Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

The vibrant environment of the Florida Keys, long associated with the famous“Margaritaville” from Jimmy Buffett’s iconic song, has recently revealed yet another natural marvel. These tropical islands, which shelter the only living coral barrier reef in the continental US and host numerous unique animals, have now gifted the world with a bright yellow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slugs-and-snails-no-longer-classified-as-pests/">snail</a> named in a nod to Margaritaville.&nbsp;



Researchers have introduced this lemony snail and its lime-green counterpart from Belize in a recent study featured in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/">PeerJ</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worm-snails">Worm snails</h2>



While reminiscent of the common gastropods that leave trails in gardens, these marine snails have been dubbed “worm snails.” Their sedentary lifestyle distinguishes them from their garden-variety counterparts.&nbsp;



As Rüdiger Bieler, the study’s lead author and the curator of invertebrates at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> in Chicago, puts it, “I find them particularly cool because they are related to regular free-living snails, but when the juveniles find a suitable spot to live, they hunker down, cement their shell to the substrate, and never move again."



"Their shell continues to grow as an irregular tube around the snail’s body, and the animal hunts by laying out a mucus web to trap plankton and bits of detritus.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-treasure">Hidden treasure</h2>



Although Bieler has dedicated over 40 years to studying invertebrates in the Western Atlantic, these snails remained hidden. “We had to look very closely,” he said.&nbsp;



These newly discovered creatures share their lineage with the invasive “Spider-Man” snail, described by the same team in 2017 from the Vandenberg shipwreck off the Florida Keys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemon-yellow-snails-nbsp">Lemon-yellow snails&nbsp;</h2>



The discovery took place in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, where Bieler, along with Petra Sierwald, another curator from the Field Museum, stumbled upon the lemon-yellow snails. In Belize, they identified a similar snail with a lime hue.&nbsp;



“Many snails are polychromatic - within the same species, you get different colors,” Bieler explained. “I think they do it to confuse fish and not give them a clear target, and some have warning coloration.” However, DNA sequencing revealed a surprising difference between the lime and lemon variants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cayo-margarita">Cayo margarita</h2>



Taking cues from their DNA, Bieler and his colleagues categorized the snails under a new genus, Cayo, drawing inspiration from the Spanish term for a small island.&nbsp;



The bright yellow snail was christened Cayo margarita, echoing Jimmy Buffet’s “Margaritaville,” whereas the lime one was named Cayo galbinus, translating to “greenish-yellow.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warning-colors-nbsp">Warning colors&nbsp;</h2>



Interestingly, these Cayo snails share some similarities with another worm snail genus, Thylacodes. A species from Bermuda belonging to this genus was named Thylacodes bermudensis by the team.&nbsp;



Despite being only distantly related, Bieler observed a commonality: “Our thought is this is a warning color. They have some nasty metabolites in their mucus."&nbsp;



"That also might help explain why they’re able to have exposed heads - on the reef, everybody is out to eat you, and if you don’t have any defensive mechanism, you will be overgrown by the corals and sea anemones and all the stuff around you. It seems like the mucus might help deter the neighbors from getting too close.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



Highlighting the significance of this study, Bieler emphasizes the dire situation coral reefs face due to climate change.&nbsp;



“There have been increases in global water temperatures, and some species can handle them much better than others,” he said, suggesting the snails’ habitat preference for dead coral pieces might lead to their expansion with more coral deaths.&nbsp;



Bieler's concluding observations stress the vast, unexplored wonders of our environment: “This is in snorkeling depth in a heavily touristed area, and we’re still finding new things all around us.”



Image Credit: Photo by R. Bieler



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Bright yellow "margarita snails" discovered in Florida Keys

The vibrant environment of the Florida Keys, long associated with...

Palaeontologists at University College Cork (UCC) have found molecular evidence of phaeomelanin - the pigment responsible for ginger coloration - in fossilized frogs.&nbsp;



The study, led by Dr. Tiffany Slater and Professor Maria McNamara, adds a crucial layer to our understanding of ancient animal colors and the evolution of pigments in the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



"Melanin pigments play a critical role in physiological processes and shaping animal behavior," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Fossil melanin is a unique resource for understanding the functional evolution of melanin but the impact of fossilisation on molecular signatures for eumelanin and, especially, phaeomelanin is not fully understood."



The researchers collaborated with scientists from Fujita Health University (Japan), Linyi University (China), and Lund University (Sweden).&nbsp;



The team meticulously analyzed 10-million-year-old frog fossils, identifying molecular fragments of phaeomelanin, which is remarkable considering the pigment's toxicity to contemporary animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exciting-discovery-nbsp">Exciting discovery&nbsp;</h2>



“This finding is so exciting because it puts palaeontologists in a better place to detect different melanin pigments in many more fossils," said Dr. Slater.&nbsp;



“This will paint a more accurate picture of ancient animal color and will answer important questions about the evolution of colours in animals."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-mystery-nbsp">Evolutionary mystery&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Slater noted that scientists are still unraveling the mysteries of phaeomelanin, seeking to understand how and why this pigment, currently toxic to animals, evolved in the first place.&nbsp;



The newly discovered fossil evidence could play a pivotal role in solving this mystery.&nbsp;



Dr. Slater believes that this finding significantly empowers palaeontologists, enabling them to detect various melanin pigments across a broader range of fossils, thus providing more precise insights into the ancient creatures’ coloration and their evolutionary journey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossilization-experiments">Fossilization experiments </h2>



The experts conducted laboratory experiments on feathers of different colors (black, ginger, and white) to understand how phaeomelanin pigments undergo degradation during the fossilization process.&nbsp;



“Fossils are invariably altered by the ravages of heat and pressure during burial, but that doesn’t mean that we lose all original biomolecular information," said Professor McNamara.



