<p>If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.</p>



<p>In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. </p>



<p>But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



<p>In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.</p>



<p>The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.</p>



<p>Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.</p>



<p>“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. </p>



<p>“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



<p>The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.</p>



<p>“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. </p>



<p>“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”</p>



<p>When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



<p>This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.</p>



<p>“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. </p>



<p>“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



<p>Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.</p>



<p>That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.</p>



<p>“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



<p>The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. </p>



<p>But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.</p>



<p>That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a></em>.</p>



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

<p>A red fire ant species with a painful sting (<em>Solenopsis invicta</em>) is one of the most invasive species on Earth. Native to South America, these red <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supergene-transformed-the-social-hierarchy-of-fire-ants/">fire ants</a> have recently spread across the globe.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Now, a team of scientists led by the<a href="https://www.ibe.upf-csic.es/">&nbsp;Institute of Evolutionary Biology (IBE)</a> in Spain has confirmed that this species has reached Sicily and could soon spread all over Europe, possibly causing major environmental, economic, and health problems in Italy and beyond.</p>



<h2 id="h-alarming-spread-of-red-fire-ants">Alarming spread of red fire ants</h2>



<p>“<em>S. invicta</em>&nbsp;is one of the worst invasive species. It can spread alarmingly quickly,” explained lead author Mattia Menchetti, a PhD student at IBE. “Finding this species in Italy was a big surprise, but we knew this day would come.”</p>



<p>Previously known as “the imported red fire ant,” this species’ scientific name comes from its most infamous feature, its painful stings that can sometimes cause anaphylactic shock. </p>



<h2 id="h-how-are-they-spreading">How are they spreading?</h2>



<p>Although it is native to South America, red fire ants<em> </em>have spread rapidly by flying into wind stream to travel farther on the local level. </p>



<p>Humans have also played a major role in the insect’s global spread through the maritime trade industry and by shipping plant products, helping it establish throughout the United States, as well as in other regions, such as Australia, the Caribbeans, China, and Mexico. However, this is the first time that the ant has been spotted in Europe.</p>



<h2 id="h-alien-ant-species">Alien ant species</h2>



<p>“There are a vast number of alien ant species currently establishing in Europe, and the absence of this species was kind of a relief,” Menchetti said. “For decades, scientists have feared that it would arrive. We could not believe our eyes when we saw it.”</p>



<p>After seeing several photographs taken in Sicily of what looked strikingly similar to <em>S. invicta</em>, the experts travelled to the region to confirm the ants’ identity.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-red-fire-ants-have-painful-stings">Red fire ants have painful stings</h2>



<p>They discovered 88 nests in a 4.7-hectare area close to a river, some of which contained several thousands of working ants. Sicilian residents told them that they had been getting stung frequently by such ants for several years.</p>



<p>“The locals have been experiencing these painful things since at least 2019, so the ants have probably been there for a while,” said Menchetti. “And the real extension of the invaded area is probably larger.”</p>



<h2 id="h-first-entry-point-in-europe">First entry point in Europe</h2>



<p>Although scientists discovered the ant in Europe for the first time, they suspect that Sicily wasn't the insect's first point of entry on the continent.</p>



<p>While they could not yet determine how it reached Europe, an analysis of the Sicilian ants’ DNA revealed similarities to red ant populations in the US and China.</p>



<h2 id="h-predicting-the-future-spread-of-red-fire-ants">Predicting the future spread of red fire ants</h2>



<p>To better understand how the ants might spread around Europe, the researchers analyzed the local wind patterns in Sicily and designed a comprehensive model to determine how suitable the rest of Europe and the Mediterranean region will be for this species and what role might climate change play in the ants’ further spread.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The analysis revealed that, although only seven percent of the European continent is suitable for <em>S. invicta</em> given current environmental conditions, climate change will likely expedite their spread and population growth in other areas too.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, researchers found that urban regions, particularly in Europe, were especially at risk, with 50 percent of Europe’s cities vulnerable to invasion.</p>



