that species which are inedible and mimic each other's color patterns have also evolved similar flight behaviors to enhance their survival against predators.&nbsp;



This discovery adds a new layer to our understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-when-butterflies-evolved-and-what-plants-they-used-for-food/">butterflies</a> use both visual and behavioral mimicry to communicate their unpalatability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-the-scariest-predators-in-the-african-savannah/">predators</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The study, conducted by a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a>, utilized high-speed video footage to analyze the flight of wild butterflies in South America.&nbsp;



The experts examined the wing beat frequency and wing angles of 351 butterflies across 38 species, all of which fell into one of 10 distinct color pattern mimicry groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-findings-nbsp">Key findings&nbsp;</h2>



Surprisingly, the research revealed that the color pattern mimicry group a butterfly belonged to was a more significant determinant of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-habitat-influences-their-flight-behavior/">flight behavior</a> than other factors such as habitat and wing shape. This indicates that butterflies within the same mimicry group exhibit more similar flight behaviors than those that are genetically closer but display different color patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavioral-mimicry-is-widespread-nbsp">Behavioral mimicry is widespread&nbsp;</h2>



“From an evolutionary perspective it makes sense to share the color pattern between species, to reduce the individual cost of educating predators to the fact that they don’t taste nice!” said study lead author Edd Page, a PhD student from the Department of Biology at York.



“Once a predator has tasted one, the visual clues on others indicate that they too are also inedible, but flight patterns are more complex and are influenced by several other factors such as the air temperature and the habitat the species fly in.”



“We wanted to see whether flight corresponded to color - could predators be driving the mimicry of flight as well as color patterns? We were surprised to find just how strong and widespread the behavioral mimicry is.”



The research specifically looked at the Heliconiini tribe, which consists of around 100 species and subspecies distributed across the Neotropics, each belonging to several distinct color pattern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-habitat-influences-their-flight-behavior/">mimicry</a> groups. Additionally, the study included a few species from the Ithomiine butterfly tribe, which diverged from the Heliconiini about 70 million years ago but share similar 'tiger' color patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-insights-nbsp">Fascinating insights&nbsp;</h2>



"Sharing flight behavior across multiple species seems to reinforce this ‘don’t eat me’ message. It is fascinating that this behavior has evolved between distant relatives over a long period of time," said Page, highlighting the study's implications for understanding the evolutionary strategies of these butterflies.



Professor Kanchon Dasmahapatra from the University of York's Department of Biology commented on the significance of the findings. "The extent of flight mimicry in this group of butterflies is amazing. It is a great example of how evolution shapes behavior, with selection from predators driving subtle changes which enhance the survival of individuals."



This study - published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> - not only sheds light on the intricate ways in which butterflies have adapted to avoid predation but also sets the stage for further research into the genetic basis of such behavioral mimicry.



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Butterflies use visual and behavioral mimicry to avoid predators

Researchers have recently unveiled a fascinating aspect of butterfly evolution....

Facing the global challenge of declining fish stocks, over 190 countries have committed to establishing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-improve-well-being-in-coastal-communities/">marine protected areas</a> (MPAs) covering around one-third of the world's oceans by 2030. These designated zones, where fishing activities are regulated or prohibited, aim to support marine biodiversity recovery.&nbsp;



However, a recent study reveals the potential socioeconomic challenges these MPAs pose to coastal communities reliant on fishing for sustenance, income, and cultural heritage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



This analysis, led by a global team of researchers from <a href="https://duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>, <a href="https://www.fsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida State University</a>, the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Wildlife Fund</a>, and other organizations, reviewed over 14,000 fish surveys across 216 MPAs in 43 countries.&nbsp;



The findings underscore the effectiveness of fully protected MPAs in rejuvenating fish populations but also highlight the complexities of implementing such measures in areas where local and indigenous communities depend on fishing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethical-considerations-nbsp">Ethical considerations&nbsp;</h2>



“In those under-resourced and culturally important areas, it would be unethical to take away local and indigenous people’s rights to harvest and eat fish,” said lead author David Gill, an assistant professor of marine science and conservation at Duke University’s Marine Lab. 



This statement highlights the ethical considerations necessary when enforcing fish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-conservation-can-help-stabilize-the-climate/">conservation</a> measures that impact traditional ways of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-practical-compromise-nbsp">A practical compromise&nbsp;</h2>



The study suggests that multiple-use MPAs, which allow for regulated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-fleets-hidden-industrial-fishing-activity-exposed/">fishing</a>, could serve as a practical compromise.&nbsp;



“Many people, especially those in coastal communities, have strong food, job, or cultural ties to the ocean,” said co-author Dominic Andradi-Brown, a lead marine scientist at World Wildlife Fund.&nbsp;



“Our results show that big gains for nature don't have to come at the cost of excluding people. Future ocean protection and conservation that is tailored to allow a range of uses can be successful - provided that good management is in place.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-it-s-not-all-or-nothing">It's not all or nothing</h2>



The research indicates a 97% likelihood of fish population improvement within both no-take and multiple-use MPAs, contingent upon effective management and sufficient staffing.&nbsp;



Gill advocates for a strategic combination of these MPA types, tailored to local needs. “It's not an all-or-nothing game. There are options out there to get positive results. You can get benefits from marine protected areas where fishing is allowed. But they have to be done well.”



This nuanced approach to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-were-not-designed-for-climate-resilience/">marine conservation</a> aims to balance ecological objectives with the socio-economic realities of coastal communities.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



“A key takeaway from these results is that context matters. There is no cookie-cutter approach to effectively, and equitably, protect the world’s marine ecosystems. We need to consider what mix of conservation approaches are best for the local context and then invest in managing them fairly, and managing them well,” explained Gill.



This perspective calls for a considerate and adaptable strategy in the global effort to safeguard marine biodiversity while respecting human dependencies on marine resources.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2313205121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Fish conservation does not have to mean neglecting people

Facing the global challenge of declining fish stocks, over 190...