"Our fossilization experiments were the key to understanding the chemistry of the fossils, and prove that traces of biomolecules can survive being cooked during the fossilization process."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biochemical-evolution">Biochemical evolution</h2>



“There is huge potential to explore the biochemical evolution of animals using the fossil record, when we account for chemical changes during fossilization.”&nbsp;



This discovery by the UCC team marks a significant step forward in palaeontology, promising a richer and more accurate understanding of the color palette of ancient life and the evolutionary history of animal pigments.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40570-w">Nature Communications</a>.



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Color evolution: Ginger pigment found in 10-million-year-old frogs

Palaeontologists at University College Cork (UCC) have found molecular evidence...

A recent study into the mammalian family tree across multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-a-new-mass-extinction-that-will-wipe-out-humans-and-all-mammals/">mass extinctions</a> reveals unexpected traits among the survivors, challenging the long-held belief that generalist or “boring” mammals primarily endured such catastrophic events.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-of-the-unspecialized-nbsp">Survival of the unspecialized&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers discovered that the mammals which persisted through mass extinctions possessed unique and advanced traits for their respective eras. This contradicts the notion of the “survival of the unspecialized.”



“The idea of the ‘survival of the unspecialized’ goes back to the 1800s, and the conventional wisdom is that generalized animals are the least likely to go extinct. But we found that the ones that survived more often only seemed generalized in hindsight, when compared with their later descendents," explained study senior author Ken Angielczyk of the Field Museum.



"They were actually pretty advanced animals for their time, with new traits that might have helped them survive and provided evolutionary flexibility."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



This revelation was supported by a massive family tree of synapsids, constructed by study co-lead author Spencer Hellert of Columbia College Chicago. Synapsids are a group of animals whose only surviving members are mammals.



“What’s been thought previously is that every time a new group of mammals evolves, you start out with a small generalist animal, since when disaster strikes, those are the guys that keep on trucking - they can hide anywhere, they can eat whatever is around,” said study co-lead author Spencer Hellert. “The kind of mammal that survives a mass extinction won’t be a specialist like a panda bear that can only eat bamboo.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-radiations-nbsp">Evolutionary radiations&nbsp;</h2>



Hellert’s extensive family tree, one of the largest of its kind, incorporated data from all previously established family trees for synapsids, providing a comprehensive and rigorous approach to summarizing information from various sources.&nbsp;



The research team examined the evolutionary radiations in synapsids over time, focusing on the species’ diets and body sizes, and discovered that the pattern of survival was not solely reliant on generalist characteristics. At certain points, larger synapsids and not just generalist insect-eaters were among the survivors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-initiated-nbsp">How the research was initiated&nbsp;</h2>



Study co-lead author David Grossnickle, assistant professor at the Oregon Institute of Technology, published a study in 2019 that highlighted how small, insect-eating mammals are often the lineages that survive challenging times. He approached Hellert and Angielczyk to see if this trend may also apply to earlier mammals and their ancestors.



“We were pretty surprised - it’s pretty well-established that those mammal radiations go from these small insectivores into the bigger taxa repeatedly, so I was kind of expecting to see that as we went back into synapsid history. And when we went back, that pattern starts to disappear,” said Grossnickle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-novel-characteristics-nbsp">Novel characteristics&nbsp;</h2>



Upon closer analysis, the researchers found that some survivor species, initially perceived as unspecialized, actually bore novel characteristics.&nbsp;



For instance, certain mammals from the dinosaur era possessed advanced teeth designed not just for cutting into prey but also for grinding, akin to a mortar and pestle. This “fancier” tooth structure might have offered a significant advantage during times of food scarcity, allowing these mammals to consume a broader range of foods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specialized-animals-nbsp">Specialized animals&nbsp;</h2>



However, the study’s findings should not be interpreted as suggesting that specialized animals, such as pandas with their bamboo-exclusive diet, are less prone to extinction than generalist species like raccoons.&nbsp;



Instead, the research highlights that the species making it through mass extinctions possessed traits that were far from generic.



“Animals with novel traits like new tooth features, or jaws that work a little better at breaking down different food items, don’t really take over ecologically until the incumbent, older lineages go extinct,” said Grossnickle.&nbsp;



“You often need an extinction event like the one that killed the dinosaurs to knock out some of those older groups, and then it allows those fancier animals to persist and diversify.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



According to the researchers, the results of their study have broader implications for scientists’ understanding of how evolution works.&nbsp;



"We don't really know if there is a consistent set of features typically possessed by the ancestors of evolutionary diversifications," said Angielczyk.&nbsp;



"The fact that we see this complexity in the diversifications of mammals and their ancient relatives means we need to examine other groups to see if the situation in mammals is an exception, or business as usual."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02200-y">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Evolutionary flexibility: Unique traits help mammals survive mass extinctions

A recent study into the mammalian family tree across multiple...

Gliding,Frog,Look,Like,Laughing,On,Moss,,Flying,Frog,Laughing,

Scientists warn the state of amphibians worldwide continues to rapidly deteriorate, according to a new study.&nbsp;Researchers found that over 40 percent of the world's more than 8,000 amphibian species could face extinction in the coming decades.&nbsp;This makes <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/why-are-some-endangered-amphibians-going-extinct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a> the most endangered group of vertebrates in the world today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-commonly-documented-threats-nbsp">Commonly documented threats&nbsp;</h2>



"When considering all threatened amphibians, the most commonly documented threats are types of habitat loss and degradation, with the top three being agriculture (77% of species impacted), timber and plant harvesting (53%), and infrastructure development (40%)," wrote the study authors.