<p>“This is especially concerning because many of the cities, including London, Amsterdam, and Rome, have large seaports, which could allow the ants to spread rapidly to more countries and continents,” said senior author Roger Vila, an evolutionary biologist at IBE.</p>



<h2 id="h-eradication-plans">Eradication plans</h2>



<p>Since the only place where the red fire ants were successfully eradicated is New Zealand, the experts plan to base their interventions on methods that worked there, as well as on efforts underway in China. </p>



<p>First, they will systematically inspect local areas to assess whether the ants have already reached them. Next, the plan is to initiate a multi-year treatment to eradicate the red fire ant nests. Finally, they will monitor the invaded sites to ensure that there are no resurgences. </p>



<p>In these efforts, the public should play a critical role in helping monitor the insect’s spread. “Citizens can play a very important role in this,” Menchetti explained. “We hope that, with their help, we will be able to cover a wider area. This will help us track and spot all the possible areas invaded in the region.”</p>



<h2 id="h-citizen-science-programs">Citizen science programs&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Thus, the researchers plan to organize citizen science programs in which people would take photos of the ants. However, since many European ants build similar-looking nests, the experts will double-check the citizens’ findings. They need to make sure that they discovered the right ant species and are actually reporting red fire ant sightings.</p>



<p>“There needs to be more awareness about this problem because the problem is already in Europe. We need coordinated action, and we need it now,” Menchetti concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.07.036"><em>Current Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Invasive red fire ants have made their way to Europe and are poised to takeover

A red fire ant species with a painful sting (Solenopsis...

Majestic,African,Lion,Couple,Loving,Pride,Of,The,Jungle,-

<p>New findings have emerged that paint a worrying picture of the lion populations nearing extinction in Africa. Recently published in the Journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-023-00959-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>, this troublesome study not only uncovers disturbing data about the rapid decline of these magnificent creatures, but also offers a fresh perspective on conservation strategies.</p>



<p>The research was led by <a href="https://www.wildcru.org/members/dr-amy-dickman/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Amy Dickman</a> of the Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU) at the University of Oxford, alongside Sam Nicholson of the Endangered Wildlife Trust and 32 distinguished co-authors from around the globe. </p>



<p>Their study delves deep into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Lions-on-the-brink_infographic_Credit-WildCRU_1big.jpg">nuances of safeguarding lions</a>. The team introduces an innovative framework, one that focuses on both ecological and socio-political risks, to guide conservation investment decisions across Africa.</p>



<p>Emphasizing the iconic stature of lions, Professor Dickman remarked, "Lions are one of the most iconic species in the world, but are undergoing devastating declines. This comprehensive analysis is the first to look at both ecological and socio-political risk factors facing lions at scale. Conservation science is important to guide action to prevent lion extinction, but this research highlights the invaluable role that politicians, economists, development experts and others must play if we are to safeguard lions and other biodiversity."</p>



<h2 id="h-why-lions-are-close-to-extinction">Why lions are close to extinction</h2>



<p>The study's core findings revolve around the fact that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-lion-day-celebrating-the-king-of-the-jungle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lion populations</a> of the same size can be vastly different in vulnerability due to their unique blend of ecological and socio-political risks. Dr. Andrew Jacobson, a senior author from Catawba College, USA, illustrates this with a riveting comparison between Sudan and Benin. </p>



<p>While both nations have a similarly sized lion population, socio-political differences, such as Benin’s stability and prosperity in contrast to Sudan's civil strife, make their conservation challenges of preventing lion extinction particularly distinct. </p>



<p>Jacobson elaborates, "The war and instability undercuts the ability of park rangers or others to help ensure the continuation of Sudan’s lions. This comparison demonstrates how when evaluating investments into protecting lions, both ecological and socio-political factors must be considered."</p>



<h2>How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>Initiating the study, the researchers meticulously identified and mapped wild African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-led-ancient-lions-and-bears-to-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lion populations</a>, building on the vast lion monitoring which WildCRU has been integral to for decades. They then bifurcated the threats into two primary categories: ecological and socio-political. </p>



<p>While factors such as a smaller lion population or higher densities of people and livestock added to ecological vulnerability, socio-political threats included rampant corruption or low GDP per capita.</p>



