<p>Two iconic dinosaurs - <em>Tyrannosaurus rex</em> and <em>Brachylophosaurus canadensis</em> - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. </p>



<p>In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.</p>



<p>The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.</p>



<p>Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. </p>



<p>Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



<p>The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.</p>



<p>“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. </p>



<p>“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”</p>



<p>That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.</p>



<p>“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.</p>



<p>RR spectra from <em>T. rex</em> and <em>Brachylophosaurus</em> extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.</p>



<p>The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



<p>Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. </p>



<p>That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.</p>



<p>“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. </p>



<p>"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”</p>



<p>The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. </p>



<p>RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.</p>



<p>Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



<p>Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. </p>



<p>Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.</p>



<p>That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. </p>



<p>Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.</p>



<p>Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



<p>The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. </p>



<p>Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.</p>



<p>For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. </p>



<p>Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



<p>For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.</p>



<p>“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. </p>



<p>“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”</p>



<p>The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. </p>



<p>That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</em></a>.</p>



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

Tropical,Blue,Ocean,With,White,Sand,And,Stones,Underwater,In

<p>In river mouths flowing into the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, every aquatic species is contaminated with microplastic pollution, according to an alarming new study.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mollusk-shells-reveal-new-clues-about-past-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mollusks</a>, especially mussels and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/self-repairing-oyster-reefs-will-help-protect-coastlines/">oysters</a>, are the most affected. This is because mollusks are filter feeders that process large volumes of water to obtain food.</p>



<p>The study was conducted as part of the International Project "i-plastic" led by the Institute of Environmental Science and Technology of the <a href="https://www.uab.cat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona</a> (ICTA-UAB). Universities in Italy, Portugal, Brazil and Spain have also participated in the project, which was funded by <a href="https://jpi-oceans.eu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JPI-Oceans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-microplastic-pollution">Studying microplastic pollution</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-inhale-the-equivalent-of-a-credit-card-in-microplastics-each-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microplastics</a> range in size from 5 to 0.0001 mm, and even smaller nanoplastics. They are a significant source of pollution, particularly in estuaries which act as hotspots for their accumulation. </p>



<p>These particles are hazardous as they can capture harmful chemicals and enter the food web, leading to bioaccumulation in higher trophic levels, including commercially valuable species.</p>



<p>The i-plastic team analyzed the presence of micro- and nanoplastics in estuaries and their adjacent coasts.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-results">Alarming results</h2>



<p>The results are highly concerning: 85% of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-freshwater-mussels-are-threatened-by-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mussels</a> and 53% of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/self-repairing-oyster-reefs-will-help-protect-coastlines/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oysters</a> were found to have ingested microplastics. </p>



<p>In addition, 75% of estuarine-dependent marine fishes contained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/upper-ocean-layer-contains-24-trillion-pieces-of-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> or synthetic microfibers in their gut. Furthermore, over 85% of species in coastal regions are affected by estuarine outflow, such as European hake and Norwegian lobster.</p>



<p>Nanoplastics, due to their smaller size, pose an even greater risk as they can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-embedded-in-tissues-of-whales-and-dolphins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penetrate cellular membranes</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ubiquitous-issue">Ubiquitous issue</h2>



<p>"Pollution is ubiquitous in estuaries and their adjacent coasts, in the Mediterranean, and in tropical and temperate zones," said Patrizia Ziveri, an oceanographer at ICTA-UAB and the project coordinator.</p>



<p>She noted that the amount of accumulated particles in sediments has increased in recent decades at the same rate as global plastic production. In addition, since 2000, the particles deposited on the seafloor have tripled. This pollution extends to coral reef systems, causing a reduction in their growth and posing a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-sea-ice-algae-heavily-contaminated-with-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global threat</a>. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signature-of-human-pollution-nbsp">Signature of human pollution&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The experts found that areas near urban centers and wastewater treatment plants are particularly polluted with microfibers. This is the most common type of microlitter. When these particles are trapped on the seafloor, they do not degrade due to lack of erosion, oxygen and light. </p>



<p>"Plastics from the 1960s still remain on the seabed, leaving the signature of human pollution," said Michael Grelaud, oceanographer at ICTA-UAB and coordinator of this project.</p>



<p>Particles that are not deposited on the seabed can be transported by ocean currents and tides hundreds of kilometers in just a few months. "A microplastic from the Ebro estuary in the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea can reach Sicily, in Italy, in six months," said Ziveri.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bioremediation-of-microplastic-pollution">Bioremediation of microplastic pollution</h2>



<p>The researchers emphasize that bioremediation -- the use of living organisms to remove pollutants from water -- is one of the few viable options available for reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-clouds-may-be-affecting-the-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastic</a> pollution in coastal marine environments. </p>



<p>Laboratory experiments showed that filter-feeder communities could remove nearly 90% of microplastics from surrounding waters. This presents a potentially very effective method to mitigate this environmental crisis.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-and-microplastic-pollution">Fish and microplastic pollution</h2>



<p>As discussed above, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-exposure-linked-to-changes-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastic</a> pollution, involving tiny plastic particles less than five millimeters in diameter, poses a severe threat to marine life, especially fish. </p>



<p>These plastics come from various sources, such as decomposing larger plastic waste, cosmetic products, and synthetic fibers from clothing. They accumulate in water bodies, creating a significant environmental hazard.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-infiltrating-marine-ecosystems">Microplastics infiltrating marine ecosystems</h3>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-driving-the-surge-of-microplastics-found-in-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microplastics</a> make their way into marine ecosystems through runoff water, rivers, and direct ocean dumping. In the ocean, these particles blend with the natural habitat, making them almost indistinguishable from the surrounding environment. Fish, mistaking microplastics for food, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consumption-of-microplastics-cant-be-avoided-and-they-damage-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consume</a> these particles, leading to direct health consequences.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastic-pollution-impact-on-fish">Microplastic pollution impact on fish</h3>



<p>When fish ingest microplastics, the particles can cause physical blockages and internal injuries. More insidiously, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-have-a-new-method-to-estimate-the-age-of-microplastics-in-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> often carry toxic substances. These include industrial chemicals and pollutants, which can accumulate in the tissues of marine organisms. This accumulation not only affects the health and reproductive capabilities of fish but also poses a risk to predators higher up the food chain, including humans who consume fish.</p>



<p>Recent research has consistently found microplastics in various fish species, both in wild and farmed populations. These studies highlight the pervasiveness of microplastic pollution across different marine environments. Researchers are actively studying the long-term impacts of microplastics on fish health, growth, and reproduction, with initial findings pointing towards various negative outcomes.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-to-combat-microplastic-pollution">Strategies to combat microplastic pollution</h3>



<p>Addressing the issue of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citizen-scientists-uncover-microplastics-in-the-remote-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> in our oceans requires both preventive and corrective measures. Prevention involves reducing overall plastic use, improving recycling, and banning microbeads in consumer products. Corrective measures include cleaning up existing plastic pollution and enhancing wastewater treatment processes to capture microplastics before they reach the ocean.</p>



<p>In summary, the presence of microplastics in fish is a critical environmental issue that requires immediate attention. It calls for a collective effort from individuals, industries, and governments worldwide to reduce plastic pollution and safeguard our marine ecosystems. Consumers can contribute by reducing their plastic footprint and supporting eco-friendly initiatives.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-in-estuaries-nbsp">Microplastics in estuaries&nbsp;</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-contaminate-all-lakes-and-freshwater-environments-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microplastics</a> in estuaries present a significant environmental concern. Estuaries, being transitional zones between river environments and maritime seas, are crucial ecosystems that often bear the brunt of pollution from both marine and terrestrial sources. The impact of microplastics in estuaries is multifaceted:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-impact">Biodiversity impact</h3>