Central and South American rainforests harbor tiny, see-through "glass frogs" that blend into the foliage with their translucent skin. These charming creatures have captivated scientists and nature lovers for years, but there's more to them than just their unique appearance.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.international.unesp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">São Paulo State University</a> (Unesp) have finally answered a question about how these frogs evolved. The study reveals a surprising trade-off: glass frogs with smaller testes care more for their babies than males with bigger testicles. This choice, between raising offspring or making more sperm, is key to their evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-characteristics-of-glass-frogs">Characteristics of glass frogs</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glass-frogs-wave-their-hands-and-feet-to-attract-mates/">Glass frogs</a>, part of the Centrolenidae family, are captivating amphibians found mainly in the Central and South American rainforests and cloud forests. The name comes from their most striking feature: translucent bellies that reveal their internal organs.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-nbsp">Habitat&nbsp;</h3>



Glass frogs call the lush <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-overheating-in-warmer-rainforests/">rainforests</a> and cloud forests their home, often choosing areas near streams and rivers for breeding. Their distribution stretches from Mexico through Central America, all the way down to Bolivia and Brazil in South America.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size">Size</h3>



The frogs are very small. They measure from 1.2 to 7.5 centimeters (0.47 to 2.95 inches) in length, with the size varying among different species within the glass frog family.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance-nbsp">Appearance&nbsp;</h3>



Their backs are typically green, allowing them to blend seamlessly into the surrounding foliage. This camouflage, combined with their translucency, makes them incredibly difficult to spot in their natural environment, adding to their mystical allure.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-nbsp">Reproduction&nbsp;</h3>



What truly sets glass frogs apart from other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibians-threatened-by-mercury-with-unknown-health-impacts/">amphibians</a> is the fascinating diversity in their reproductive strategies, particularly regarding parental care. Unlike most amphibians, many glass frog species rely on extensive investment from the dads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-glass-frog-species">Distinct glass frog species</h2>



Initially, the scientists gathered information on many different types of glass frogs. They focused on two things: how big the male's testes were and if the dads took care of their eggs.&nbsp;



Next, the scientists observed how the different frog dads took care of their babies. Some dads were super involved, guarding their eggs from hungry creatures and keeping them nice and moist. Others, not so much. This gave the researchers an idea of the frogs parenting styles.&nbsp;



Through their study, the researchers discovered a total of 37 distinct glass frog species, with 11 of these species having males who actively participate in caring for their offspring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-act-of-males">Balancing act of males</h2>



When the male frogs take care of their young (paternal care), their testicles are smaller. This suggests they invest less energy in producing sperm to compete with other males for fertilization.&nbsp;



By contrast, species where males don't care for their young have bigger testes. This indicates they put more effort into producing sperm to outcompete rivals and increase their chances of reproductive success.&nbsp;



Essentially, the research shows how different approaches to reproduction can influence the physical features and behavior of even closely related species. There is a balance between allocating resources to raising offspring and achieving breeding success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-perspective">Evolutionary perspective</h2>



Living organisms have limited resources available, including energy, nutrients, and time. They cannot excel in everything at once. Instead, they must prioritize and invest resources in certain areas that are more crucial for their survival and reproduction, which leads to trade-offs.



The concept of trade-offs is not unique to a specific species but is widespread across the animal kingdom. The study suggests that increased investment in offspring (through care) may come at the expense of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-sperm-count-directly-linked-to-mobile-phone-use/">sperm production</a> (compromise).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-pressures">Environmental pressures</h2>



The environment plays a significant role in shaping the frogs' reproductive strategies. Factors like predation pressure (risk of eggs being eaten) can influence how glass frogs allocate resources.



In environments with high egg predation, parental care becomes crucial. Glass frogs that invest in guarding and protecting their eggs (parental care) are more likely to see their offspring survive to adulthood. This makes parental care a favorable trait in such an environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-interactions">Social interactions</h2>



Social interactions, particularly mating competition, can also be a driving force in adaptation. In situations where finding mates is difficult due to scarcity or competition, larger testicles and increased sperm production can be advantageous.&nbsp;



This allows males to produce more sperm, potentially increasing their chances of fertilization and reproductive success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-within-glass-frogs">Biodiversity within glass frogs</h2>



The study showcases the incredible variety of reproductive strategies present among glass frogs, even though they belong to the same group of animals. This variety reveals the existence of multiple evolutionary pathways within the same group.&nbsp;



Different glass frog species have evolved unique solutions to survive and reproduce in their specific environments. Studying these differences helps us understand how species adapt to their unique ecological niches (the specific role and environment they occupy).&nbsp;



By analyzing the different strategies, we can identify the evolutionary pressures (environmental and social factors) that have driven these adaptations, ultimately contributing to the diversity of life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Recognizing the importance of both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-mating-strategies-of-critically-endangered-muriquis/">reproductive strategies</a> and parental care for the survival of glass frogs emphasizes the need for comprehensive conservation approaches.



Conservation efforts should not only focus on protecting the habitat itself but should also prioritize the diverse reproductive behaviors within that habitat. This might involve protecting specific resources crucial for certain strategies, like safeguarding areas suitable for parental care.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.0054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society</a>.



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Glass frogs with small testes are invested in caring for their young

Central and South American rainforests harbor tiny, see-through "glass frogs"...

In a thrilling scientific adventure, researchers on a <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/">Schmidt Ocean Institute</a> expedition have made a remarkable discovery: a multitude of never-before-seen life forms thriving off the Chilean coast.



From the dark depths to towering underwater mountains, this expedition revealed a hidden world teeming with life. Each dive brought new discoveries, challenging our understanding of the ocean's depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salas-y-gomez-ridge">Salas y Gomez Ridge</h2>



Dr. Javier Sellanes and his team plunged into the unknown, uncovering an unexplored water mountain: the Salas y Gomez Ridge. Spanning an impressive distance of over 1,800 miles, this underwater mountain range emerged as a focal point of the expedition.



As the team dove deeper, they discovered a world teeming with life. From tiny fish to giant whales, the ridge was like a bustling underwater city.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-100-new-species">100 new species</h2>



The team made an astounding discovery: they found over 100 sea creatures living in the deep ocean that nobody knew existed before. These animals come in all shapes and sizes, and they each play a special role in the ocean ecosystem.