<p>To streamline conservation efforts, these socio-political and ecological risks were synthesized into a unified fragility index. This score doesn’t determine which lion population is more deserving of protection. Instead, it underscores the diverse challenges that different populations face. </p>



<p>As Professor Dickman articulately pointed out, "Some populations may ultimately have similar fragility scores, but they are driven by different threats." Therefore, understanding these nuances is pivotal for conservationists, stakeholders, and investors.</p>



<p>Sam Nicholson, co-lead author, voiced a similar sentiment, emphasizing the novelty and necessity of their research. He stated, "This research is the first of its kind in bringing together both ecological and socio-political factors into a single index to evaluate potential conservation investments for African lions."</p>



<h2>How to prevent lion extinction</h2>



<p>But what's the scale of the challenge? The research offers some <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Lions-on-the-brink_infographic_Credit-WildCRU_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alarming numbers</a>. Fewer than half of the 62 remaining free-ranging wild African lion populations house over 100 lions. Moreover, these magnificent creatures only reside in 25 African countries, with nearly half of these nations having fewer than 250 lions. These fragmented, smaller populations are at high risk of vanishing.</p>



<p>Human-induced challenges, especially in Africa, are making the lions' future uncertain. They face habitat loss, dwindling prey, and escalating human-wildlife conflicts. Yet, amidst the bleakness, there's a glimmer of hope with successful conservation initiatives in places like Niokolo Koba National Park, Senegal, and Gorongosa National Park in Mozambique.</p>



<h2>A glimmer of hope</h2>



<p>A striking revelation from the study is the correlation between poverty and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/captive-lion-trophy-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lion conservation</a>. Almost all the remaining lion habitats are in the 25% of the world's poorest countries. </p>



<p>As the research highlighted, the regions which eliminated lions over a century ago are, by and large, economically better off today. This dichotomy intensifies the vulnerability of the remaining lions to the pressures endured by some of the world's most impoverished nations.</p>



<p>With previous estimates suggesting an annual budget of over US$1 billion to sustain existing lion populations within protected areas, this research posits that a more realistic figure is closer to US$3 billion annually. This vast sum underscores the profound moral duty of affluent nations to play a more prominent role in lion conservation. It’s not just about financial aid, but about making these contributions more impactful and effective.</p>



<p>As we grapple with the stark reality of this research, it's crucial to remember that the plight of the African lion is intertwined with global socio-political and ecological challenges. The research serves as a clarion call for collective, nuanced, and sustained action to conserve one of the most magnificent creatures on our planet.</p>



<h2>More about lions</h2>



<p>Lions, often dubbed the "kings of the jungle," command respect and awe in the animal kingdom. These majestic big cats, native to parts of Africa and a small region in India, have fascinated humans for centuries with their raw power, grace, and regal demeanor. Unfortunately, due to a variety of circumstances, lions are on the verge of extinction unless humanity takes immediate action.</p>



<h3>Physical characteristics </h3>



<p>Adult male lions boast a thick mane, which sets them apart from their female counterparts. This mane not only serves as an impressive display during mating rituals but also offers protection during territorial disputes with other males. </p>



<p>An adult male typically weighs between 330 to 550 pounds. Females, or lionesses, weigh slightly less, ranging between 265 to 400 pounds. Both males and females possess a strong, muscular build, enabling them to be top predators in their environment.</p>



<h3>Habitat and diet </h3>



<p>Lions primarily inhabit the grasslands, savannas, and open woodlands of Africa. A smaller population, known as the Asiatic lion, resides in India's Gir Forest National Park. These habitats offer them the space they need to hunt and the camouflage necessary to stalk their prey.</p>



<p>As apex predators, lions have a diverse diet, primarily feasting on larger ungulates such as zebras, wildebeests, and antelopes. Lionesses usually take on the role of hunters for the pride. They use teamwork and strategy to corner and take down their prey. Meanwhile, male lions often prioritize guarding the pride's territory.</p>