<p>Estuaries are rich in biodiversity, hosting various species of fish, birds, and plants. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-linger-in-riverbeds-for-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microplastics</a> can be ingested by marine organisms, leading to physical harm and potential toxicological effects. This ingestion can occur directly or through the food chain, affecting a wide range of organisms.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-contamination">Chemical contamination</h3>



<p>Microplastics often contain or absorb harmful chemicals. When ingested by aquatic life, these chemicals can bioaccumulate, posing health risks to the organisms and potentially transferring these risks up the food chain, including to humans.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-alteration">Habitat alteration</h3>



<p>Accumulation of microplastics can alter the physical properties of estuarine habitats, affecting the growth and health of various aquatic plants and animals.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-health-risks">Human health risks</h3>



<p>As humans consume seafood from these estuaries, there's a potential risk of ingesting microplastics and associated chemicals, which can have unknown health implications.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystem-services-impact">Ecosystem services impact</h3>



<p>Estuaries provide important ecosystem services such as water filtration, flood control, and as nurseries for fish. The presence of microplastics can compromise these services, affecting both the environment and human populations that depend on these services.</p>



<p>Addressing the microplastics issue in estuaries requires a combination of approaches, including reducing plastic use and waste, improving waste management systems, public education, and conducting further research to understand the full impact of microplastics on these vital ecosystems.</p>



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Microplastic pollution found in every aquatic species tested

In river mouths flowing into the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic...

<p>Contrary to the widespread practice of social distancing in humans, house finches exhibit an increased tendency to socialize when they are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-may-be-isolating-too-long-for-covid-19-infection/">sick</a>, particularly during feeding times. This is the conclusion of a recent study led by Marissa Langager, a PhD student in the Department of Biological Sciences at <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-distancing">Social distancing</h2>



<p>While most social animals tend to isolate when sick, house finches behave differently. They show an increased inclination to be around their healthy flock mates. A notable aspect of their behavior is their preference to eat in the company of their flock, more so when they are unwell.</p>



<p>“The recent pandemic years of isolating and quarantining have shown us that social distancing to avoid getting sick can also have detrimental aspects for group living animals,” said Langager.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The costs of going solo may be particularly high for sick animals especially if they rely on their healthy groupmates to help them find food or avoid predators. Ultimately, this might be the reason that finches become even more social when sick, inadvertently putting their healthy flock mates at risk because bird feeders, where house finches like to gather to feed, are a major means of spreading disease.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights-nbsp">Critical insights&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study is one of the first to directly examine how acute infections caused by contagious pathogens influence social preferences. Langager noted that this research sheds light on how social animals behave when sick and can inform other studies in the field.</p>



<p>“Since all social animals - including humans - get sick, it is important to understand the costs and benefits of group living more broadly,” said Langager.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We may be able to use this information to predict disease spread in social animals. And it can also help us understand when and where we might expect healthy animals to evolve the ability to avoid sick groupmates who remain in the group at risk to their healthy groupmates. "</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-nbsp">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Intrigued by the unexpected results, Langager plans to delve deeper into the reasons behind sick finches' preference for social eating in her doctoral dissertation. She aims to understand why sick birds exert energy to maintain social connections, hypothesizing significant benefits to this behavior.</p>



<p>Langager is designing experiments to assess how group dynamics influence a sick bird's response to predators and their foraging success.</p>



<p>“Maintaining social relationships can take a lot of energy for the birds I study," said Langager. "So if these birds are putting forth the energy to keep hanging around their social groups even when they are sick, it is most likely because of the benefit to them."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-house-finches">House finches</h2>



<p>House finches are small, colorful songbirds known for their vibrant plumage and melodious songs. They display a variety of interesting characteristics and behaviors.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



<p>Males typically display bright red, orange, or yellowish plumage on their heads, necks, and chests, creating a striking contrast against their more brownish-gray feathered bodies.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By contrast, female house finches have brownish-gray feathers with subtle streaks, exhibiting a more subdued appearance compared to the males.</p>



<p>These birds are about the size of a house sparrow but are more slender in build. They possess a strong, cone-shaped beak that is slightly curved, an adaptation that allows them to efficiently crack open seeds, which form a significant part of their diet.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



<p>House finches are quite adaptable and are often found in settled areas such as city parks and residential backyards. They are known to build nests in various urban structures, including chimneys, attics, and dryer vents. Social creatures by nature, they typically travel in pairs or small groups and are monogamous.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-behavior-nbsp">Social behavior&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Their social behavior extends to their feeding habits. During the day, they can be seen perching on trees or power lines, and at night, they roost in small groups in trees. The loud, warbling song of the house finch is a familiar sound, particularly after sunrise and just before sunset during the breeding season.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finch-family">Finch family</h3>



<p>House finches are closely related to the Cassin’s Finch and the Purple Finch, all of which are part of the taxonomic genus Haemorhous, sometimes collectively referred to as American Rosefinches. Originally native to the Southwest, these adaptable and cheery-voiced birds have expanded their range and are now common across the United States.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.10627" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Ecology and Evolution</em></a>.&nbsp;</p>



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House finches become more social when they're sick

Contrary to the widespread practice of social distancing in humans,...

<p>A study from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a> has revealed fascinating new details about cat communication, focusing on the role of scent and bacteria in their interactions. The experts found that domestic cats send signals to each other using odors derived from bacteria living in their anal glands.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research was conducted by Connie Rojas, a postdoctoral researcher, and Professor Jonathan Eisen from the UC Davis Department of Evolution and Ecology and Genome Center.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-communication">Animal communication</h2>



<p>Many different animals use scents to communicate with each other. This form of communication is especially important in the animal kingdom.</p>



<p>Some mammals mark their territory with scents. This serves as a warning to others of their presence and claims over an area.</p>



<p>Scents play a crucial role in the mating behaviors of various mammals. They can indicate when an individual is ready to mate or help in selecting a genetically compatible mate.</p>



<p>Animals express fear, aggression, or other emotions through scents. This is often a way to communicate danger or assert dominance. Scents can also help mammals identify each other.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-and-odor">Microbes and odor</h2>



<p>The UC Davis study adds to a growing body of research on the relationship between microbes and odor in mammals.</p>



<p>"Many mammals rely on volatile organic chemical compounds (VOCs) produced by bacteria for their communication and behavior, though little is known about the exact molecular mechanisms or bacterial species that are responsible," wrote the study authors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>Rojas led a detailed three-part investigation into the anal gland secretions of domestic cats, utilizing advanced techniques like DNA sequencing, mass spectrometry, and microbial culturing. The goal was to understand the chemical composition of these secretions and the microbes responsible for their production.</p>



<p>The subjects of the study were 23 domestic cats, patients at the UC Davis Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, who were undergoing elective procedures like dental cleaning. Their participation was authorized by their owners through written consent.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-findings">Significant findings</h2>



<p>The team discovered a highly variable microbiome in the cats' anal glands. Predominantly, five bacterial genera - Corynebacterium, Bacteroides, Proteus, Lactobacillus, and Streptococcus - were found.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, there was considerable variation in the microbial makeup among individual cats. Notably, older cats tended to have a different microbiome compared to younger ones. The experts also observed variations in obese cats, although the sample size was too small for definitive conclusions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-environment-nbsp">Living environment&nbsp;</h2>



<p>"Interestingly, we did find evidence that the microbiome functional repertoires in the anal gland were associated with host living environment; cats that lived indoors had microbiome functions that were not identical to cats that had outdoor access," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"It is thought that cats with outdoor access are more likely to be infected with parasites than indoor-only cats but may have more exposure to natural enrichment and mental stimulation. Conversely, cats that have an indoor-only lifestyle may experience reduced physical activity, greater food consumption, and less natural enrichment."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Nonetheless, it is not clear how these lifestyle differences and contact with the outdoors could be linked to functional differences in the anal gland microbiome."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anal-gland-microbiome-nbsp">Anal gland microbiome&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The researchers said it is important to acknowledge that another factor and source of variation in anal gland microbiome profiles could be the perianal skin surrounding the gland itself and the rectum.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Due to their physical proximity and host grooming behaviors, it is possible that there are microbes in the anal gland that came from the skin or rectum."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organic-compounds-nbsp">Organic compounds&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Further analysis of the chemicals in the anal glands revealed the presence of hundreds of organic compounds. Genetic analysis suggested that the residing bacteria are producing these organic compounds - including aldehydes, alcohols, esters, and ketones - which form the basis of cats' unique scents.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While these odors are mostly imperceptible to humans, they play a crucial role in cats' social behaviors, such as marking territory, attracting mates, and repelling rivals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-cat-communication">More about cat communication</h2>