"Climate change effects (29%) and disease (29%) are other common threat types. Although these are important findings, they do not account for the severity and scope of these threats."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinction-threat-for-amphibians-is-escalating">Extinction threat for amphibians is escalating</h2>



In tracing the evolutionary journey of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-amphibians-cold-blooded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>, the researchers found an escalating trend of extinctions.&nbsp;



Researchers recorded a mere 23 species as extinct in 1980, and that number surged to 37 by 2022.



Distinct species like the gastric-brooding frogs, which had the unique capability of incubating their eggs in their stomachs, have unfortunately been lost forever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-captives">Climate captives</h2>



‘As humans drive changes to our planet, amphibians are becoming climate captives, unable to move very far to escape the climate change-induced increase in frequency and intensity of extreme heat, drought and hurricanes," said study lead author Jennifer Luedtke Swandby.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-amphibians-face-extinction">Why amphibians face extinction</h2>



While habitat loss, largely due to agriculture, impacts an estimated 77% of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-do-amphibians-breathe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>, it is only the main cause of decline and extinction for about a third of species.&nbsp;



Diseases, particularly chytridiomycosis caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, have historically been more destructive, causing abrupt declines.&nbsp;



Notably, the sharp-snouted day frog from Queensland, Australia, was wiped out within a decade of being infected, marking its extinction in 2021.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-crisis-to-blame">Climate crisis&nbsp;to blame</h2>



However, the changing climate has now emerged as a dominant factor. The climate crisis accounts for declines and extinctions in more than 40% of amphibian species.&nbsp;



Climate change's multifaceted impacts, such as rising temperatures and prolonged droughts, are challenging amphibians' survival, given their reliance on moisture.&nbsp;



Moreover, changing weather patterns can catalyze the spread of diseases.



The findings of the study indicate that amphibians have the highest extinction risk among major animal groups listed on the conservation Red List.



Salamanders and newts emerge as particularly vulnerable within this group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-amphibians-from-extinction">Protecting amphibians from extinction</h2>



Despite these bleak statistics, there is a glimmer of hope. Over the past 40 years, focused conservation initiatives have revived 60 species.&nbsp;



An additional 57 species seem to be making a natural comeback, potentially developing resistance against diseases.&nbsp;



Yet, the conservation status of many remains uncertain, with over 600 awaiting assessment and 900 listed as "data deficient."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prioritizing-conservation-action-nbsp">Prioritizing conservation action&nbsp;</h2>



‘Though thousands of amphibian species are known about, we know very little about their ways of life of many of them," said study co-author Dr. David Gower, an expert in amphibians at the Natural History Museum.



‘Without detailed information on their population trends or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loss-of-wildlife-happens-five-times-slower-in-protected-lands/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">where they live</a>, it is difficult to accurately categorize species on the Red List. Overcoming this is a major challenge in amphibian conservation biology.’



‘We’re in the process of adding new species to the global inventory and re-assessing the conservation status of known species," said Dr. Loader. "These assessment data help to prioritize conservation action in areas where we see most evidence of change and need.’



The full paper was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06578-4">Nature</a>. Over 100 scientists from across the globe provided insights to back this comprehensive study.



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Over 40% of amphibians face extinction due to escalating climate threats

Scientists warn the state of amphibians worldwide continues to rapidly...

Lionesses,Walk,Along,The,Road,Against,The,Backdrop,Of,A

A new study led by the Western University in Canada has found that mammals inhabiting the Greater Kruger National Park in South Africa, which boasts one of the largest existing lion populations, exhibit heightened fear when exposed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-are-affected-by-the-emotions-in-human-voices/">human voices</a> in comparison to sounds such as lion roars, dogs barking, or even gunshots. Worldwide data indicates that humans prey on other species at significantly greater rates than other predators.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-as-predators-nbsp">Humans as predators&nbsp;</h2>



“We usually think about the top of the food chain being large carnivore predators,” said first author Liana Y. Zanette, a conservation biologist at <a href="https://www.uwo.ca/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western University</a>. “But what we’re interested in is the unique ecology of humans as predators in the system, because humans are super lethal.”



“Normally, if you’re a mammal, you’re not going to die of disease or hunger. The thing that actually ends your life is going to be a predator, and the bigger you are the bigger the predator that finishes you off,” added co-author Micheal Clinchy, another conservation biologist at the same institution.&nbsp;



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lions-are-dangling-precariously-on-the-brink-of-extinction-immediate-action-is-needed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lions</a> are the biggest group-hunting land predator on the planet, and thus ought to be the scariest, and so we’re comparing the fear of humans versus lions to find out if humans are scarier than the scariest non-human predator.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-various-audio-recordings-nbsp">Various audio recordings&nbsp;</h2>



In the course of this extensive South African study, the research team examined the responses of 19 mammalian species to various audio recordings: human voices, lion sounds, barking dogs, and gunshots.&nbsp;



The vocalizations of humans were taken from TV and radio broadcasts in the region’s predominant languages: Tsonga, Northern Sotho, English, and Afrikaans.&nbsp;



The sounds of dogs and gunshots symbolized human hunting activities, while the lion sounds, chosen in collaboration with lion specialist and co-author Craig Packer of the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/">University of Minnesota</a>, represented the apex predator in the area.



“The key thing is that the lion vocalizations are of them snarling and growling, in ‘conversation’ as it were, not roaring at each other,” Clinchy explained. “That way the lion vocalizations are directly comparable to those of the humans speaking conversationally.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-animal-interactions-nbsp">Diverse animal interactions&nbsp;</h2>



Utilizing specially designed waterproof devices that integrated a camera trap with a speaker, the team was able to record animal reactions for extended durations. These devices were strategically placed at waterholes during the dry season to capture diverse animal interactions, leading to an impressive collection of over 15,000 videos to analyze.