<h3>Social structure</h3>



<p>Lions exhibit unique social behavior among the big cats: they live in groups called prides. A pride typically consists of multiple related lionesses, their cubs, and one or a few adult males. This social structure offers multiple benefits, including cooperative hunting and cub-rearing.</p>



<p>However, pride leadership remains fluid. Young male lions, upon reaching a certain age, often leave the pride and form coalitions with other male lions. These coalitions then challenge resident males of another pride for dominance. Victorious coalitions take over the pride, ensuring their genes pass onto the next generation.</p>



<h3>Reproduction and lifecycle </h3>



<p>Lionesses give birth to one to four cubs after a gestation period of about 110 days. The early life of a lion cub remains fraught with danger, with threats ranging from other predators to adult male lions, which sometimes kill cubs they haven't fathered.</p>



<p>Cubs depend on their mother's milk for the first six months before transitioning to a meat diet. By the age of two, young lions become adept hunters, contributing to the pride's sustenance.</p>



<h3>Conservation status and preventing lion extinction</h3>



<p>Sadly, as outlined in this article above, lion populations are experiencing a rapid decline. Threats like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-damage-in-lions-reveals-human-impact-on-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a>, human-wildlife conflicts, and poaching have significantly impacted their numbers. </p>



<p>Conservation organizations and local communities actively work to protect these iconic creatures, emphasizing habitat restoration, anti-poaching measures, and community-based conservation initiatives.</p>



<p>Lions, with their blend of power and grace, continue to captivate and inspire. As symbols of strength and courage, they hold a special place in human culture and mythology. It remains our collective responsibility to ensure that these magnificent creatures continue to roam the wild for generations to come.</p>



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Lions are dangling precariously on the brink of extinction, immediate action is needed

New findings have emerged that paint a worrying picture of...

<p>A new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has shed light on the intriguing social dynamics of jackdaws.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers discovered that jackdaws possess the strategic ability to prioritize food over friendships - but maintain an unyielding loyalty to family members.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>The team, which also included experts from the University of Bristol and the University of Konstanz, conducted a unique experiment that presented wild jackdaws with a challenge.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diving-birds-face-a-greater-risk-of-extinction/">birds</a> were given access to appetizing mealworms, but there was a catch. Their access to this treat depended on the company they kept. In order to feast, they had to be with specific companions.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>What the researchers observed was remarkable. The jackdaws rapidly changed friends to maximize their rewards.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, when it came to their offspring, siblings, and mating partners their allegiance never wavered, regardless of the potential mealworm reward.</p>



<h2 id="h-cornish-jackdaw-project">Cornish Jackdaw Project&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study was led by Dr. Michael Kings and Dr. Josh Arbon, under the supervision of Professor Alex Thornton, as part of the Cornish Jackdaw Project. This project aims to improve our understanding of how animals navigate and manage their social interconnections.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“At the Cornish Jackdaw Project, we monitor hundreds of wild jackdaws, each of which is fitted with a tiny PIT tag – like the transponder chips used for pet cats and dogs – embedded in a leg ring," said Professor Thornton.</p>



<h2 id="h-strategic-ability">Strategic ability&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“In this experiment we randomly assigned jackdaws to two groups – A or B – and programmed a pair of automated PIT tag-detecting feeders to provide delicious mealworms only if individuals from the same group (AA or BB) visited together."</p>



<p>“The jackdaws turned out to be very strategic, quickly learning to hang out with members of their own group and ditching old ‘friends’ from the other group so they could get the best rewards. However, they made an exception when it came to their close relations.”</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Dr. Kings noted that the results have important implications for our understanding of the evolution of intelligence as they show that being able to track and remember information about social partners can bring benefits.</p>



<p>“Our findings also help us to understand how societies emerge from individual decisions," said Dr. Arbon. "The balance between strategically playing the field for short-term benefits and investing in valuable long-term partners ultimately shapes the structure of animal societies, including our own.”</p>



<p>The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40808-7"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>, provides new insights on how animals manage social relationships.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-jackdaws">More about jackdaws&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Jackdaws are one of the smallest members of the crow family (Corvidae), and they are distributed across Europe and western Asia. They are easily identifiable by their silvery-blue eyes and the pale grey patch on the back of their head, which contrasts with the rest of their black plumage.</p>