<p>Cat communication is a complex and multifaceted aspect of feline behavior, encompassing a variety of vocalizations, body language, and scent signals. Understanding these different modes of communication can provide deeper insights into the world of cats.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vocalizations">Vocalizations</h3>



<p>Cats use a range of vocalizations to communicate. For example, cats typically use meows to communicate with humans. Kittens meow to get attention from their mothers, but adult cats usually reserve meowing for human interactions.</p>



<p>Purring often signifies contentment and can also be a comfort-seeking behavior when a cat is nervous or in pain. Hissing and growling sounds indicate fear, aggression, or territoriality.</p>



<p>Cats may chirp or chatter when a cat is watching birds or other prey animals, possibly expressing frustration or excitement.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-language">Body language</h3>



<p>Cats convey much through their body posture, tail movements, ear positions, and facial expressions.</p>



<ul>
<li>Tail position: A raised tail generally indicates happiness or confidence, while a tucked tail suggests fear or submission. A twitching or lashing tail can signal irritation.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Ear movements: Forward-facing ears show interest, while flattened ears may indicate fear, aggression, or irritation.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Whiskers and eyes: Forward-facing whiskers and dilated pupils can indicate excitement or playfulness, while constricted pupils might suggest aggression.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-marking">Scent marking</h3>



<p>As highlighted in the UC Davis study, scent plays a vital role in cat communication. Cats have scent glands in various body parts, including their cheeks, paws, and base of their tails. They use these to mark territory, identify familiar objects, or signal their reproductive status.</p>



<ul>
<li>Cheek Rubbing: When cats rub their faces on objects (or people), they are marking them with their scent, claiming them as familiar or safe.</li>



<li>Scratching: Cats also leave scent marks from their paws when they scratch surfaces, serving both as a visual and olfactory territorial marker.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kneading">Kneading</h3>



<p>Kneading is a behavior cats retain from kittenhood, where they would knead their mother’s belly to stimulate milk flow. In adulthood, it's often associated with contentment and may also serve as a way to mark territory with scent glands in their paws.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grooming">Grooming</h3>



<p>Cats groom themselves for cleanliness, but when they groom other cats (or humans), it's a sign of affection and bonding, also known as allogrooming.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-45997-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Scientific Reports</em></a>.</p>



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Cat communication is driven by bacteria in their anal glands

A study from UC Davis has revealed fascinating new details...

Chimpanzee,Using,Artificial,Termite,Mound

<p>A new study has shed light on the intriguing behavior of termite fishing by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-chimpanzees-and-humans-learn-to-communicate-in-the-same-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>, offering insights into their foraging cognition and seasonal dietary preferences.</p>



<p>The research was led by teams from the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California Santa Cruz</a> (UCSC) and <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> (UCL) </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-termite-fishing">Termite fishing</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-chimpanzee-day-celebrating-our-closest-cousins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimpanzees</a>, known for their intelligence and tool-using abilities, have been observed fishing for termites. The researchers wanted to learn more about this behavior, particularly its timing and motivation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Though we can never read a chimpanzee’s thoughts, we can perhaps start to get an idea of their expectations of resource availability by analyzing the instances in which they arrive at termite mounds and investigate them for fishing viability," said study senior author Dr. Vicky Oelze.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutrient-sources">Nutrient sources</h2>



<p>Termites serve as a vital nutrient source for chimpanzees. Despite the availability of other food sources in the wet season, chimpanzees exhibit a preference for termite fishing during this period.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This behavior is influenced by the dispersal flights of termites, which occur early in the wet season, making them more accessible to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tactical-warfare-chimpanzees-seek-high-ground-to-spy-on-rivals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-issa-valley-nbsp">Issa Valley&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study was conducted in the Issa Valley, Tanzania. The team analyzed meteorological data and camera trap footage. The researchers also attempted termite fishing with chimpanzee-like tools and techniques.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“When I first visited the Issa Valley, I quickly learned that it was more difficult to termite fish than I had expected,” said study co-author Seth Phillips. “It alerted me to the idea that effective foraging for these termite prey might be more complicated than people commonly understand it.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-success-rate-nbsp">Success rate&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Of the 1,924 termite fishing attempts recorded, 363 were successful. The success rate correlated with rainfall, peaking when cumulative rainfall was between 50-200mm and diminishing after 200mm.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This pattern aligns with termite mound activity and dispersal flights, which are predominantly observed in the wet season and reduce significantly after 400mm of rainfall.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-foraging-cognition-nbsp">Foraging cognition&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“We are currently reviewing camera trap footage of the chimpanzee behaviors at these mounds,” said Phillips. “We want to know how chimps adapt their searching behavior according to seasonal changes."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"For instance, do they investigate termite mounds directly after rainfall after a long dry spell? This data could say something interesting about their foraging cognition as related to tool-use.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-use">Tool use</h2>



<p>The team found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-not-the-only-primates-that-experience-menopause/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> were among the most frequently recorded predators at termite mounds during dispersal flights and they often arrived carrying a tool. According to the researchers, the chimpanzees use tools to termite fish because they can, not because they need to.</p>



<p>In some communities, such as Gombe Stream, chimpanzees fish for termites all year, but this activity peaks in the wet season. The experts noted that some year-round fishers may be benefiting from softer soil or more effective toolsets.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-conclusion">Study conclusion</h2>



<p>"In summary, the results of this study indicate that the seasonality of termite-fishing in the Issa Valley is likely driven in large part by the seasonal reproductive ecology of Macrotermes, which is in turn driven by meteorological factors, in particular cumulative rainfall," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>"This explanation aligns with the 'opportunity' hypothesis of cultural variation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-have-a-much-more-complex-language-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzee</a> tool use behavior in this case on seasonality. Similar research on Macrotermes reproductive life cycle is warranted at other chimpanzee termite-fishing sites in order to clarify differences in seasonal exploitation of this resource."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-chimpanzees-and-tools">More about chimpanzees and tools</h2>



<p>Chimpanzees, our closest living relatives in the animal kingdom, exhibit a remarkable ability to use tools, showcasing their intelligence and adaptability. This behavior not only provides insights into their cognitive abilities but also offers a window into the evolution of human tool use.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-and-evolution-of-chimpanzee-tool-use">Origins and evolution of chimpanzee tool use</h3>



<p>Chimpanzees have been using tools for thousands of years. This practice likely evolved as a response to environmental challenges and the need to access new food sources. Tool use in chimpanzees varies by region, indicating a form of cultural learning and transmission of knowledge across generations.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-tools-and-their-uses">Types of tools and their uses</h3>



<p>Chimpanzees demonstrate the use of a variety of tools for different purposes:</p>



<ol type="1" start="1">
<li>Termite Fishing: As discussed previously in this article, chimpanzees use sticks to extract termites from their mounds. They modify the sticks to the appropriate length and thickness, showing an understanding of the task at hand.<br></li>



<li>Nut Cracking: Chimpanzees use stones or hard wood as hammers to crack open nuts, displaying an understanding of how to use force and objects to achieve a goal.<br></li>



<li>Leaf Sponges: To access water from hard-to-reach places, chimpanzees create sponges from leaves, demonstrating their ability to use materials creatively.</li>
</ol>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-learning-and-cultural-variations">Social learning and cultural variations</h3>