For example, the researchers found colorful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-some-corals-more-resilient-to-climate-change-than-others/">corals</a> that build homes for other animals on the dark ocean floor. They saw strange lobsters with long bodies and thin legs that scurry around rocks looking for food. 



There were even delicate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sponges-sneeze-to-get-rid-of-unwanted-waste/">sponges</a> that filter tiny particles from the water and spiraling corals that sway in the currents. Spiky urchins were also found, with shells that protect them from danger.



“We far exceeded our hopes on this expedition,” said Dr. Sellanes, who led the study. “You always expect to find new species in these remote and poorly explored areas, but the amount we found, especially for some groups like sponges, is mind-blowing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-previously-unknown-seamounts">Four previously unknown seamounts</h2>



In addition to discovering new species, Dr. Sellanes’s team mapped four previously unknown seamounts within the Salas y Gomez Ridge. Each mountain harbored its own distinct ecosystem.&nbsp;



Among them, the tallest seamount, unofficially named Solito, stood as a towering giant, reaching an astonishing height of 3,530 meters. To put this into perspective, Solito reaches nearly 70% of the height of Mount Everest (8,848 meters).&nbsp;



The discovery of these seamounts provides valuable insights into the geological diversity of the Salas y Gomez Ridge and the habitats it supports. Each seamount creates a unique environment, offering refuge and resources for a variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-noise-is-getting-louder-what-does-this-mean-for-animals/">marine life</a>. From the depths of the ocean floor to the sunlit shallows near the summit, these landforms contribute to the rich biodiversity of the region.



Furthermore, the identification and mapping of the seamounts contribute to our understanding of the broader marine ecosystem. By studying the geological features and associated marine life of these underwater mountains, scientists can gain valuable insights into oceanic processes and the interconnectedness of marine habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



Over 100 new species show how much unseen life exists in the ocean. This means we urgently need to protect these fragile ecosystems from stressors like fishing, pollution, and habitat destruction. 



The deep sea helps regulate Earth's climate by storing carbon and supporting food webs. Knowing more about these ecosystems helps us understand how they'll respond to climate change. The expedition's findings give us valuable data to predict and address these challenges.



Moreover, the giant underwater mountain range shows how much of the ocean remains unexplored. We must keep exploring and mapping these areas to better understand Earth's geology, life, and ocean currents. This knowledge helps us learn more about our planet and guides future research and conservation efforts.



Image Credit: ROV SuBastian/ Schmidt Ocean Institute&nbsp;



License link: <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/</a>



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Ocean life: 100 new sea creatures found in Chile

In a thrilling scientific adventure, researchers on a Schmidt Ocean...

Researchers at <a href="https://duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>'s Department of Biomedical Engineering have made a significant breakthrough in understanding how antibiotic resistance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/river-plastics-may-harbor-antimicrobial-resistance-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> spread among pathogens and contribute to the development of resistance against new antibiotics. 



This critical research, led by Professor Lingchong You and the team working in his lab, has identified a direct correlation between the exposure of bacteria to antibiotics and the increase in identical copies of resistance genes within their genomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria">Studying antibiotic resistant bacteria</h2>



The study reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-bacteria-has-an-ally-lurking-in-our-guts/">bacteria</a> in environments with high antibiotic usage tend to possess numerous copies of antibiotic resistance genes. 



These genes are often associated with transposons, or "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-fungus-has-become-more-deadly-thanks-to-jumping-genes/">jumping genes</a>," that facilitate their transfer across different bacterial strains. 



This not only enables the rapid dissemination of resistance traits but also sets the stage for the evolutionary adaptation of bacteria to resist new antibiotics.



Previously, the You lab demonstrated that 25% of bacterial pathogens could spread antibiotic resistance through horizontal gene transfer.&nbsp;



However, they found that the presence of antibiotics did not accelerate this gene transfer, suggesting an alternate mechanism at play for the proliferation of resistance genes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-evolutionary-adaptation-nbsp">Rapid evolutionary adaptation&nbsp;</h2>



Rohan Maddamsetti, a postdoctoral fellow in You's lab, likened the duplication of certain genes to a "fingerprint" that indicates rapid evolutionary adaptation under antibiotic pressure.&nbsp;



"We hypothesized that bacteria under attack from antibiotics would often have multiple copies of protective resistance genes, but until recently we didn’t have the technology to find the smoking gun,” he said.



Advancements in long-read genome sequencing over the past five years have now made it possible to identify these genetic repetitions, revealing that bacteria from environments with prevalent antibiotic use - such as in humans and livestock - are more likely to have these gene duplications.&nbsp;



In contrast, such duplications are seldom found in bacteria from natural settings like wild plants, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-animals-will-suffer-as-the-rainforest-turns-into-savanna/">animals</a>, soil, and water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-settings">Clinical settings</h2>



The study also highlighted that the duplication of resistance genes is even more pronounced in clinical settings, where antibiotic use is common.&nbsp;



This suggests that the overuse of antibiotics not only promotes the spread of existing resistance but also enhances the bacteria's capability to evolve resistance against newly developed treatments.



"Constantly creating copies of genes for resistance to penicillin, for example, may be the first step toward being able to break down a new kind of drug. It gives evolution more rolls of the dice to find a special mutation," Maddamsetti explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



Professor You underscored the broader implications of the findings, critiquing the prevailing approach to the antibiotic resistance crisis, which often focuses on developing new drugs. He argued for more efficient and effective use of antibiotics, especially in <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/global-land-for-agriculture">agriculture</a>, where the majority of antibiotics in the U.S. are utilized.&nbsp;



"The majority of antibiotics used in the United States are not used on patients, they’re used in agriculture," You remarked, highlighting the significant role the livestock industry plays in perpetuating antibiotic resistance.&nbsp;



“So this is an especially important message for the livestock industry, which is a major driver of why antibiotic resistance is always out there and becoming more serious.”



The research not only advances our understanding of bacterial adaptation but also calls for a reevaluation of antibiotic usage practices to combat the growing threat of antibiotic resistance more effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-bacterial-antibiotic-resistance">More about bacterial antibiotic resistance</h2>



As discussed above, bacterial antibiotic resistance represents one of the most daunting challenges in the medical field today. It occurs when bacteria evolve mechanisms to resist the effects of antibiotics, making standard treatments ineffective and infections harder to control. 