Zanette recalled one memorable incident involving their equipment: “We put the camera in a bear box, not because there are bears out in South Africa, but because of the hyenas and leopards that like to chew on them. One night, the lion recording made this elephant so angry that it charged and just smashed the whole thing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-voices-associated-with-predators">Human voices associated with predators</h2>



The analysis revealed a stark difference in animal reactions to human voices versus other sounds. A staggering 95 percent of species, encompassing creatures like leopards, giraffes, rhinos, and elephants, demonstrated more pronounced avoidance behavior when hearing human voices compared to lion or hunting sounds.



“There’s this idea that the animals are going to habituate to humans if they’re not hunted. But we’ve shown that this isn’t the case,” Clinchy reported. “The fear of humans is ingrained and pervasive, so this is something that we need to start thinking about seriously for conservation purposes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-nbsp">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



Currently, the researchers are exploring the potential of their audio systems in diverting endangered species from poaching hotspots in South Africa. Preliminary results, especially with the Southern white rhino, appear promising.



“I think the pervasiveness of the fear throughout the savannah mammal community is a real testament to the environmental impact that humans have. Not just through habitat loss and climate change and species extinction, which is all important stuff," said Zanette.



But just having us out there on that landscape is enough of a danger signal that they respond really strongly. They are scared to death of humans, way more than any other predator."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.08.089" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Humans are the scariest predators in the African savannah

A new study led by the Western University in Canada...

When seabird couples have similar personalities, they tend to be better parents, according to a recent study from the University of Liverpool.&nbsp;



The researchers also found that personality compatibility is a significant factor in the longevity of the couples' relationship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The team investigated the breeding habits of black-legged kittiwake couples.&nbsp;



The study revealed that seabird pairs with matching personalities are less likely to lose their chicks – an event which might prompt these generally monogamous birds to contemplate starting anew with a different partner.



The research was focused on a wild kittiwake population in Svalbard, located within the Arctic Circle.&nbsp;



The goal was to analyze how personality compatibility impacted both their parenting prowess and the stability of their pair bond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted-nbsp">How the study was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers conducted a unique personality assessment. Birds were presented with a blue plastic penguin toy to gauge their level of boldness.&nbsp;



Upon analyzing their reactions, the team compared personalities among paired birds and subsequently linked these findings to their success rates in parenting and the likelihood of them parting ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance-nbsp">Study significance&nbsp;</h2>



A greater disparity in personalities was associated with a greater likelihood of chick loss. This, in turn, increased the chances of the couples splitting up.&nbsp;



This observation is particularly significant given the breeding environment of the kittiwakes. They breed under strenuous conditions where single-parenting is hardly feasible.&nbsp;



Both parents are integral for tasks like foraging and nest safeguarding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-similar-personalities-nbsp">Similar personalities&nbsp;</h2>



“Our findings suggest that having similar personalities within pairs makes it easier for parents to predict and respond to each other’s behavior," explained study lead author Fionnuala McCully.



“Seabird parents spend long periods of time apart when they are finding food at sea, and so they often need to make decisions without having their partner there for reference."



"If you and your partner have similar personalities, you might also make similar decisions. What would my partner do in this situation? Easy, the same thing that I would do! And when your partner is more predictable, it is easier for you to make informed choices which benefit you both.”



“After all, human relationships thrive on compatibility and our lives are easier when we can predict how our partner might react in challenging circumstances. This research suggests that animal relationships may need exactly the same thing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-relationships">Long-term relationships</h2>



Interestingly, kittiwakes often live into their 30s and even longer. These birds usually remain with the same mate for most of their lives.&nbsp;



Swapping partners demands considerable effort and energy. The choice to "divorce" is rarely made unless prompted by significant reasons, such as the tragic loss of a chick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



This research comes at a time when kittiwakes, the world's most prevalent gull species, are witnessing a drastic plunge in their numbers.&nbsp;



Factors like climate change and human activities - most notably overfishing - jeopardize their young's survival.&nbsp;



Unless there's a decisive shift in human behavior, even the most compatible kittiwake couples may find themselves unable to tackle the challenges of the future.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/eth.13405" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ethology</a>.



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Compatible seabird couples are more successful parents

When seabird couples have similar personalities, they tend to be...

Recently, the phenomenon of fluorescence when exposed to ultraviolet light has been observed in various creatures, including birds, reptiles, insects, and fish. The prevalence of this occurrence in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hairless-mammals-evolved-at-a-faster-pace/">mammals</a>, however, remained largely unexplored. 



Now, a team of researchers led by the Western Australian Museum and Curtin University, has found that fluorescence is remarkably prevalent among mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The experts analyzed 125 mammalian species, both preserved and frozen, from museum collections to determine the existence of “apparent fluorescence” when exposed to UV light. They were surprised to find that every mammalian specimen exhibited at least some degree of&nbsp; fluorescence.&nbsp;



These mammals include familiar creatures like domestic cats (Felis catus), as well as polar bears, bats, mountain zebras, wombats, dwarf spinner dolphins, leopards, and even the Tasmanian devil.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-sources-of-fluorescence-nbsp">Many sources of fluorescence&nbsp;</h2>



The sources of these fluorescent compounds ranged from bones and teeth to claws, fur, feathers, and even the skin, while the range of fluorescent colors displayed was broad, encompassing hues from red and yellow to green, pink, and blue.