<p>Chimpanzees learn tool use primarily through observation and imitation, a key aspect of their social learning. Young chimpanzees watch their mothers and other group members use tools and mimic these behaviors. There are distinct regional differences in tool use, suggesting a form of culture among chimpanzee communities.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-human-evolution">Understanding human evolution</h3>



<p>Chimpanzee tool use has significant implications for understanding human evolution. It provides clues about the cognitive capabilities of our common ancestors and the evolutionary roots of human tool use. The study of chimpanzees continues to reveal the complex nature of their intelligence and problem-solving skills.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h3>



<p>As we continue to study chimpanzee tool use, it's vital to protect these primates and their habitats. Conservation efforts are crucial for the survival of chimpanzees, allowing further research that could unravel more about our evolutionary history and the cognitive capabilities of primates.</p>



<p>In summary, chimpanzee tool use is a compelling demonstration of animal intelligence and adaptability. Through their diverse use of tools, chimpanzees offer invaluable insights into the cognitive abilities of primates, shedding light on the evolutionary links between humans and our primate cousins.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2023.1289433" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</em></a>.&nbsp;</p>



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Chimpanzees have mastered the art of "termite fishing"

A new study has shed light on the intriguing behavior...

<p>Researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and the German Primate Center have gained remarkable insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-explores-the-basis-of-social-behavior-in-the-insect-brain/">social behavior</a> of bonobos, challenging long-held beliefs about the nature of cooperation in human evolution.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This study, focusing on one of humanity's closest living relatives, reveals that bonobos exhibit a level of societal cooperation and resource-sharing across non-family groups, a trait once thought to be uniquely human.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-cooperation">Bonobo cooperation</h2>



<p>The researchers investigated the social dynamics of bonobos (Pan paniscus), often overshadowed by their more aggressive cousins, the chimpanzees. While both species share many social structures, their approach to inter-group interactions differs significantly.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Chimpanzees are known for their hostility towards other groups, often leading to lethal confrontations. This aggression has heavily influenced models of human evolution, suggesting an innate tendency towards inter-group violence in humans.</p>



<p>However, bonobos present a contrasting narrative. These endangered primates, residing in the remote regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, showcase remarkable levels of tolerance and cooperation.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remarkable-tolerance-nbsp">Remarkable tolerance&nbsp;</h2>



<p>"Tracking and observing multiple groups of bonobos in Kokolopori, we’re struck by the remarkable levels of tolerance between members of different groups," said study lead author Dr. Liran Samuni.</p>



<p>This tolerance paves the way for pro-social cooperative behaviors such as forming alliances and sharing food across groups, a stark contrast to what we see in chimpanzees."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kokolopori-bonobo-reserve">Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve</h2>



<p>The Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve, directed by Harvard Professor Martin Surbeck, has been instrumental in these discoveries.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"It is through strong collaborations with and the support of the local Mongandu population in Kokolopori, in whose ancestral forest the bonobos roam, that studies of this fascinating species become possible," said Surbeck.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The reserve not only enhances our understanding of bonobo biology but also plays a crucial role in conserving this endangered species.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selective-cooperation-nbsp">Selective cooperation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Interestingly, the bonobos do not interact indiscriminately between groups. They form selective bonds, preferring to interact with specific members who are more likely to reciprocate their cooperative efforts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“They preferentially interact with specific members of other groups who are more likely to return the favor, resulting in strong ties between pro-social individuals” said Surbeck. “Such connections are also key aspects of the cooperation seen in human societies.”</p>



<p>“Bonobos show us that the ability to maintain peaceful between-group relationships while extending acts of pro-sociality and cooperation to out-group members is not uniquely human."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“The ability to study how cooperation emerges in a species so closely related to humans challenges existing theory, or at least provides insights into the conditions that promote between-group cooperation over conflict," said Dr. Samuni.</p>



<p>The revelations extend beyond the realm of primatology, offering profound implications for understanding the roots of human cooperation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Human societies are known for their intricate networks that facilitate the exchange of resources, ideas, and innovations. The bonobos, with their similar resource-sharing, suggest that such cooperation can emerge even without the influence of culture or social norms.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adg0844" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science</em></a>.</p>



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Bonobos cooperation challenges beliefs about human evolution 

Researchers from Harvard University and the German Primate Center have...

<p>Climate change, with its increasing temperature variability, poses a significant threat to the survival of bird nestlings, according to a recent study from the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research highlights how early nesting in spring due to warmer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-linked-to-vision-impairment/">temperatures</a> exposes young birds to the risks of cold snaps and heat waves, leading to higher nest failure rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-extremes">Temperature extremes</h2>



<p>Study co-lead author Conor Taff emphasized the crucial distinction between average temperature changes and immediate weather conditions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"When we talk about temperature changes, the focus is mostly on averages," said Taff. "But all creatures, including humans, interact with weather conditions right in the moment, not with long-term averages."</p>



<p>"Even a one or two-day period when it’s really cold or really hot can be incredibly challenging even if the average temperature hasn't changed. Changing temperature averages and temperature variability are two different components of climate change."</p>



<p>This is especially true for birds, as even short periods of extreme cold or heat can be detrimental.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study involved an extensive analysis of 300,000 breeding bird records from 1995 to 2020, submitted to the Cornell Lab's NestWatch project.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By examining the coldest and hottest three-day periods for each nest, the researchers assessed the impact of these extremes on nesting success, defined by the number of nestlings surviving to fledge.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-insights">Alarming insights</h2>



<p>"We found that 16 of the 24 species we studied had reduced reproductive success when a cold snap occurred during the incubation or nestling stages," Taff said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Eleven of 24 had reduced success when a heat wave occurred during the breeding season. Aerial insectivores were the most sensitive to temperature extremes, especially cold."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-snaps">Cold snaps</h2>



<p>Cold snaps pose a unique challenge as they reduce insect availability, a critical food source for nestlings. During these periods, adult birds may leave their nests in search of survivable conditions. This makes eggs and nestlings vulnerable to cold and starvation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"It's the nestlings that really get hit hard because they can't regulate their own body temperature yet," said study co-author Ryan Shipley. "Nestlings also grow at an exponential rate during the first week or two of life and if insect activity drops because of a cold snap, the young birds likely won’t survive."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-consequences-nbsp">Long-term consequences&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The researchers also analyzed 100 years of weather data, focusing on the March-August breeding season in the U.S. and Canada. While no clear pattern emerged regarding the timing of temperature extremes, a general warming trend was evident.</p>



<p>"Even if nestlings somehow manage to survive a cold snap or heat wave, there may still be long-term consequences affecting the overall health of the birds," said Shipley. "We're only looking at a brief snapshot during early life and cannot measure long-term health in an unbanded wild population."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-swallows">Tree swallows </h2>



<p>Earlier studies on tree swallows by the same authors indicate that during development, temperature significantly influences nestling growth and survival, affecting their chances of successful migration and breeding in subsequent years.</p>



<p>This means that the combination of temperature changes and shifts in the breeding season could lead to life-changing consequences for bird populations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nestling-success">Nestling success</h2>



<p>Nestling success is a crucial factor in the study of avian biology, ecology, and conservation. It refers to the ability of young birds (nestlings) in a nest to survive to the point of fledging, where they are developed enough to leave the nest. Several factors influence nestling success:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parental-care">Parental care</h3>



<p>The quality and quantity of parental care, including feeding frequency, quality of food, and protection from predators, directly impact the survival rate of nestlings.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-availability">Food availability</h3>



<p>Adequate and appropriate food is vital for the growth and development of nestlings. Food scarcity can lead to lower survival rates.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nest-site-quality">Nest site quality</h3>



<p>The location and structure of the nest can affect exposure to predators, environmental conditions, and competition. Well-constructed and strategically located nests can improve the chances of nestling survival.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-factors">Environmental factors</h3>