<h3 id="h-vocalization">Vocalization</h3>



<p>Jackdaws are known for their distinctive "jack-jack" call, which is where their name originates from.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



<p>While they can be found in various habitats, including woodlands, coastal cliffs, and urban settings, they particularly favor older buildings and church steeples for nesting.</p>



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



<p>Their diet is varied and includes invertebrates, seeds, fruit, and even young birds or eggs when available. Being opportunistic feeders, they also scavenge on carrion and pick up scraps in urban environments.</p>



<h3 id="h-social-behavior">Social behavior&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Jackdaws are very social birds and are often seen in pairs or larger groups. They have a complex social structure, as highlighted in the study.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 id="h-mating">Mating</h3>



<p>Jackdaws mate for life, which means that once they form a pair bond, they usually stay together until one of the partners dies. They engage in mutual preening and other bonding behaviors.</p>



<h3 id="h-nesting">Nesting</h3>



<p>Jackdaws often use cavities, such as holes in trees or chimneys, for nesting. They've also been known to occupy abandoned nests of other birds, particularly larger species like raptors.</p>



<h3 id="h-intelligence">Intelligence</h3>



<p>Like other corvids, jackdaws are intelligent and display problem-solving abilities. They have been subjects of numerous studies examining avian cognition.</p>



<h3 id="h-migration">Migration</h3>



<p>While many jackdaws are sedentary and stay in the same location year-round, some populations migrate southwards in the winter, especially those from the colder northern parts of their range.</p>



<h3 id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



<p>Jackdaws are currently not at significant risk, and they have a stable population. They are adaptable birds and can thrive in varied environments, including human-dominated landscapes.</p>



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Jackdaws choose food over friends, but not over family

A new study led by the University of Exeter has...

<p>A new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mec.17118"><em>Molecular Ecology</em></a> has confirmed that two species of sea stars are crossbreeding in the North Atlantic Ocean.</p>



<p>The study reveals genomic evidence of hybridization between two closely related sea star species: Asterias rubens, or the common starfish, and Asterias forbesi, known as Forbes’ sea star.</p>



<p>According to the researchers, hybrid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-protect-corals-by-feeding-on-crown-of-thorns-starfish/">starfish</a> are now thriving from the shores of New England to the Canadian Maritimes.</p>



<h2 id="h-first-genomic-evidence">First genomic evidence&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“It is the first genome-wide evidence of extensive hybridization in an ecologically important coastal species,” said study co-author Melina Giakoumis, a PhD candidate with the <a href="https://www.gc.cuny.edu/">CUNY Graduate Center</a>’s Biology program and associate director of the Institute for Comparative Genomics at the American Museum of Natural History.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>In this investigation, the experts set out to answer a twofold question. First, were these sea stars engaging in crossbreeding in their natural habitats? And what environmental conditions might be driving this phenomenon?&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team obtained DNA samples from both starfish species at 33 sites in the North Atlantic for an in-depth DNA sequencing process.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers also incorporated samples from Asterias amurensis, a sea star native to the Northern Pacific, serving as a control group.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The genomic analysis revealed undeniable hybridization between the two sea star species stretching from Cape Cod to Nova Scotia.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Yet, what is even more fascinating is how the environmental preferences of each species, mirrored in their genomes, played a pivotal role.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A. forbesi, with its limited geographic span, has evolved to suit local environments, whereas A. rubens boasts a broader stretch reaching as far as western Europe.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Researchers have pinpointed the Gulf of Maine as a hotspot for hybridization, primarily where the habitats of these two species intersect.</p>



<h2 id="h-new-questions-arise">New questions arise</h2>



<p>Michael Hickerson is a biology professor with the CUNY Graduate Center and City College of New York.</p>



<p>“Two questions arise from this study,” said Hickerson. “Will the hybrids’ move to follow the changes in sea surface temperatures accelerate to the point of one species replacing the other?"&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Or will they rescue the two species by being a source of gene combinations that allow greater resilience to climatic changes due to increased adaptive variation."</p>