This resistance emerges from the misuse and overuse of antibiotics in both human medicine and agriculture.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bacteria-develop-resistance">How bacteria develop resistance</h3>



Bacteria develop resistance through several mechanisms. One common method is through genetic mutations. These spontaneous changes in their DNA allow some bacteria to survive exposure to antibiotics, which they then pass on to their offspring. 



Additionally, bacteria can acquire resistance genes from other bacteria through horizontal gene transfer, a process that allows them to share genetic material, including resistance genes, even between different species.



The impact of antibiotic resistance on public health is profound. It leads to longer hospital stays, higher medical costs, and an increased mortality rate. Infections that were once easily treatable, such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, and gonorrhea, are becoming more difficult to manage and cure. This resistance crisis threatens to undermine decades of progress in fighting bacterial infections.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combating-antibiotic-resistance">Combating antibiotic resistance</h3>



One of the key strategies to combat antibiotic resistance is the implementation of antibiotic stewardship programs. These programs aim to optimize the use of antibiotics in hospitals and clinics, ensuring they are prescribed only when necessary and in the right dosages. 



By doing so, they help minimize the unnecessary exposure of bacteria to antibiotics, slowing down the development of resistance.



There's a pressing need for ongoing research and development of new antibiotics and alternative treatments. 



As many pharmaceutical companies have deprioritized antibiotic development due to low financial returns, governments and private sectors are encouraged to invest in research to discover novel antibiotics and develop alternative therapies, such as bacteriophage therapy and the use of probiotics.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-awareness-and-education">Public awareness and education</h3>



Increasing public awareness and education about the proper use of antibiotics is crucial. Patients and healthcare providers must understand the importance of using antibiotics responsibly. 



This includes not pressuring healthcare providers for antibiotics for viral infections, such as the common cold or flu, against which antibiotics are ineffective.



In summary, bacterial antibiotic resistance poses a significant threat to global health, with the potential to turn treatable infections into deadly diseases. It requires a concerted effort from governments, the healthcare sector, and the public to tackle this issue. 



Through stewardship programs, research, and education, we can slow the spread of resistance and protect the efficacy of antibiotics for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-45638-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Bacteria in livestock are major drivers of human antibiotic resistance

Researchers at Duke University's Department of Biomedical Engineering have made...

A team of scientists has uncovered the mechanism behind the complex vocalizations of baleen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-20-minute-conversation-with-a-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>, the largest animals on Earth. This revelation comes after more than half a century of mystery surrounding how these marine giants produce their distinctive songs, essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/">communication</a> across the vast, murky oceans they inhabit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-communication-range-of-baleen-whales">Limited communication range of baleen whales</h2>



Led by voice science experts Professor Coen Elemans from the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern Denmark</a> and Professor Tecumseh Fitch from the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>, Austria, the study found that baleen whales have evolved unique structures in their larynx for producing low-frequency vocalizations. 



This adaptation, however, also imposes limitations on their communication range.



“The toothed and baleen whales evolved from land mammals that had a larynx serving two functions: protecting the airways and sound production. However, their transition to aquatic life placed new and strict demands on the larynx to prevent choking underwater,” Fitch explained, highlighting the evolutionary pressures that shaped these adaptations.



The researchers discovered significant modifications in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baleen-whales-rewriting-the-evolutionary-history-of-the-largest-animals-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales' larynx</a>, particularly the arytenoids - tiny cartilages in the larynx responsible for adjusting vocal folds - which have transformed dramatically in baleen whales. 



“The arytenoids changed into large, long cylinders fused at the base to form a large U-shaped rigid structure that extends nearly the full length of the larynx,” said Elemans.&nbsp;



“We found that this U-shaped structure pushes against a big fatty cushion on the inside of the larynx. When the whales push air from their lungs past this cushion, it starts to vibrate and this generates very low frequency underwater sounds.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-levels-of-human-noise">Increasing levels of human noise</h2>



This study not only sheds light on the acoustic capabilities of these majestic creatures but also underscores the challenges they face due to increasing levels of human-made <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-noise-increases-the-risk-of-hypertension/">noise</a> in the oceans.&nbsp;



“Regrettably, the frequency range and maximum communication depth of 100 meters we predict, overlaps completely with the dominant frequency range and depth of human-made noise caused by shipping traffic,” Elemans pointed out, indicating the potential threat to whale communication.



“The first acoustic recordings of humpback whale song by Roger and Katy Payne in 1970 resonated with humanity profoundly, started the flourishing field of marine bioacoustics, and sparked global interest in marine conservation efforts,” Elemans added. “Now we show that despite their amazing physiology they literally cannot escape the noise humans make in the oceans.”



This study - published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07080-1">Nature</a> - not only answers long-standing questions about baleen whale vocalizations but also calls attention to the urgent need for conservation efforts to mitigate the impact of human activity on marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-baleen-whales">More about baleen whales</h2>



Baleen whales are a distinct group of marine mammals known for their unique feeding mechanism, which involves baleen plates instead of teeth. These plates are made of keratin, the same material as human hair and nails, and are used to filter small fish, krill, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-plankton-hold-a-long-record-of-ocean-health/">plankton</a> from the water.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baleen-whale-size-and-distribution">Baleen whale size and distribution</h3>



Baleen whales range in size from the relatively small minke whale, which can be about 23 feet long, to the blue whale, the largest animal on Earth, reaching lengths up to 100 feet or more.



These whales are found in oceans all over the world, from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-free-arctic-summers-could-be-the-new-normal-by-2030/">Arctic</a> and Antarctic to tropical seas. They are known for their long migrations, traveling thousands of miles between feeding grounds in colder waters and breeding grounds in warmer waters. 



Baleen whales are also notable for their complex vocalizations, which in the case of species like the humpback whale, are considered to be a form of song and are used in communication and possibly mating rituals.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-ecological-role">Conservation and ecological role </h3>



Despite their massive size and being top predators in their environment, baleen whales face several threats from human activities, including ship strikes, entanglement in fishing gear, and climate change which affects their food sources.&nbsp;



They are protected internationally by various conservation efforts and agreements aiming to mitigate these threats and ensure their survival for future generations. 