<p>Weather conditions such as temperature, humidity, and precipitation significantly influence nestling success. Extreme weather events can be particularly detrimental.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predation">Predation</h3>



<p>Nestlings are vulnerable to predators. The presence of natural cover and the ability of parents to defend the nest can mitigate this threat.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disease-and-parasites">Disease and parasites</h3>



<p>Exposure to diseases and parasites can decrease a nestling’s chance of survival. Healthy parents and a clean nest environment are important preventive measures.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-health">Genetic health</h3>



<p>The genetic makeup of the nestlings, inherited from their parents, also plays a role in their development and ability to withstand environmental stresses.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-impact">Human impact</h3>



<p>Urbanization, pollution, and human disturbances can negatively impact nestling success. Conservation efforts aim to minimize these effects.</p>



<p>Monitoring nestling success is important for understanding the health of bird populations and ecosystems. It serves as an indicator of environmental changes and the effectiveness of conservation strategies. </p>



<p>In the context of climate change, as seen in the Cornell study, researchers pay close attention to how fluctuating temperatures and weather patterns affect the success rate of bird nestlings, providing crucial insights into the broader impacts of global environmental shifts.</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-43071-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Temperature variability endangers bird nestlings

Climate change, with its increasing temperature variability, poses a significant...

<p>The reintroduction of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-return-of-the-gray-wolf-triumph-or-tragedy/">gray wolf</a> (<em>Canis lupus</em>) to Germany, starting 23 years ago in Lusatia, Eastern Germany, marks a significant ecological and social event.&nbsp;Understanding the intricacies of this recolonization and predicting future distribution trends are essential.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In a recent study published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13789" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Diversity and Distributions</em></a>, a team from the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (<a href="https://www.izw-berlin.de/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leibniz-IZW</a>) has shed light on this complex process.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers found that gray wolves’ habitat selection evolved from the early to the late phases of recolonization in a specific area, refining their 2020 habitat modeling originally published by the <a href="https://www.bfn.de/en">Federal Agency for Nature Conservation</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-range-expansion-nbsp">Future range expansion&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Gray wolves, which prefer habitats with ample cover and distance from human activity, demonstrated these preferences during their return to Germany. The recolonization of habitats they were extirpated from 200 years ago allowed for predictions of future range expansion in Germany.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The 2020 study by the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BfN), conducted with the Leibniz-IZW team, estimated around 700 to 1,400 potential wolf territories in Germany’s natural areas. The scientists have now delved deeper, testing various spatio-temporal modeling approaches in relation to different phases of recolonization.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-conditions">Dynamic conditions</h2>



<p>“There is reason to believe that the recolonization of Germany by the gray wolf is not a so-called stationary process, but is characterized by changing framework conditions,” said senior author Stephanie Kramer-Schadt, the head of the Department of Ecological Dynamics at the Leibniz-IZW.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Kramer-Schadt noted that the recolonization process might not be uniform across Germany due to differences in environmental conditions, like between eastern Germany and the Rhine-Ruhr area. Wolves’ habitat preferences might also vary depending on whether they are in the early or late phase of recolonization.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-accurate-models">Developing accurate models</h2>



<p>Dr. Aimara Planillo, the study’s first author, emphasized the importance of these factors for model accuracy. “If models are developed on the basis of the specific environmental conditions of a particular region, they could underestimate the suitability of another, very different region to which such a model might be applied,” she explained.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dr. Planillo also noted that models based on early recolonization phases might underestimate wolves’ habitat suitability during later phases when they are less selective.</p>



<p>The experts developed models using a combination of radio telemetry and observation data, testing their ability to predict subsequent phases of the colonization process. The study confirmed and refined the 2020 projections.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights">New insights</h2>



<p>Key findings include that wolves initially select the best habitats during early recolonization but become less selective in later stages.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“When recolonizing an area, wolves always secure the best habitats first. It therefore appears that they are considerably more sensitive to environmental variables,” the scientists said. They also found that neighboring second-class sites are colonized in later phases, as demonstrated in eastern Germany.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-suitable-habitats-nbsp">Suitable habitats&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study suggests that suitable habitats for wolves are concentrated in the north, northeast, and south of Germany, while lower quality habitats are more common in the west.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Unoccupied high-quality habitats exist in southern Bavaria and central Germany, which are likely to be colonized by wolves initially settling in prime locations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



<p>In summary, the research emphasizes the need for careful spatio-temporal projections in habitat modeling for expanding species like the gray wolf.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The complexity and dynamism of the recolonization process necessitate a nuanced approach to predicting and understanding the expansion of wolf populations in Germany.</p>



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Study reveals how gray wolves recolonized Germany

The reintroduction of the gray wolf (Canis lupus) to Germany,...

<p>A recent study conducted by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> has uncovered a concerning insight into the world of bumblebees and their interaction with pesticides.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-exposure">Increased exposure</h2>



<p>The researchers found that bumblebees are unable to taste pesticides in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sipping-on-nectar-hummingbirds-consume-a-surprising-amount-of-alcohol/">nectar</a>, even when these pesticides are at levels that could be lethal.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This finding is particularly alarming as it indicates that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-rusty-patched-bumblebee-a-very-important-pollinator-is-on-the-edge-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebees</a> cannot avoid ingesting contaminated nectar, thereby significantly increasing their risk of exposure to harmful pesticides.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bumblebees-and-pesticides">Bumblebees and pesticides</h2>



<p>"Bees are important pollinators of agricultural crops, but their populations are at risk when pesticides are used. One of the largest risks bees face is poisoning of floral nectar and pollen by insecticides," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>"Studies of bee detection of neonicotinoids have reported contradictory evidence about whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-have-an-incredible-sense-of-smell-to-find-their-way-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> can taste these pesticides in sucrose solutions and hence avoid them."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-toxic-compounds-nbsp">Detecting toxic compounds&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Given their innate ability to taste and differentiate between various sugary solutions, the team wanted to investigate if this sense of taste could extend to detecting and avoiding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glyphosate-disrupts-brood-care-in-bumblebees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pesticides</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Previous observations had shown that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/european-bumblebees-face-extinction-as-their-habitats-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebees</a> could detect certain toxic compounds, such as quinine, which tastes bitter to them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted-nbsp">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team, led by Dr. Rachel Parkinson of the University of Oxford's Department of Biology, employed two distinct methods to assess the bumblebees' ability to taste two types of pesticides: neonicotinoid and sulfoximine.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study focused on Bombus terrestris, a common species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-choose-immediate-rewards-over-energy-efficiency/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebee</a>, and used nectar from oilseed rape (Brassica napus) as a base for the experiments.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-response-when-tasting-pesticides">Bees' response when tasting pesticides</h2>



<p>The first method involved electrophysiology to record the neuron responses in the taste sensilla, akin to tastebuds, on the bumblebees' mouthparts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This technique allowed the researchers to determine the strength of the bees' response to the taste. The second method involved offering the bees sugar solutions with and without the addition of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-increase-pesticide-toxicity-in-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pesticides</a> and observing their feeding behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights-into-bees-and-pesticides">Critical insights into bees and pesticides</h2>



<p>The results showed that there was no difference in neuron responses whether the bees consumed sugar solution alone or sugar solution mixed with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-cannot-fly-straight-after-ingesting-pesticides/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pesticides</a>. This indicates that the bumblebees' mouthparts lack the mechanisms to detect common pesticides in nectar.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Furthermore, in the behavioral tests, the bees consumed equal amounts of both the pesticide-laced and pesticide-free solutions, even when the pesticide concentration was high enough to be harmful.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-study-is-significant">Why this study is significant</h2>



<p>"As bumblebees cannot taste pesticides and don’t experience immediate negative consequences from drinking them, they likely would not be able to avoid consuming nectar contaminated with pesticides in the field," said Dr. Parkinson.</p>