“We were quite curious to find out about fluorescence in mammals,” said lead author Kenny Travouillon, the Mammalogy curator at the Western Australian Museum. “By using the spectrophotometer in the School of Molecular and Life Sciences at Curtin University, we were able to measure the light that was emitted from each specimen when exposed to UV light.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-causes-fluorescence">What causes fluorescence?</h2>



From a scientific standpoint, fluorescence occurs when certain chemicals, like proteins or carotenoids present on a mammal’s exterior, absorb light and then re-emit it at longer and lower-energy wavelengths, resulting in glowing colors that may be pink, green, or blue.



Interestingly, the study also discovered that the iconic platypus is among the creatures that fluoresce under UV light.



“To date, reports of fluorescence among mammals have been limited to a relatively small number of species,” the authors reported. “Here, we are able to reproduce the results of these previous studies and observe apparent fluorescence in additional species: we report fluorescence for 125 mammal species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fur-color-variations">Fur color variations</h2>



Lighter-furred mammals, accounting for roughly 86 percent (107 out of 125) of the species examined, exhibited the most noticeable fluorescence. On the other hand, the fluorescent traits in dark-furred creatures like the Tasmanian devil were subdued due to melanin’s masking effect.&nbsp;



“There was a large amount of white fluorescence in the white fur of the koala, Tasmanian devil, short-beaked echidna, southern hairy-nosed wombat, quenda, greater bilby, and a cat - and while a zebra’s white hairs glowed, its dark hairs did not,” explained Travouillon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-significance-nbsp">Biological significance&nbsp;</h2>



In a notable exception, the dwarf spinner dolphin showcased no external fluorescence. Only its teeth exhibited this trait. Fluorescence was found to be most common and most intense among nocturnal species and those with terrestrial, arboreal, and fossorial habits.



While the study unequivocally confirms the prevalence of fluorescence in mammals, the scientific community continues to debate its potential biological significance, with some positing it might merely be a by-product of their surface chemistry. “For most fluorescent animals there is insufficient information to evaluate,” the authors said.



Looking ahead, the researchers noted a particular mammalian group absent from their data - the lemurs. They anticipate this group will also reveal fluorescent members due to the prevalence of white fur. However, they concluded that future studies should focus on non-preserved animals but rather on living or freshly dead creatures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.230325">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Cats glow in the dark? Fluorescence found to be very common in mammals

Recently, the phenomenon of fluorescence when exposed to ultraviolet light...

A new study has revealed a fascinating defense mechanism used by buff-tailed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">bumblebees</a> against the menacing attacks of Asian hornets.



The researchers observed more than 120 of these attacks, and discovered that the bumblebees managed to fight off the hornets every time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calculated-maneuver-nbsp">Calculated maneuver&nbsp;</h2>



When they are ambushed, buff-tailed bumblebees execute a strategic drop to the ground, dragging the hornets with them in the process.&nbsp;



This calculated maneuver either results in the hornet losing its grasp, or the bumblebee raising its sting until the hornet decides to retreat.



Despite their successful defense strategy, bumblebee colonies still experienced stunted growth in regions densely populated by Asian hornets. This suggests that the hornets impose indirect impacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asian-hornets-nbsp">Asian hornets&nbsp;</h2>



Asian hornets, or yellow-legged hornets, are known for preying on various insects, including honey bees, and their presence has been escalating in mainland Europe, East Asia, and recently, the United States.&nbsp;



The surge in hornet sightings raises concerns for the well-being of crucial pollinators, leading to intensified control initiatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



“Asian hornets prey on a wide range of insects, including honey bees, but little is known about their impact on other pollinators,” said Thomas O'Shea-Wheller, of the Environment and Sustainability Institute at the University of Exeter.



“With honey bees, the hornets do something called ‘hawking’ - hovering outside the bees’ nest and attacking returning foragers as they fly past."



“We recorded hornets doing the same thing to bumblebees, but with the surprising difference that in our observations, they were entirely unsuccessful.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted-nbsp">How the study was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The research was conducted in Pontevedra, Spain, with commercially reared bumblebee colonies distributed across 12 locations, each facing different levels of Asian hornet concentrations.&nbsp;



The colonies’ weight, which correlates with their growth, was monitored every two days.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



The data collected indicated that colonies situated in areas with elevated Asian hornet presence exhibited slower growth rates.&nbsp;



“We can’t say for certain why this is,” said O'Shea-Wheller. “It’s possible that some external factor is good for Asian hornets, allowing them to thrive, but bad for bumblebees."



“However, it’s perhaps more likely that the presence of Asian hornets limits the success of bumblebee colonies."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-constant-attacks">Constant attacks</h2>



“Although the attacks we witnessed at colony entrances were unsuccessful, bumblebees have been reported in the diet of Asian hornets, and the hornets are known to prey on them elsewhere."



“Furthermore, defending against such attacks is likely energetically costly – and when hornet abundance is high, this could be a major problem for bees out foraging."



“Hornets also consume nectar from flowers, meaning they compete directly with bees for food and harass them at flower patches via constant attacks.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-persistent-predators-nbsp">Persistent predators&nbsp;</h2>



Despite their relentless and generalized predatory behavior, hornets have been largely unsuccessful in their attempts to prey on bumblebees.&nbsp;



“I have seen hornets attack bumblebees of all sizes, including some that are larger than them," said O'Shea-Wheller.



“They are very persistent and generalist predators, so these attacks may still be worthwhile despite the high failure rate, as long as they sometimes get a kill.”



Buff-tailed bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) have not evolved alongside Asian hornets (Vespa velutina), so O'Shea-Wheller said their successful defensive strategy may well be an "evolutionary coincidence."



"While honey bees are often unable to escape the clutches of Asian hornets once grappled in the air, the bumblebees’ defensive response of dropping to the ground appears to be more successful,” he said.



The research team also included scientists from the University of Vigo and the University of Santiago de Compostela.