Baleen whales play a crucial role in marine ecosystems, contributing to the health of ocean environments through their feeding activity, which helps regulate the populations of their prey and recycle nutrients through the water column.



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How baleen whales talk to each other through complex vocalizations

A team of scientists has uncovered the mechanism behind the...

Miniature,From,Sitting,On,A,Wet,Leaf,In,Forest

Deep within Brazil's lush <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforests</a>, scientists recently made a discovery that has left them astonished: a minuscule creature called the “Brazilian flea toad.” This tiny amphibian, barely bigger than a pea, holds the incredible title of the world's smallest vertebrate.



Finding this little wonder wasn't easy. It took diligent exploration by biologists from the <a href="http://www.uesc.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz</a> in the biodiverse landscapes of southern Brazil.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-and-research">Discovery and research</h2>



In 2011, the researchers went exploring in the southern part of Bahia, Brazil. They came across a creature so unbelievably small they initially thought it might be <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/brazilian-flea-toad_world-smallest-vertebrate_2m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a new type of toad</a>. 



The confusion stemmed from its resemblance to a toad. Frogs and toads, while both amphibians, have distinct characteristics.&nbsp;



Toads typically have drier, bumpier skin and favor dry environments, while frogs boast smoother, moister skin and inhabit areas near water. This tiny creature, despite its toad-like traits, sparked further investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brazilian-flea-toad-is-not-a-toad">Brazilian flea toad is not a toad</h2>



Recent closer examination revealed a surprising truth: this wasn't a toad, but a <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-makes-poison-dart-frogs-poisonous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a>. This distinction holds immense significance for scientists, as it sheds light on the different ecological roles, behaviors, and evolutionary paths of these two groups.



Adding to the intrigue, the newly identified frog species, now known as the Brazilian flea toad (Brachycephalus pulex), displayed highly unique characteristics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-and-physical-appearance">Size and physical appearance</h2>



The most impressive feature of the Brachycephalus pulex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/majestic-frog-named-after-fantasy-author-j-r-r-tolkien/">frog</a> is its incredibly small size. Male frogs of this species have an average body length of just a bit more than seven millimeters (that's about a quarter of an inch!).&nbsp;



Females are slightly larger, averaging about one millimeter longer than males. The smallest flea toad ever found was a tiny 6.45 millimeters long, even smaller than some insects.



This size is so small that two adult Brachycephalus pulex frogs could comfortably sit side-by-side on the tip of your pinky fingernail.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coloration-and-skin-of-the-flea-toad">Coloration and skin of the flea toad</h2>



The Brazilian flea toad stands out with its bright yellow-orange color, which scientists believe is a warning signal to predators. 



This "look, but don't touch" strategy, known as aposematism, is common among other members of the tiny species family. 



Their skin might actually contain toxins that make them unpleasant or even dangerous to eat, discouraging hungry animals from taking a bite. 



Interestingly, despite being called a "toad," the flea toad's skin is actually smoother than the bumpy, rough skin you might expect. Instead, it's similar to the smoother skin of its frog cousins. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and distribution</h2>



The tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eu-responsible-for-extinction-of-frog-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a> is only found on a few tiny hills in the southern part of Bahia. This very specific preference for a particular kind of place makes them quite vulnerable if anything happens to their environment. 



The flea toads evolved to fit in with these specific hills. Scientists think they might be used to a very particular set of tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-becoming-more-difficult-to-predict/">weather conditions</a> and plants that only grow in this special spot. So, if anything changes there, it could be bad news for these little frogs.&nbsp;



This limited range makes them what scientists call "endemic," meaning they're stuck to one tiny area and can't really live anywhere else. It's a risky adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anatomical-adaptations">Anatomical adaptations</h2>



Being so incredibly small, flea toads have evolved with some unique characteristics. For example, they have fewer toes than most frogs, which scientists think might be because of their small size. 



Some of them even have ears that haven't fully developed, which could mean they can't hear very well. 



These traits make scientists wonder how flea toads manage to talk to each other, find <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glass-frogs-wave-their-hands-and-feet-to-attract-mates/">mates</a>, and just live their lives in general. It's a scientific mystery waiting to be solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



The discovery is a significant scientific achievement. However, it also carries a crucial message for conservation efforts, particularly in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-biodiversity-hotspots-can-be-found-on-small-scales/">biodiversity hotspots</a> like southern Brazil.



Further research will likely explore the Brachycephalus pulex's ecological function, behavioral patterns, and evolutionary history, offering deeper insights into the life of this remarkable creature.



The scientists are also driven to investigate other remote, biodiverse regions, where undiscovered species might hold new records and expand our understanding of life's astonishing diversity.



All of the findings are published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/zsc.12654" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoologica Scripta</a>.



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Brazilian flea toad: World's smallest vertebrate is incredibly tiny 

Deep within Brazil's lush rainforests, scientists recently made a discovery...

The,Golden,Tree,Snake,(chrysopelea,Ornata),Is,Eating,Butterfly,Lizard

Over 100 million years ago, before snake evolution began, the world was a vastly different place, teeming with life forms that would seem alien to us today. 



Among these ancient creatures, the ancestors of modern snakes were just small lizards, inconspicuously navigating life under the colossal shadow of the dinosaurs. 



This humble beginning, however, was the prelude to one of evolution’s most fascinating tales of transformation and diversification.



The evolutionary leap from these modest lizards to the legless, highly adept predators we know today as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dipsadine-snakes-have-skulls-that-evolve-to-fit-their-needs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snakes</a> was nothing short of spectacular. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slithering-into-success-dawn-of-snake-evolution">Slithering into success: Dawn of snake evolution</h2>



Through a series of remarkable adaptations -- such as legless bodies adept at slithering, advanced chemical detection systems for tracking prey, and flexible skulls for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/move-over-burmese-pythons-these-snakes-are-the-true-eating-champions/">consuming large prey</a> -- snakes carved a niche for themselves in the natural world. 



These evolutionary innovations laid the groundwork for a significant diversification that would see snakes flourish in a post-dinosaur era, exploiting new ecological niches that emerged in the wake of the catastrophic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nuclear-winter-dinosaurs-were-likely-killed-by-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid impact</a> that decimated three-quarters of Earth's plant and animal species.