<p>“Since sea stars preferentially eat dominant competitors, they provide stability to the ecosystem. These species are therefore crucial to study for marine conservation, as they have rippling effects throughout the rest of the community.”</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>As "keystone species," these sea stars play a vital role in sustaining marine ecosystems. Their absence from intertidal communities - the regions between high and low tide - can have catastrophic consequences.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Giakoumis noted that the Gulf of Maine is warming faster than 99% of the global ocean. “Our results imply that the distribution of genomic variation in North Atlantic sea stars is influenced by the environment, which will be crucial to consider as the climate changes."</p>



<p>The results of the study have far-reaching implications, potentially guiding conservation strategies and the protection of the North Atlantic's intertidal zones.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-sea-stars">More about sea stars</h2>



<p>Sea stars, commonly known as starfish, are iconic marine animals recognized worldwide. Here are some fascinating insights about these sea creatures:</p>



<h3 id="h-anatomy">Anatomy</h3>



<p>Despite the name "starfish," sea stars aren't fish. They belong to the class Asteroidea in the phylum Echinodermata. Unlike fish, they don't have gills, fins, or scales. Instead, they have a hard, calcified outer skeleton and a unique water vascular system that powers their tube feet, aiding in movement and feeding.</p>



<h3 id="h-regeneration">Regeneration</h3>



<p>One of the most astounding abilities of sea stars is regeneration. If they lose an arm, they can grow it back. Some species can even regenerate a whole new sea star from just a fragment of a lost limb.</p>



<h3 id="h-diversity">Diversity</h3>



<p>There are about 2,000 known species of sea stars worldwide. They come in various colors, sizes, and shapes. Some have more than the typical five arms. For instance, the sun star can have up to 40 arms.</p>



<h3 id="h-feeding">Feeding</h3>



<p>Sea stars are carnivorous and primarily feed on bivalves like clams and mussels. They have an interesting feeding mechanism where they can eject their stomach out of their body to envelop and digest their prey, after which the stomach is retracted back into the body.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



<p>While many sea stars live in shallow tidal waters, some species can be found in deep-sea habitats. They are commonly found on rocky shores, in the sand, and amidst seagrass beds.</p>



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



<p>Many sea stars release eggs and sperm into the water, where fertilization occurs. Some species also practice brooding, where the eggs are kept with the parent until they hatch.</p>



<h3 id="h-threats">Threats</h3>



<p>Starfish face several threats, primarily from habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change. A notable example is the sea star wasting disease that has affected multiple sea star species, causing lesions and eventual disintegration.</p>



<h3 id="h-ecological-role">Ecological role</h3>



<p>Sea stars play a crucial role in marine ecosystems. They're considered keystone species, meaning they have a disproportionately large impact on their environment. By feeding on mussels and other creatures, they maintain the balance of marine ecosystems, ensuring biodiversity.</p>



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North Atlantic sea stars are crossbreeding, and it may help them survive

A new study published in the journal Molecular Ecology has...

<p>The red wolf, a carnivore native to the southeastern United States, has historically been a vital component of this region’s ecosystem. Renowned for its reddish-tan fur and notable hunting capabilities, the red wolf plays a crucial role in maintaining a balanced environment by regulating the populations of smaller mammals.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Yet, despite its significance, the&nbsp; century has witnessed the wolf’s numbers plummet, a decline largely attributed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unseen-crisis-37000-alien-species-have-been-introduced-by-human-activities/">human activities</a>. By the 1980s, the repercussions of these activities were so severe that the red wolf was deemed extinct in the wild.</p>



<h2 id="h-fragmented-habitats">Fragmented habitats</h2>



<p>Human actions primarily caused the red wolf's decline. As settlements expanded and natural habitats were encroached upon, the spaces where these wolves once roamed became fragmented and diminished.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The reduced habitat not only meant limited territory for the wolves but also a decline in the prey base, resulting in less food availability. Moreover, wolves became targets due to misinterpretations and vilifications in folklore and popular culture.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-unregulated-hunting">Unregulated hunting&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Unregulated hunting further exacerbated the situation, pushing the red wolf to the brink of extinction by the late 20th century. Such dire circumstances necessitated immediate conservation actions.</p>