The study was funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF).



The findings are published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-023-05329-5">Communications Biology</a>.



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Bumblebees have unique defense tactics against Asian hornets

A new study has revealed a fascinating defense mechanism used...

In an ambitious effort to conserve the genetic diversity of America's endangered species, the nonprofit <a href="https://reviverestore.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Revive &amp; Restore</a> is focused on biobanking.&nbsp;



This initiative, in alliance with the U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service, marks the first-ever structured biobanking pipeline specifically for U.S. species that are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-species-day-millions-of-species-share-the-earth-with-humans-and-they-need-our-help/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">threatened or endangered</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-biobanking">What is biobanking?</h2>



Biobanking describes the intentional and indefinite preservation of living cells, tissues, and gametes. It protects both unrecoverable genetic diversity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-efforts-are-not-enough-to-save-antarctic-wildlife/">wildlife</a> species and expands capacity for genetic rescue strategies both today and into the future.&nbsp;



Currently, only 14 percent of (more than) 1,700 U.S. species listed as threatened or endangered have living tissue cryopreserved.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-america-s-natural-history-nbsp">America’s natural history&nbsp;</h2>



"This is about creating a legacy of America’s natural history before it is lost and provides an important resource to enhance species recovery efforts now and in the future,” said Ryan Phelan, executive director of Revive &amp; Restore.&nbsp;



Many experts believe we have already entered into Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-crisis-entire-branches-of-earths-tree-of-life-are-vanishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sixth mass extinction</a>. New initiatives like biobanking are urgently needed to address this ongoing biodiversity crisis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-rescue">Genetic rescue</h2>



The pipeline encompasses tissue collection, establishment of living cell lines, and a nationwide repository for cryopreservation.&nbsp;



These cell lines will equip the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service</a> with the means to oversee existing populations via genomic data and increase the scope for genetic rescue using state-of-the-art reproductive technologies.



“We want to provide the greatest possible set of options for ensuring the continued survival of the native wildlife of the United States,” explained Dr. Oliver Ryder, director of Conservation Genetics at <a href="https://sandiegozoowildlifealliance.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance</a>. 



“This creates a mandate for expanded efforts in biobanking living cells.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historic-initiative-nbsp">Historic initiative&nbsp;</h2>



“We are excited to be part of such a historic initiative that will provide the necessary resources for cutting edge conservation work going on today and in the future," said Dr. Shawn Walker, vice president of Science and Technology at ViaGen Pets &amp; Equine.



"The samples preserved during this endeavor will provide an invaluable genetic road map to enable the preservation of these endangered species."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resources-for-field-biologists">Resources for field biologists</h2>



In addition to this, Revive &amp; Restore has carefully selected resources for field biologists to biobank specific species.&nbsp;



The resources include peer-reviewed sample collection protocols, visual tools, and an anthology of published resources from institutions that are adept at biobanking and cryopreservation. All of these can be accessed at the project's dedicated <a href="https://reviverestore.org/projects/biobanking">webpage</a>.



This pioneering collaboration is a monumental stride towards safeguarding U.S. endangered species and assessing the ongoing biodiversity crisis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seizing-the-moment">Seizing the moment</h2>



The U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service has selected its first 24 U.S. endangered mammals for biobanking, including the Mexican wolf, Florida bonneted bat, and Sonoran Pronghorn.



Seth Willey of the US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service emphasized the importance of seizing this moment.



“Biobanking gives us the chance to save irreplaceable genetic diversity," said Willey. "If done right, it creates a marker-in-time and gives future recovery biologists options, like genetic rescue, that are only possible if we act now.”



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Biobanking: Historic initiative aims to genetically rescue endangered species

In an ambitious effort to conserve the genetic diversity of...

Understanding the evolution of insect speed, particularly across various species, is no simple task. For example, mosquitoes, apart from being known nuisances, have always fascinated scientists for their rapid wingbeats. Astonishingly, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-biting-season-extended-by-light-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquitoes</a> can flap their wings over 800 times per second.



How can such a tiny creature achieve such speed, especially when the pace at which its muscles flap outpaces the speed at which its nervous system commands them to beat? This odd asynchronous beating, a phenomenon that seemed alien to many, is a key to understanding an evolutionary marvel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asynchronous-flight-drives-insect-speed">Asynchronous flight drives insect speed</h2>



The principle of asynchronous beating means that there's a detachment between the neural commands and muscle contractions. Interestingly, this is observed in only four distinct insect groups. 



The assumption for years was that these groups evolved these unique wingbeats separately. However, a game-changing research collaboration between the <a href="https://www.gatech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia Institute of Technology</a> and the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, San Diego</a> (UC San Diego) suggests otherwise. These high-frequency wingbeats, they discovered, originated from a single common ancestor.



As Jeff Gau, one of the lead authors of the study and a Ph.D. graduate from Georgia Tech, highlighted, their findings delve deep into evolutionary history, tracing back to how ancient insect muscles functioned around 400 million years ago.



“Our findings are pretty robust to all different experimental conditions,” said Gau. “We’re looking back 400 million years into how ancient insect muscles must have behaved from an evolutionary standpoint.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-insects-are-in-sync">Some insects are in sync</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moths-found-to-be-critically-important-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moths</a>, in contrast to mosquitoes, synchronize their flight muscles with every wing stroke. But, in an evolutionary twist, moths' ancestors possessed asynchronous flight capability but lost it over time. The catch? <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-moths-use-an-aphrodisiac-during-mating-to-feel-macho/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moths</a> still have the capability for asynchronous muscle contractions.



To decode the evolutionary journey, scientists mapped flight strategies onto the two foundational ways physicists interpret oscillations. By integrating biophysical models with cutting-edge robotics, they showcased that these two strategies are essentially two facets of the same model. 