But what was the catalyst for this unprecedented adaptive radiation, which has resulted in nearly 4,000 species of snakes, marking them as one of evolution's unparalleled success stories? 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-diversity-speed-of-snake-evolution">Unraveling diversity: Speed of snake evolution</h2>



A fascinating genetic and dietary study led by an international team of biologists from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> provides a compelling answer: the remarkable speed of snake evolution.



According to the study, published online in the journal Science, snakes have evolved up to three times faster than lizards. 



This rapid evolution, encompassing significant shifts in <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/snake-evolution_early-lizards_credit-James-Erickson_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits related to feeding</a>, locomotion, and sensory processing, has allowed snakes to occupy ecological roles and prey on species inaccessible to other reptiles.



"Fundamentally, this study is about what makes an evolutionary winner," stated Daniel Rabosky, a University of Michigan evolutionary biologist and senior author of the study. 



Rabosky highlighted the crucial finding that snakes have evolved more rapidly than lizards in several key areas, enabling them to capitalize on opportunities that remained beyond the reach of other lizards.



He further emphasized the adaptive prowess of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-snakes-evolved-from-just-a-few-surviving-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snakes</a>, noting their versatility, flexibility, and ability to specialize in prey that other groups cannot exploit. 



This evolutionary advantage is attributed to the snakes' faster and, arguably, superior adaptation process compared to other reptiles.



"We found that snakes have been evolving faster than lizards in some important ways, and this speed of evolution has let them take advantage of new opportunities that other lizards could not," Rabosky said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crafting-the-snake-evolutionary-tree">Crafting the snake evolutionary tree</h2>



To arrive at these insights, researchers constructed the largest and most comprehensive evolutionary tree of snakes and lizards to date. 



This endeavor involved sequencing partial genomes for nearly 1,000 species and analyzing a vast dataset on the diets of these reptiles, which included records of stomach contents from tens of thousands of preserved museum specimens.



Employing sophisticated mathematical and statistical models, along with substantial computational resources, the team meticulously analyzed the evolutionary trajectories of snakes and lizards. 



This analysis shed light on the unique path snakes have taken, including the development of limblessness, which, although not exclusive to snakes, has led to a level of diversification unmatched by any other group of limbless reptiles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-leap-from-legs-to-no-legs">Evolutionary leap from legs to no legs</h2>



However, not all legless reptiles achieved the same level of evolutionary success as snakes. Take, for example, Australia's legless gecko, which, despite sharing some of the snakes' physical traits, has not diversified significantly. 



This disparity highlights a unique aspect of snakes: their unparalleled evolutionary flexibility and ecological diversity. 



"A standout aspect of snakes is how ecologically diverse they are: burrowing underground, living in freshwater, the ocean and almost every conceivable habitat on land," said Alexander Pyron, study co-author and an associate professor of biology at <a href="https://www.gwu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">George Washington University</a>. 



"While some lizards do some of these things -- and there are many more lizards than snakes -- there  are many more snakes in most of these habitats in most places."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-macroevolution-snakes-rapid-rise-to-diversity">Macroevolution: Snakes' rapid rise to diversity</h2>



The journey of snake evolution is described as a "macroevolutionary singularity" by the authors of the study, a term that denotes a sudden and significant shift in evolutionary dynamics. 



This concept suggests that snakes, through a series of crucial adaptations, were able to explore and exploit a broader spectrum of ecological niches, leading to the incredible variety of snake species we see today. 



From <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-protein-in-our-saliva-shares-an-origin-with-snake-venom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venomous</a> cobras to constricting pythons and specialized hunters of desert scorpions or tree-dwelling species feeding on snails and frog eggs, snakes have evolved to fill nearly every predatory niche imaginable.



One of the study's key findings, as highlighted by Rabosky, is the profound shift in feeding that sets snakes apart from other reptiles. 



"One of our key results is that snakes underwent a profound shift in feeding ecology that completely separates them from other reptiles," Rabosky said. "If there is an animal that can be eaten, it's likely that some snake, somewhere, has evolved the ability to eat it."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-mastery-and-the-prowess-of-snakes">Dietary mastery and the prowess of snakes</h2>



This adaptability in diet reflects the evolutionary prowess of snakes, allowing them to become one of the most ecologically versatile and successful groups of predators on the planet.



The research, which involved analyzing dietary preferences through the examination of over 60,000 snake and lizard specimens from natural history museums, sheds light on the secretive lives of snakes and the complexity of their diets. 



"Museum specimens give us this incredible window into how organisms make a living in nature. For secretive animals like snakes, it's almost impossible to get this kind of data any other way because it's hard to observe a lot of their behavior directly," said study co-lead author Pascal Title of <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook University</a>, who completed his doctorate at U-M in 2018.



This collaborative effort, involving 20 authors from various institutions worldwide, showcases the integration of field data, genomic analysis, and new analytical methods to reveal the exceptional nature of snakes. 



As Sonal Singhal, a co-lead author, remarks, the study confirms the unique biological traits of snakes, combining hard-earned data with scientific innovation to celebrate the evolutionary triumph of these remarkable reptiles.



"What I love about this study is how it integrates hard-earned field and museum data with new genomic and analytical methods to show a basic biological truth: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-group-of-snakes-has-a-new-evolutionary-tree/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Snakes</a> are exceptional and frankly quite cool," Singhal concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legacy-of-evolution-snakes-as-nature-s-innovators">Legacy of evolution: Snakes as nature's innovators</h2>



In summary, this important highlights the evolutionary journey of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-antivenom-to-heal-all-snakebites-is-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snakes</a> and their unique place in the natural world. 



By evolving at a pace up to three times faster than lizards, snakes have managed to adapt in ways that allowed them to thrive in diverse environments, from deserts to oceans, and to develop an unparalleled dietary versatility. 



Daniel Rabosky's assertion that snakes have become evolutionary winners due to their rapid adaptation underscores their remarkable journey from their legless lizard ancestors to becoming one of the most ecologically diverse and successful groups of reptiles on the planet. 



Their ability to exploit a wide array of prey types, ranging from desert scorpions to frog eggs high in the tree canopy, speaks to an evolutionary agility that is both fascinating and unparalleled.