<h2 id="h-reintroduction">Reintroduction&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Recognizing the urgency, the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> (FWS) initiated a comprehensive recovery program in the latter part of the 1980s. The multi-faceted strategy employed by the FWS included a captive-breeding program, where wolves were bred in a controlled environment to boost their numbers.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This approach ensured the creation of a healthy population ready for reintroduction into the wild. Subsequent reintroductions targeted specific natural habitats that historically were part of the wolf’s range, with wildlife refuges such as the Pocosin Lakes playing a pivotal role.</p>



<h2 id="h-conservation-challenges">Conservation challenges</h2>



<p>Yet, conservation, while hopeful, is not without its own set of challenges. Even as efforts to reintroduce the wolves intensified, several roadblocks emerged.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 id="h-fatal-encounters">Fatal encounters&nbsp;</h3>



<p>First, human-induced mortality continued to be a significant problem. People often mistakenly shot wolves, thinking they were their distant cousins, the coyotes.</p>



<p>In an attempt to reduce such incidents, the FWS took the measure of equipping the reintroduced wolves with orange, reflective collars, signaling their protected status.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, even with such precautions, fatal encounters persisted, hinting at a more deep-rooted issue tied, perhaps, to long-standing prejudices.</p>



<h3 id="h-coyotes">Coyotes</h3>



<p>Another significant challenge arises from the burgeoning coyote population in the southeastern United States.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Coyotes not only vie for the same resources as the red wolves, creating competition, but also pose a genetic threat. Interbreeding between coyotes and red wolves could dilute the pure genetic lineage of the latter.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As a countermeasure, the FWS adopted a novel approach: sterilizing coyotes while leaving them hormonally intact. This would allow these coyotes to defend territories, thus minimizing intrusion from fertile coyotes, yet without adding to the gene pool.</p>



<h3 id="h-vehicle-collisions">Vehicle collisions&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Vehicle collisions further threaten the wolf’s survival. High-speed roads traversing through or alongside wolf habitats have resulted in numerous fatalities. Recognizing this danger, authorities have placed warning signs, especially in regions known for wolf activity, urging motorists to drive with caution.</p>



<h3 id="h-lack-of-space">Lack of space</h3>



<p>However, the most formidable challenge lies in securing enough space for the wolves. Despite the vastness of the refuges, the territorial nature of red wolves means that each pack requires considerable space.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A single pack’s territory can span up to 80 square miles, depending on prey availability. Given this, the existing refuges are inadequate to support a growing population. The realization underscores the necessity of incorporating private lands into the conservation strategy.</p>



<h3 id="h-addressing-these-challenges">Addressing these challenges</h3>



<p>Programs such as “<a href="https://ncwf.org/blog/prey-for-the-pack/">Prey for the Pack</a>” were devised to address this spatial challenge. Introduced in 2020, this initiative incentivizes landowners to make habitat improvements favorable for the wolves, offering reimbursements for such efforts. In return, the FWS gets the requisite access to these lands for conservation activities.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Yet, gaining widespread acceptance for such programs remains problematic, as illustrated by public meetings where sentiments against the wolves and conservation efforts come to the fore.</p>



<h2 id="h-updated-recovery-plan">Updated recovery plan&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Despite the challenges, the fight for the red wolf's survival remains a testament to human responsibility. As with many endangered species, it is a stark reminder that while human actions might have caused their decline, similar actions, if channeled correctly, can also facilitate their recovery. The story of the red wolf emphasizes the delicate balance of our ecosystems and the importance of each species within it.</p>