A few evolutionary tweaks, and an insect can seamlessly transition between synchronous and asynchronous flight modes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-size-impacts-insect-speed">How size impacts insect speed</h2>



Size plays a crucial role. Many larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-insect-decline-what-are-the-causes-and-consequences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> achieve synchronous flight, matching wing movement with nervous system pulses. But, for their smaller counterparts, this becomes a challenge. As they grow smaller, their wingbeats amplify, reaching speeds of up to 100 times per second. 



According to Simon Sponberg, Dunn Family Early Career Associate Professor of Physics and Biological Sciences at Georgia Tech, there's a natural speed barrier. If these tiny insects attempt to contract and relax their wings at such a pace, the wings would overlap and ultimately malfunction.



“As insects became smaller, their wingbeats increased to 100 times per second, and when you start getting up to that speed, there's sort of an inherent speed limit where the muscle can't contract and relax fast enough,” said Sponberg. “If they tried to contract and relax the wings, they'd start overlapping and then eventually lock up.”



Instead, smaller insects evolved a unique mechanism. Their nervous system dispatches a pulse of activity, priming the muscles for contraction, regardless of the need for a wingbeat. This efficient method ensures that wings flap at a remarkable speed without awaiting neural activation and relaxation for each motion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-understanding-of-insect-speed-evolution">New understanding of insect speed evolution</h2>



Historically, scientists believed that asynchronous flight was an evolutionary trait that insects stumbled upon independently to increase their speed. But recently released phylogenies, evolutionary family trees of species, painted a different picture. 



Asynchrony didn't emerge individually in separate evolutionary timelines. It sprouted once and then branched out. Over the ages, some <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-insects-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> groups thrived with their newfound speed and held onto it. At the same time, others reverted to synchronous flight.



Sponberg uses the analogy of oscillations to illustrate this concept. The principle of a dancing balloon at a car dealership, oscillating continuously, not by external force but due to a consistent air jet, mimics the way asynchronous flight functions in insects.



“If you've ever watched one of those dancing balloon guys at a car dealership, it goes up and collapses repeatedly,” Sponberg said. “What’s happening there is it's oscillating, not because you're poking it regularly, but you're actually providing a continuous air jet in the bottom, which is a trade-off with the force of gravity.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robots-mimicking-nature">Robots mimicking nature</h2>



To deepen their understanding, the researchers at UC San Diego developed robots inspired by the moth's flight mechanism. Two distinct robots were created: a larger flapper robot operating in water and a smaller flapper robot, modeled after Harvard's <a href="https://wyss.harvard.edu/technology/robobees-autonomous-flying-microrobots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Robobee</a>, functioning in the air. 



These robots weren't mere scientific toys. They were crucial in proving that the models developed to explain flight transitions and insect speed held up in practical scenarios. 



“You don’t need robotics to learn something about biology,” said Nick Gravish, an associate professor at UC San Diego. “But there’s something about building a bio-inspired robot that forces you to put yourself in the animal’s shoes.”



James Lynch, a Ph.D. graduate from UC San Diego and co-lead on the paper, emphasized the significance, noting that they had essentially built the first robot capable of mimicking evolutionary transitions in insect flight.



&nbsp;“The physics of this much larger robot moving much more slowly are similar to those of an insect that's a lot smaller and moving a lot faster,” said Lynch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interdisciplinary-brilliance">Interdisciplinary brilliance</h2>



Such discoveries were only attainable through the confluence of varied disciplines, including physics, evolutionary biology, and robotics. This interdisciplinary approach, as <a href="https://www.setonhill.edu/academics/meet-the-faculty/detail/brett-aiello-phd/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brett Aiello</a> from Seton Hill University noted, is pivotal in gaining profound insights into natural processes governing animal movement.



“One of the biggest evolutionary findings here is that these transitions are occurring in both directions and that instead of using multiple independent origins of asynchronous muscle, there's actually only one,” said&nbsp;Aiello. “From that one independent origin, multiple revisions back to synchrony have occurred.”



In essence, the study is a testament to the magic that happens when different fields unite with a shared purpose. Through this collective effort, we now have a clearer understanding of the wonders of insect flight and the evolutionary dance that has shaped it.



The full research paper was published in&nbsp;Nature, titled, “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06606-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bridging two insect flight modes in evolution, physiology, and robophysics</a>.”



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Insect wings flap faster than their brain speed can command

Understanding the evolution of insect speed, particularly across various species,...

Honeybees are more discerning in their nutritional choices than previously believed, according to a new study led by the University of Helsinki. This revelation could have profound implications for both bee health and human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agriculture-could-play-a-key-role-in-limiting-global-warming/">agriculture</a>.



"Honeybees are the most widespread managed pollinators of our food crops, and a crucial part of their well-being is a suitable diet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp; "Yet, we do not know how they choose flowers to collect nectar or pollen from."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprisingly-selective">Surprisingly selective</h2>



Historically, honeybees were regarded as generalists when it came to selecting flowering plants, implying they could adapt to a variety of plant species.&nbsp;



However, the current study has challenged this assumption, indicating that these insects display a high degree of selectivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honeybees-use-a-fraction-of-available-plants-nbsp">Honeybees use a fraction of available plants&nbsp;</h2>



"Honeybees choose certain plants as their food resources, and these choices differ among time points and, within a time point, even among bee colonies within the same apiary," explained study co-author Helena Wirta.



"As an example, at a time point, a colony would collect nectar and pollen mainly from different plants."