Pascal Title and Sonal Singhal's comments reflect the excitement and importance of integrating traditional fieldwork with modern genomic analysis to unlock the secrets of snake evolution. The scientists focus on the exceptional nature of snakes and emphasize the value of museum collections in providing insights into the natural world. 



As we continue to explore the depths of Earth's biodiversity, studies like this one offer invaluable perspectives on the complexity and dynamism of evolutionary processes, reminding us of the intricate web of life that has evolved over millions of years.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh2449" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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How legless lizards evolved into snakes over 100 million years ago

Over 100 million years ago, before snake evolution began, the...

Marine mammals such as whales and dolphins rely on their diet, which consists of fish, squid, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-ringed-octopus-a-master-of-deception-inspires-new-technology/">octopus</a>, crustaceans, and other marine animals, to obtain necessary nutrients and elements. This diet, however, also exposes them to hazardous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heavy-metals-in-food-pose-a-threat-to-childrens-health/">heavy metals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-health-implications-nbsp">Human health implications&nbsp;</h2>



Research has shown that dolphins and whales stranded along the Southeastern Coast of the U.S. have high toxin levels. 



The importance of tracking these contaminants in stranded <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-waste-may-be-disrupting-the-sex-lives-of-marine-animals/">marine animals</a>, which are key indicators of oceanic pollution and may have implications for human health, cannot be overstated.



Despite the critical nature of this issue, comprehensive data on how these toxins distribute within the bodies of these animals, particularly for less commonly encountered species, and how toxin levels vary with the animal's sex, species, age, and other demographic details is lacking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-toxins-in-stranded-whales-and-dolphins">Studying toxins in stranded whales and dolphins</h2>



A study led by the <a href="https://www.fau.edu/hboi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute</a> at Florida Atlantic University, sought to investigate the presence, concentrations, and distribution of essential and non-essential trace elements, including heavy metals, in various tissues (blubber, kidney, liver, muscle, skin) and fecal samples from 90 stranded whales and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-have-accents-that-vary-by-region/">dolphins</a> in Georgia and Florida between 2007 and 2021.



This investigation analyzed 319 samples from nine species - including pygmy sperm whales, dwarf sperm whales, Gervais’ beaked whales, Risso’s dolphins, short-finned pilot whales, sperm whales, melon-headed whales, a Blainville’s beaked whale, and a false <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whale-mothers-pay-a-high-price-for-raising-sons/">killer whale</a> - for seven essential (cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, zinc) and five non-essential (arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, thallium) elements. 



The species studied were of high and similar trophic levels, subsisting on a diet of cephalopods and fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varying-levels-of-contamination-nbsp">Varying levels of contamination&nbsp;</h2>



The experts found that Risso’s dolphins and short-finned pilot whales exhibited the highest median concentrations of mercury, cadmium, and lead. In contrast, dwarf sperm whales showed the lowest levels of these contaminants.



Significantly, adult pygmy and dwarf sperm whales stranded from 2019 to 2021 demonstrated increased concentrations of several heavy metals compared to those stranded from 2010 to 2018, indicating a growing exposure risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interesting-trends-nbsp">Interesting trends&nbsp;</h2>



“When we separated phylogenetic groups into age classes and compared median concentrations of heavy metals in specific tissue types between adult specimens of species, we found some interesting trends,” said senior author Annie Page, an associate research professor and clinical veterinarian at FAU Harbor Branch.



Fecal samples, which are collected non-invasively, had the highest concentrations of many elements. Besides fecal samples, the liver or hepatic tissues contained the most iron, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, and selenium; kidneys or renal tissues had the highest cadmium levels; skin had the highest zinc levels; and the liver and kidneys primarily contained copper, arsenic, and lead.



The researchers found the lowest median concentrations of mercury and cadmium in liver, kidney, blubber, and muscle samples, with dwarf sperm whales having the lowest skin mercury concentration and the lowest liver lead concentration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heavy-metal-exposure">Heavy metal exposure</h2>



Mercury, a particularly toxic element in marine environments, can accumulate and magnify through the food web, with cetaceans ingesting mercury mainly through contaminated prey.



“Exposure to heavy metal contaminants can result in oxidative stress, which can impair protein function, damage DNA and disrupt membrane lipids,” Page explained. “Heavy metal exposure has been linked to degenerative heart disease, immunodeficiency and increased parasite infestations, among other disease risks.”



“Because tissue concentrations of heavy metal contaminants also vary based on an individual animal’s sex, age class, trophic level and location, among other factors, it is important to first establish baseline values and then continue to monitor cetacean populations for exposure to these toxicants,” Page concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-stranded-whales-and-dolphins">More about stranded whales and dolphins</h2>



As discussed above, the phenomenon of whales and dolphins stranding on beaches has captured global attention, sparking concern and mobilizing rescue efforts from communities around the world. 



These majestic creatures, known for their intelligence and complex social structures, face numerous challenges in their natural habitats, with stranding events highlighting the urgent need for research, conservation, and intervention strategies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-causes">Understanding the causes</h3>



Stranding, also known as beaching, occurs when whales or dolphins wash ashore and are unable to return to the water. 



These incidents can involve individual animals or mass strandings, where dozens or even hundreds of animals beach themselves simultaneously. Researchers identify several potential causes behind these distressing events:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-and-health-factors">Environmental and health factors</h3>



Changes in the marine environment, such as extreme weather, shifting tides, and alterations in the ocean floor, can disorient marine mammals, leading to accidental strandings. Additionally, unhealthy water conditions, including pollution and harmful algal blooms, contribute to the distress of these animals.



Diseases and injuries can weaken whales and dolphins, making it difficult for them to swim and navigate effectively. Parasitic infections, malnutrition, and physical trauma are common health issues that may lead to stranding.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-responses">Human activities and responses</h3>



Human activities, including shipping, fishing, and naval exercises, significantly impact marine mammals. Noise pollution from ships and sonar disrupts the echolocation abilities of dolphins and whales, leading to disorientation and stranding. Fishing nets and gear also pose entanglement risks, which can result in injury or death.