<p>"This research is important when considering the use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-make-it-harder-for-male-bees-to-attract-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pesticides</a> on outdoor crops due to the risk posed to bees as they will not avoid drinking these compounds. Potentially, these findings could be applied towards searching for a non-toxic compound that tastes bad to bees and could be used as a 'bee deterrent' on pesticide-treated crops that do not require insect pollination."</p>



<p>The researchers also explored the concept of "bitter" taste avoidance using quinine. While bees did not reduce their intake of the pesticide-infused solutions, they did show an aversion to quinine-laced sugar solutions at high concentrations, suggesting some ability to detect and react to specific bitter tastes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study highlights a critical issue in the interaction between bees and pesticides, with the inability of bees to taste and therefore avoid pesticide-contaminated nectar posing a significant threat to their health and their indispensable role in pollinating crops.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The pesticides used in the study included neonicotinoids such as imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, clothianidin, and the sulfoximine pesticide sulfoxaflor.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This research opens the door to future studies and potential strategies to mitigate the risks posed by pesticide use in agriculture, particularly in relation to bee health and pollination services.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.89129.2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>eLife</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Hidden danger: Bumblebees can't taste lethal pesticides in nectar

A recent study conducted by the University of Oxford has...

<p>In a new study led by <a href="https://wsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University</a>, researchers have discovered that grizzly bears maintain their internal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-moonlight-affects-the-circadian-clocks-of-animals/">circadian rhythms</a> even during their hibernation period.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This finding provides significant insights into the adaptability of circadian rhythms across different species, including humans.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-circadian-rhythms">Circadian rhythms</h2>



<p>"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hibernating-bears-could-help-treat-human-diabetes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hibernation</a> is a highly seasonal physiological adaptation that allows brown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-some-black-bears-actually-brown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bears</a> (Ursus arctos) to survive extended periods of low food availability," wrote the study authors. </p>



<p>"Similarly, daily or circadian rhythms conserve energy by coordinating body processes to optimally match the environmental light/dark cycle."</p>



<p>"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-and-diet-shape-the-guts-of-alaskan-brown-bears/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown bears</a> express circadian rhythms in vivo and their cells do in vitro throughout the year, suggesting that these rhythms may play important roles during periods of negative energy balance."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-production-nbsp">Energy production&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Contrary to the common perception that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hibernating-bears-could-help-humans-prevent-muscle-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hibernation</a> is a state of complete inactivity, the researchers observed that energy production in bears continues to follow a daily pattern, even as they sleep for months. </p>



<p>The experts also found that the amplitude of energy production was blunted during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-food-bears-hibernate-age-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hibernation</a>, with a reduced range of highs and lows. The peak occurred later in the day compared to the bear's active season, but the daily fluctuation was still there, noted the researchers. </p>



<p>“This underscores the importance of the circadian rhythms themselves - that they give organisms the flexibility to still function in a state as extreme as a hibernating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bears-are-not-carnivores-and-they-crave-a-healthy-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bear</a>,” said study senior author Professor Heiko Jansen.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-study-bear-hibernation">How to study bear hibernation</h2>



<p>This phenomenon was observed through genetic analyses on cell samples from six <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-bears-that-eat-human-food-lack-gut-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bears</a>, taken during their active and hibernating periods. </p>



<p>The cells were cultured and examined at two different temperatures, mimicking the bears' body temperatures during hibernation and active seasons.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The results showed a rhythmic expression of thousands of genes, leading to a consistent yet modulated production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy carrier in cells.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study's findings have broader implications for understanding metabolic health in humans. Disruptions in circadian rhythms, such as those experienced by night shift workers, have been linked to metabolic issues like weight gain and diabetes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By studying bears, who are akin to "extreme shift workers" during their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-prevents-blood-clots-in-hibernating-bears/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hibernation</a>, scientists can gain insights into how prolonged periods of inactivity and fasting do not result in health issues typically seen in humans under similar conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-conservation-nbsp">Energy conservation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The research also highlighted differences in hibernation behaviors between bears and other hibernating mammals like rodents.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Unlike the near-comatose state of hibernating rodents, bears show occasional movements during hibernation, following a circadian rhythm with more daytime activity.</p>



<p>“It's like setting a thermostat. If you want to conserve some energy, you turn down the thermostat, and this is essentially what the bears are doing,” said Jansen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“They’re using the ability to suppress the circadian rhythm, but they don’t stop the clock from running. It's a really novel way of fine-tuning a metabolic process and energy expenditure in an animal.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-bear-hibernation-nbsp">More about bear hibernation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Bear hibernation is a complex and fascinating process that involves several unique biological adaptations. Here are some key aspects of bear hibernation:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-annual-cycle-and-stages">Annual cycle and stages</h3>



<p>Black bears, for example, go through a five-stage annual cycle, including hibernation, walking hibernation, normal activity, hyperphagia (excessive eating), and fall transition​​.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metabolic-changes-during-bear-hibernation">Metabolic changes during bear hibernation</h3>



<p>Bears are considered true hibernators. This status was confirmed after biologists discovered the many metabolic changes that occur during their hibernation. This process was traditionally defined only in terms of temperature reduction, which is not significant in bears​​.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-regulation">Temperature regulation</h3>



<p>Unlike some hibernators, such as Arctic ground squirrels, that can lower their body temperature dramatically, bears maintain a comparatively high body temperature during hibernation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Their metabolism slows significantly, but they hardly lose any heat. This is a unique approach among hibernating animals​​.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eating-habits">Eating habits</h3>



<p>In preparation for hibernation, bears enter a phase of hyperphagia, where they consume enormous amounts of food. For instance, grizzly bears in Yellowstone can consume up to 20,000 calories a day during this period, gaining up to three pounds daily​​.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-bear-hibernation">Reproduction and bear hibernation</h3>



<p>The reproductive cycle of bears is also linked to hibernation. Female bears can delay the implantation of fertilized eggs in their womb until they enter hibernation, which is believed to be a strategy for energy conservation and population control based on food availability​​.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bear-hibernation-and-den-construction">Bear hibernation and den construction</h3>



<p>Bears typically create heat-efficient dens, often on slopes at high elevations. The dens are constructed just large enough for the bear, with an entrance that quickly gets covered by insulating snow, maximizing heat retention​​.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-preservation-during-hibernation">Health preservation during hibernation</h3>



<p>Bears maintain their health during hibernation in ways that are not fully understood but are of great interest to scientists.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, they are able to prevent osteoporosis, a notable exception to what happens in most other animals, including humans, when inactive for extended periods.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A study showed that hibernating bears shut down genes involved with bone breakdown, suggesting a potential avenue for preventing osteoporosis in humans​​​​.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muscle-atrophy-prevention">Muscle atrophy prevention</h3>



<p>Grizzly bears can hibernate for months without experiencing muscle atrophy, a common problem in other animals and humans during periods of inactivity. Their metabolism and heart rate drop during hibernation, and their blood becomes rich in nitrogen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Researchers have identified a unique set of genes in grizzly bears that boost amino acid metabolism during hibernation, leading to increased concentrations of certain non-essential amino acids that fuel muscle cell growth​​.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-medical-applications-nbsp">Potential medical applications&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The study of bear hibernation has potential applications for human health. For example, replicating a hibernation-like state in humans could be beneficial for stroke victims, extending the window of opportunity for treatment.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Such research is inspired by the way bears significantly reduce their metabolism while maintaining vital functions during hibernation​​.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hibernation-timing">Hibernation timing</h3>



<p>Unlike some other hibernating animals that follow strict schedules based on day length, bears decide for themselves when to hibernate and when to recover. This timing is influenced by various factors, including food supply and temperature​​.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00360-023-01513-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Journal of Comparative Physiology B</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Circadian rhythms persist during bear hibernation

In a new study led by Washington State University, researchers...