"Based on our results, honeybees are more selective than assumed, using only a fraction of available plants. Thus, to fulfil its nutritional needs, it is likely to need a wide selection of plants from which to select suitable ones."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



For the study, honey and pollen samples were collected from beehives. DNA was then extracted from the samples to investigate the nutritional contents of the plants that the bees had visited. 



"Here we studied forty-three honeybee colonies in six apiaries over a summer, identifying the floral origins of honey and hive-stored pollen samples by DNA-metabarcoding," explained the study authors.



"We recorded the available flowering plants and analyzed the specialized metabolites in honey."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



The results revealed that plant species vary in the protein content, amino and fatty acid composition of pollen, and the quantity and composition of sugars in the nectar.&nbsp;



In line with these variations, bees would, for instance, favor raspberries particularly in mid- and late summer for nectar. During early summer, they would opt for nectar and pollen from blueberry and cow parsley.



"Overall, we find that honeybees use mostly the same plants for both nectar and pollen, yet per colony less than half of the plant genera are used for both nectar and pollen at a time," wrote the researchers.



"Across samples, on average fewer plant genera were used for pollen, but the composition was more variable among samples, suggesting higher selectivity for pollen sources. Of the available flowering plants, honeybees used only a fraction for either nectar or pollen foraging."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



These revelations hold significance, especially in light of the declining pollinator numbers reported in recent years.&nbsp;



Honeybees play a pivotal role as pollinators for not just crop plants but also for wild flora. It is important to know which plants meet honeybee nutritional requirements.



"We studied managed honeybees, so our results apply especially to crop species pollination, which impacts both the quality and quantity of yields," said Wirta.



"To ensure food security, including a variety of plants with high nutritional value, we should take these new findings into consideration."



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-42102-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>. 



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Honeybees are very selective about their nutritional choices

Honeybees are more discerning in their nutritional choices than previously...

While several studies have highlighted the ramifications of livestock farming for human consumption, a new study brings attention to a less-discussed realm. What are the environmental implications of meat-based foods that we feed our beloved pets, and how would the Earth benefit if our dogs and cats switched to vegan diets?



As the urgency for sustainability grows, consumers are becoming more conscious of their dietary choices and the environmental footprints they leave behind. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cowspiracy-film-review/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">livestock industry</a>, notoriously linked with large-scale land usage, greenhouse gas emissions, and overconsumption of freshwater, has long been scrutinized for its adverse environmental impact. New research brings attention to this issue, but from a slightly different perspective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-opening-findings">Eye-opening findings</h2>



The study, led by Andrew Knight from <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a>, Australia, breaks new ground in the sustainability discourse. Knight’s analysis suggests that converting all cats and dogs, either in the US or globally, to a vegan diet – one without meat, dairy, or eggs – could have profound positive environmental outcomes.



The immediate question that arises is whether vegan diets are safe for pets. Recent research affirms that nutritionally sound vegan diets for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-on-vegan-diets-are-equally-healthy-as-those-that-eat-meat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-with-vegan-diets-may-have-better-health-outcomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> not only are safe, but may also be healthier when compared to conventional meat-based diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-positive-impact-by-the-numbers">Potential positive impact: By the numbers</h2>



Using pet population data from 2020 (for the US) and 2018 (for global estimates), along with insights from a myriad of prior studies and governmental databases, Knight painted a hypothetical yet illuminating picture:



<ol type="1" start="1">
<li>The livestock consumed by US dogs and cats stands at about one fifth of the consumption by humans. Globally, this figure drops to one tenth. </li>



<li>The hypothetical adoption of vegan diets by all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegan-diet-for-dogs-given-the-thumbs-up-by-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">US dogs</a> and cats could prevent the slaughter of close to 2 billion land-based livestock animals every year. On a global scale, this number could shoot up to almost 7 billion. Furthermore, billions of aquatic animals could also be spared. </li>



<li>Significant conservation of resources could be achieved. For example, the global shift of all dogs to vegan diets might free up land equivalent to the size of Saudi Arabia. Cats, if they were to follow suit, could save a land area as vast as Germany. For context, if humanity at large adopted veganism, land larger than Russia and India combined could potentially be conserved. </li>



<li>The shift could also yield drastic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-diets-are-proven-better-for-human-and-environmental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reductions in greenhouse gas</a> emissions. To draw a parallel, a global shift in dog diets could reduce emissions equivalent to the total emissions of the UK. For cats, the equivalent is that of Israel.</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assumptions-and-caveats">Assumptions and caveats</h2>



As promising as these numbers seem, Knight brings a balanced perspective by pointing out potential underestimations and assumptions. The pet population and energy requirements used in the study may actually be conservative. This implies that the real-world environmental benefits could be even more substantial.



However, the study does ride on certain assumptions. For one, the global calculations were predominantly based on US dietary ingredient data, neglecting potential variations in ingredients between nations. 



Moreover, the environmental impact data hails from between 2009 to 2011. More recent data might paint a different (possibly more accurate) picture. Knight also highlighted the need for future research to focus on the specific energy density of various animal-sourced ingredients. He used the broad averages in this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-switching-your-dogs-and-cats-to-vegan-diets">Switching your dogs and cats to vegan diets</h2>



While Knight's research unequivocally underlines the environmental merits of vegan diets, he cautions pet owners about the health implications. For those considering this route, he stresses the importance of choosing vegan pet food that is labeled as nutritionally complete. It should also be sourced from trustworthy companies with high standards.



In an era where sustainability is not just a buzzword but a dire necessity, such studies carve pathways for more conscious living. The ripple effect of our dietary choices, whether for us or our pets, is vast. Knight’s analysis offers food for thought in our collective journey towards a greener planet.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0291791" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Switching dogs and cats to vegan diets would help the Earth tremendously

While several studies have highlighted the ramifications of livestock farming...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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