When whales or dolphins strand, time is of the essence. Rescue operations require coordinated efforts from trained volunteers, wildlife experts, and local communities. The primary goals are to keep the animals comfortable, hydrated, and to attempt refloating them back to the sea when conditions allow.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rescue-teams-and-monitoring-stranded-whales-and-dolphins">Rescue teams and monitoring stranded whales and dolphins</h3>



Specialized rescue organizations and local authorities often lead these efforts, employing techniques and equipment designed to safely assist stranded animals. 



Public involvement is crucial, with community members providing support through monitoring beaches, reporting strandings, and participating in rescue activities under expert guidance.



Scientists seize the opportunity to study stranded animals, collecting data that can shed light on the health of marine populations and the challenges they face. Autopsies of deceased animals offer valuable insights into causes of death and disease prevalence, informing conservation strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stranded-whales-and-dolphins-the-path-forward">Stranded whales and dolphins: The path forward</h2>



Addressing the root causes of strandings requires a multifaceted approach. Reducing pollution, regulating fishing practices, and minimizing noise pollution are critical steps toward safeguarding marine habitats. 



Public education and awareness campaigns play a vital role in fostering a sense of stewardship for the ocean and its inhabitants.



Protecting marine mammals is a global challenge that demands international collaboration. Agreements and policies that promote marine conservation and regulate human activities at sea are essential for the well-being of whales, dolphins, and other marine life.



Local communities can contribute significantly to conservation efforts. Participating in beach clean-ups, supporting marine protected areas, and advocating for responsible practices can all help mitigate the factors leading to strandings.



In summary, the stranding of whales and dolphins is a complex issue that reflects broader environmental challenges. Through research, conservation efforts, and global cooperation, it is possible to reduce the frequency of these tragic events. 



Each stranding is a reminder of our shared responsibility to protect marine life and the ecosystems that support it. By working together, we can ensure a healthier future for these magnificent creatures and the ocean they call home.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25552" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heliyon</a>.



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Stranded whales and dolphins have high toxin levels in their bodies

Marine mammals such as whales and dolphins rely on their...

The Gill Oxygen Limitation (GOL) theory suggests that fish are shrinking as global waters warm due to the limited surface area of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-shoulders-evolved-from-the-jawbones-of-ancient-fish-called-placoderms/">gills</a>, which constrains oxygen uptake. 



However, this widely accepted hypothesis has been recently challenged by a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a>.



The research, focusing on brook trout, found that while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-fish-shrink/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">higher temperatures</a> indeed resulted in smaller fish sizes, the change was not directly linked to gill surface area limitations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-temperature-on-fish-size">Impact of temperature on fish size</h2>



Joshua Lonthair, a lecturer in biology at UMass Amherst and the study's lead author, emphasized the uncertainty surrounding the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-temperature-threshold-can-the-human-body-handle/">temperature</a> on fish sizes.



"We know that global climate change is happening and our oceans and rivers are getting warmer. And we know that many animals - not just fish - are growing to smaller adult body sizes under warmer temperatures. We even have a name for this, the Temperature Size Rule. But despite decades of research, we still don’t understand why size decreases as temperature increases."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers set out to examine the effects of increased water temperatures on three critical aspects of the Gill Oxygen Limitation (GOL) theory: the growth rate, energy needs, and gill surface area of fish. 



They chose brook trout as their subjects due to the species' rapid growth, significance to both the economy and ecology of the Northeastern U.S., and ease of study.



The team started the experiment with young brook trout, each weighing between one and two grams, placing them in tanks of either standard 15º Celsius water or warmer 20º Celsius water.&nbsp;



The experts monitored the fish's weight and size monthly from the beginning, alongside measurements of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-less-oxygen-could-extend-your-lifespan-by-50-or-more/">oxygen</a> consumption after two weeks, three months, and six months to gauge their metabolic rates. Additionally, they collected samples of the gills from these fish to assess any changes in their surface area over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fish-are-getting-smaller">Why fish are getting smaller</h2>



Analysis of the collected data revealed significant findings: the brook trout in the heated tanks exhibited reduced size, consistent with the Temperature Size Rule expectations.&nbsp;



Interestingly, the data also showed that the gill surface area was sufficient for the fish's oxygen needs, contradicting the GOL theory's assumption that limited gill surface area restricts growth at higher temperatures.



Moreover, although the metabolic rates of fish in the warmer tanks initially increased, indicating higher oxygen consumption, these rates normalized by the six-month mark. This adaptation suggests that brook trout can physiologically adjust to warmer conditions over time, further challenging the GOL theory's premise that temperature-induced oxygen limitations constrain fish growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-future-climate-impacts-nbsp">Predicting future climate impacts&nbsp;</h2>



“Oxygen use may still be an important limiting factor in fish size but, taken together, our findings show that GOL cannot predict what we’re seeing, and this has implications for predicting climate impacts on future fisheries and ecosystems,” Lonthair said



"Our work highlights the importance of interdisciplinarity. Fisheries and macroecology scientists tend to work on the population and species level, while the physiologists tend to work on the individual and cellular levels. But these are academic distinctions, not natural ones, and if we’re going to help fish survive warming waters, we need to work across biological scales and join the insights of all these fields," added senior author Professor Lisa Komoroske.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed-nbsp">Further research is needed&nbsp;</h2>



Thus, the research not only questions the validity of the GOL theory but also underscores the need for more comprehensive studies to fully understand the factors influencing fish size reduction in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flash-droughts-are-increasing-around-the-world-due-to-warming-climate/">warming climate</a>.&nbsp;



The study advocates for additional interdisciplinary research to adapt our fisheries management strategies to the realities of our changing world, moving beyond the simplistic explanations provided by theories like GOL.



So what are the precise mechanisms governing fish size and temperature? “We don’t know yet,” said Lonthair. “And it may not be a single mechanism - it may be a host of factors, including oxygen use. We need more interdisciplinary long-term studies so that we can understand how best to adjust to our warming world.”



The study authors collaborated with researchers from the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>, <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Geological Survey</a>, and the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California Davis</a>.



The research is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.246477" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



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Fish are getting smaller as waters temperatures rise

The Gill Oxygen Limitation (GOL) theory suggests that fish are...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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