<p>A recent study has revealed a startling link between rabies virus variants found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-protein-in-bats-that-can-slow-aging-and-fight-most-diseases/">bats</a> and those present in white-tufted marmosets in Northeast Brazil.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This finding is significant due to the potential risk of rabies transmission to humans, and is particularly concerning since a man died in May after a marmoset bite.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emergence-in-wildlife-nbsp">Emergence in wildlife&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Rabies, a deadly disease for humans, is increasingly being detected in various wildlife species, including marmosets found in Brazilian forests and urban areas.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Marmosets, often captured as pets and later abandoned, have been implicated in human rabies cases. This emergence is a pressing public health concern.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-insights">Study insights</h2>



<p>The study was conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of São Paulo</a>’s Medical School (EPM-UNIFESP) and supported by FAPESP. The results highlight the similarity between rabies variants in marmosets and bats.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Fruit- and insect-eating bats, which are not typically associated with rabies, were found carrying the virus, indicating a complex transmission dynamic. Bats that feed on blood are the more likely hosts.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deadly-encounters">Deadly encounters</h2>



<p>“Seven marmosets have recently tested positive for rabies. Rabies is endemic in Ceará, where people have been attacked by marmosets and died from rabies. One such death occurred in May,” said study lead author Larissa Leão Ferrer de Sousa.</p>



<p>In February, a 36-year-old farm worker near a town called Cariús was bitten by a rabid marmoset. “The marmoset fell into his backyard. It was semi-paralyzed, which is one of the symptoms of rabies. The man tried to help it, and it bit him," said Sousa.</p>



<p>"Animals with rabies aren’t always aggressive and don’t necessarily foam at the mouth, the symptom most people associate with rabies. Sometimes there are no apparent symptoms at all."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-warning">Public warning</h2>



<p>Sousa advises against touching wild animals, including bats, and suggests contacting local animal health surveillance for dead wildlife. Immediate medical attention and vaccination are crucial following animal contact, as rabies symptoms typically signal a fatal outcome.</p>



<p>“Rabies incubates for 45 days on average, so it’s extremely important for anyone who’s infected to get post-exposure prophylaxis [serum and vaccine] immediately. When symptoms appear, it’s normally too late, and the patient will die,” said Ricardo Durães-Carvalho, a researcher at EPM-UNIFESP and principal investigator of the study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-sequencing-nbsp">Genetic sequencing&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The researchers sequenced RNA from 144 brain tissue samples of 15 bat species. These samples, collected as part of a national surveillance program, revealed rabies virus variants in bats closely related to those in marmosets.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Next, the team traced the evolutionary history of the viruses they found using computer-assisted tools.</p>



<p>The first set of sequences was compatible with rabies virus variants found in two insectivorous bat species from Southeast Brazil in 2010.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, another group of variants found in two insectivorous and one frugivorous species of bats were evolutionarily related to the virus detected in marmosets from the Northeast.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Our results allowed us to infer that the different rabies virus variants that were closely related in evolutionary terms were originally from the same animal, revealing complex spillover dynamics and multiple viral transmission between hosts,” said Durães-Carvalho.</p>



<p>While bats and marmosets play key roles in rabies transmission, they are also crucial for ecological balance and are threatened by habitat loss. Respecting and protecting these animals in their natural habitats is essential for maintaining ecosystem health.</p>



<p>The discovery of rabies virus variants in bats linked to marmosets in Brazil serves as a reminder of the intricate relationships between wildlife, humans, and diseases.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Wildlife conservation and public health vigilance are crucially important for preventing future outbreaks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-tufted-marmosets">White-tufted marmosets</h2>



<p>White-tufted marmosets, also known as common marmosets or white-tufted-ear marmosets, are New World monkeys native to South America. They were originally found along the northeastern coast of Brazil, in various states including Piaui, Paraiba, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco, Alagoas, and Bahia​​​​.</p>



<p>In terms of appearance, these marmosets are quite small, with a body length of approximately 12 to 15 centimeters and a tail length ranging from 29.5 to 35 centimeters. They are distinguished by their white ear tufts and a white blaze on their forehead. Their head fur is usually dark brown, while their back fur is a greyish brown color with light transverse striping​​.</p>



<p>The white-tufted marmoset lives in stable extended families, indicative of their social nature​​. An interesting aspect of their behavior is their feeding habits. They primarily feed on gums and saps from trees, using their lower incisors to create holes in gum-producing trees. This action induces a flow of gum from the trees, which serves as an important food source for them​​.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.29046" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Journal of Medical Virology</em></a>.</p>



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Emerging threat: Rabies virus from marmosets found in Brazilian bats

A recent study has revealed a startling link between rabies...

<p>In a significant breakthrough in the field of paleontology, the southern coast of Australia has revealed 27 ancient bird footprints. </p>



<p>These footprints date back to the Early Cretaceous period when Australia was still physically connected to Antarctica. They offer new insights into early avian evolution and their migratory patterns. </p>



<p>The bird tracks are estimated to be between 120 and 128 million years old, a time frame that is crucial to understanding the early stages of avian evolution.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-125-million-year-old-bird-tracks">125 million-year-old bird tracks</h2>



<p>Anthony Martin is the first author of the study and a professor at <a href="https://envs.emory.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emory University</a>'s Department of Environmental Sciences. He emphasizes the global significance of this discovery. </p>



<p>"Most of the bird tracks and body fossils dating as far back as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colossal-new-dinosaur-was-hidden-in-spains-early-cretaceous-fossils/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Early Cretaceous</a> are from the Northern Hemisphere, particularly from Asia,” Martin observes. </p>



<p>“The birds would likely have been stepping on soft sand or mud. Then the tracks may have been buried by a gentle river flow that deposited more sand or mud on top of them," Martin elaborated.</p>



<p>This new evidence indicates a diverse avian presence near the South Pole around 125 million years ago. As a specialist in ichnology, Martin’s expertise lies in interpreting these ancient traces of life.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-characteristics-and-location">Characteristics and location</h2>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/bird-footprints_early-cretaceous_credit-Anthony-Martin_1medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">discovered bird tracks</a> vary in size from seven to 14 centimeters wide. This matches the size of modern-day shorebirds, such as small herons and oystercatchers. These tracks are among the largest known from the Early Cretaceous and were found in the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0293308" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wonthaggi Formation</a>, a geological site south of Melbourne.</p>



<p>The Wonthaggi Formation, where the tracks were located, marks a significant geological period when the supercontinent <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gondwana</a> began to fragment. This period was characterized by a polar environment with a rift valley and braided rivers. Severe winters and prolonged periods of darkness were common.</p>



<p>The multiple stratigraphic levels where the tracks were found suggest a recurrent presence of various bird species. This may indicate seasonal formation during polar summers. This could point to migratory patterns among these ancient birds.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-the-bird-footprints">Preserving the bird footprints</h2>



<p>Martin notes the difficulties in preserving bird fossils, given their small and lightweight bone structure. This rarity makes the discovery of the Wonthaggi tracks all the more remarkable. The Wonthaggi Formation itself is known for its rich variety of polar dinosaur bones. However, bird fossils have been extremely scarce.</p>



<p>“Birds have such thin and tiny bones,” Martin says. “Think of the likelihood of a sparrow being preserved in the geologic record as opposed to an elephant.”</p>



<p>Martin and his colleagues previously discovered two 105-million-year-old bird tracks in Australia's <a href="https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/37743/7/03chapter4pgs34-52.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eumeralla Formation</a>, which were then the oldest known in Australia. The current discovery was initially spotted in 2020 by co-author Melissa Lowery, a local volunteer fossil hunter, renowned for her skill in finding fossil tracks.</p>



<p>“Melissa is incredibly skilled at finding fossil tracks,” Martin says. “Some of these tracks are subtle even for me, and I have lots of experience and training.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-field-analysis-and-challenges">Field analysis and challenges</h2>



<p>The COVID-19 pandemic posed significant challenges, delaying field analysis until 2022. Martin, along with Patricia Vickers-Rich and Thomas Rich, both of whom have contributed significantly to the understanding of Gondwana's biota, led the field analysis.</p>



<p>The detailed examination of the tracks, such as the thinness of the toes and the angles between them, was crucial in confirming their avian origin. Claudia Serrano-Brañas, a co-author and paleontologist, compared these tracks with ancient bird footprints from other parts of the world to verify their similarities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preservation-efforts">Preservation efforts</h2>



<p>Peter Swinkels, a co-author and expert in specimen preservation, created resin casts of these tracks. These casts not only aid in further research but also help in preserving these ephemeral geological records, which are rapidly eroding due to coastal tides and waves.</p>



<p>Reflecting on the transient nature of these discoveries, Martin remarks, "Seven of the tracks that Melissa found in 2020 are no longer there." This statement underscores the urgency in documenting these rare and fleeting glimpses into our planet's ancient past. </p>



<p>The discovery of these avian tracks in Southern Australia not only enhances our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fascinating-fossil-birds-discovered-in-china/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early bird life</a>, but also highlights the impermanent nature of geological records.</p>



<p>This study is the result of collaborative efforts by an international team, including experts from <a href="https://www.monash.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monash University</a> and the <a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/research-institute/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museums Victoria Research Institute</a> in Australia; the Benemérita Normal School of Coahuila in Mexico; and the <a href="https://www.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Institution</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-birds-in-the-early-cretaceous">More about birds in the Early Cretaceous</h2>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-ankylosaur-discovered-on-the-isle-of-wight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Early Cretaceous</a> period, spanning from approximately 145 to 100 million years ago, marked a significant era in the evolution of birds. During this time, birds diverged further from their dinosaurian ancestors, developing characteristics that defined modern avian species.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diversity-and-adaptation">Diversity and adaptation</h3>



<p>Birds in the Early Cretaceous showcased a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-got-their-diverse-skulls-in-the-time-of-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remarkable diversity</a> in form and function. This era witnessed the emergence of various bird groups, each adapting to different ecological niches. </p>



<p>Some developed specialized beaks and feet for different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-birds-switched-from-dinosaur-diets-to-eating-leaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feeding strategies</a>, while others adapted for efficient flight, demonstrating the versatility and adaptability of early birds.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-records-and-discoveries">Fossil records and discoveries</h3>



<p>Fossil discoveries from this period, including the discovery discussed above, provide key insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of birds</a>. Notable fossils include well-preserved specimens with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-bird-feathers-contain-traces-of-dinosaur-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathers</a>, which help scientists understand the transition from feathered dinosaurs to modern birds. </p>



<p>These fossils reveal early birds' physical characteristics, such as toothed beaks and long, bony tails, which gradually disappeared in later avian evolution.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavioral-aspects">Behavioral aspects</h3>



<p>Behavioral aspects of Early Cretaceous birds, such as nesting habits, can be inferred from fossilized nests and eggs. These discoveries suggest that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-prehistoric-bird-had-a-tongue-as-long-as-its-head/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early bird species</a> exhibited behaviors similar to modern birds, like brooding and possibly vocal communication.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-significance">Ecological significance</h3>



<p>Early Cretaceous birds played vital roles in their ecosystems. As insectivores, frugivores, and possibly even small carnivores, they contributed to the balance of their habitats. Their presence indicates a complex and thriving ecosystem during this period.</p>



<p>In summary, the Early Cretaceous period was a critical time in avian history, marked by diversification and adaptation. The fossil record of bird footprints from this era, while still incomplete, provides invaluable insights into the early stages of bird evolution, illustrating a dynamic period in the history of life on Earth.</p>



<p>The full study was published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0293308" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.</p>



<p>---</p>



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Oldest known bird footprints discovered in Australia

In a significant breakthrough in the field of paleontology, the...

<p>A new study from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> reveals that increased intergroup conflict may actually enhance the survival of animal offspring. This discovery challenges the long-standing belief that such conflicts negatively impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rhythm-linked-to-reproductive-success-in-male-rock-hyraxes/">reproductive success</a>.</p>



<p>“Groups engaged in more intergroup interactions did not produce more young. Rather, a greater threat from outsiders was associated with a higher survival likelihood of pups once they emerged from the breeding burrow," noted study lead author Dr. Amy Morris-Drake.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-territorial-behavior-nbsp">Territorial behavior&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The research was focused on a decade's worth of life-history data on a wild population of dwarf mongooses. These small carnivores, the smallest in Africa, live in groups of 5-30 individuals and are known for their cooperative breeding and territorial behavior.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A unique aspect of this study is its methodological approach, involving detailed behavioral observations of study groups in South Africa.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The dwarf mongooses were individually marked with blonde hair dye, trained to weigh themselves on a balance scale, and observed closely in their natural, ecologically valid conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights-nbsp">Key insights&nbsp;</h2>



<p>One of the key behavioral changes noted was an increase in sentinel (raised guarding) behavior when threats from rival groups were perceived.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Increased sentinel behavior is likely an attempt to gather more information about the other group. But sentinels also detect predatory threats and warn groupmates of danger, so vulnerable pups are potentially safer as a consequence," explained study senior author Professor Andy Radford.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heightened-vigilance-nbsp">Heightened vigilance&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This study offers a novel perspective on intergroup conflict, suggesting that the heightened vigilance and behavioral adaptations resulting from these conflicts could indirectly benefit offspring survival.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We are not suggesting that conflict has a direct positive effect on breeding success. Instead, there could be byproduct benefits of behavioral changes - such as increased vigilance - that result from an increased threat level," said Professor Radford.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Dr. Morris-Drake emphasized the broader implications of their findings: “Our work suggests that if we are to understand the importance of warfare on societies, we must consider threats as well as actual fights. Moreover, we need to investigate not just actions on the battleground but the wider consequences too.”</p>



<p>The study not only provides insights into the complex dynamics of animal societies but also contributes to our understanding of the evolutionary implications of intergroup conflicts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dwarf-mongoose-nbsp">Dwarf mongoose&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The dwarf mongoose (Helogale parvula) is a small African carnivore belonging to the mongoose family (Herpestidae).&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



<p>Dwarf mongooses are small, typically weighing between 200-350 grams. They have a slender body, a pointed nose, small ears, and a bushy tail. Their fur is usually reddish-brown or greyish-brown.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-structure">Social structure</h3>



<p>They are highly social animals, living in cooperative groups of around 5 to 30 individuals. Group members have specific roles, including breeding pairs and 'babysitters' who help care for the young.</p>



<p>Vocal communication is common, with distinct calls for various purposes, like warning of predators.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-range">Habitat and range</h3>



<p>Dwarf mongooses are commonly found in dry grasslands and savannahs, often near woodlands or rocky outcrops. Their range extends across much of Sub-Saharan Africa.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-and-hunting">Diet and hunting</h3>



<p>Their diet mainly consists of insects, although they also eat small rodents, birds, reptiles, eggs, and fruit. Dwarf mongooses forage in groups during the day, with one or more individuals acting as sentinels to warn of predators.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-lifespan">Reproduction and lifespan</h3>



<p>Typically, only the dominant female in a group breeds, giving birth to litters of 2 to 4 pups. In the wild, they live for about 4 to 6 years, though this can be longer in captivity.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



<p>The main threats to dwarf mongooses include habitat loss and predation by larger mammals and birds of prey. Currently, they are not considered endangered and have a stable population trend.</p>



<p>The research is part of the ongoing Dwarf Mongoose Research Project, which has been studying habituated wild groups since 2011.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study was funded by a European Research Council Consolidator Grant awarded to Professor Radford.</p>



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Conflict boosts offspring survival in dwarf mongooses

A new study from the University of Bristol reveals that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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