<p>For the first time in three decades, the FWS is preparing to release an updated recovery plan for this iconic species. According to a recently released <a href="https://nam12.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fecos.fws.gov%2Fdocs%2Frecovery_plan%2FDraft_Revised_Recovery_Plan_Red_Wolf_2022_1.pdf&amp;data=05%7C01%7Cabreed%40ap.org%7Ccd88a1f16bdc4623257c08dba8d0bade%7Ce442e1abfd6b4ba3abf3b020eb50df37%7C1%7C0%7C638289386796002920%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C3000%7C%7C%7C&amp;sdata=Qj3X%2BJGNm9g6wGTrCNpaR2UpjqeSy3b6qwn%2FGjvVu64%3D&amp;reserved=0">draft</a>, the agency will spend a quarter billion dollars over the next half a century to rebuild and expand the wild wolf population.</p>



<p>“It was done once before,” said Joe Madison, the North Carolina manager for the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/project/red-wolf-recovery-program">Red Wolf Recovery Program</a>. “And we can do it again.”</p>



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Fatal encounters: The future of the red wolf remains unclear

The red wolf, a carnivore native to the southeastern United...

Przewalski's,Horse,With,Magical,Evening,Sky,,Nature,Habitat,In,Mongolia.

<p>In the vast expanse of Hortobágy National Park, the Przewalski’s wild horses, a breed known for its wild nature and historical significance, has been the subject of an illuminating study.</p>



<p>Collaborating on the project, the <a href="https://hun-ren.hu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hungarian Research Network</a> (HUN-REN), the University of Debrecen (UD), the <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a> (ELTE), and the Hortobágy National Park Directorate have recently unearthed fascinating details about the social structures of these magnificent animals.</p>



<p>Rather than relying on traditional, on-ground observational methods which can be time-consuming and might miss the broader group dynamics, these researchers adopted a novel method. They used drones to monitor the herd from above.</p>



<p>With a sizeable herd of 278 Przewalski’s horses to monitor, this wasn’t a simple task. Katalin Ozogány, the study's first author and member of the HUN-REN–UD Behavioural Ecology Research Group, remarked, "We wanted to investigate the group movements of the Przewalski’s horse herd in Hortobágy, Hungary. However, observing nearly 300 horses at the same time is not an easy task."</p>



<p>Undeterred, the team used two drones to track each horse, offering a high temporal and spatial resolution of their movements. The <a href="youtube.com/watch?v=H2BhFjEbZDE">aerial videos</a> taken played a pivotal role, helping the researchers determine movement routes for every individual.</p>



<h2 id="h-wild-horses-have-multi-level-social-structures">Wild horses have multi-level social structures</h2>



<p>Their findings, published in the esteemed scientific journal, <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-40523-3">Nature Communications</a></em>, were profound. Not only do Przewalski's horses exhibit a multi-tiered social system similar to humans, but they also have layers of interaction that can be comprehended through these high-resolution aerial recordings.</p>



<p>While multilevel social structures are primarily identified in primates, certain other species, including cetaceans, elephants, and some ungulates, also display this complexity. They often form smaller units, like harems, which then come together to form a larger community.</p>



<p>Interestingly, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horses-have-complex-emotions-but-interpreting-them-has-proven-difficult/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horses</a>, which have been residing in the Pentezug reserve of Hortobágy since 1997, initially maintained their separate home territories. Yet, for over a decade, these once-independent harems have coalesced into one large herd.</p>



<h2>Decoding the herd’s social network</h2>



<p>Máté Nagy, the study's lead author, elucidated upon analyzing the herd's movements. He said, "The individuals of the group coordinate their movements and align with each other. By detecting these fine interactions between the individuals, it turned out that we can assess the herd's social network based on the group movements."</p>



<p>But how did the researchers tie short-term observations with broader, long-term trends? Viola Kerekes, project leader of the Hortobágy National Park Directorate, shed light on this. She explained that the park had meticulously recorded population data over the past two decades.</p>



<p>"Thanks to population monitoring, we know the parentage of the animals, which we also confirm with genetic sampling, as well as their place in the social system."</p>



<h2>Kinship and social bonds</h2>



<p>The insights gleaned were enlightening. The social bonds among these wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horses-with-a-trusted-owner-remain-calm-in-new-situations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horses</a> heavily depend on their kinship and familiarity.</p>



<p>For instance, mares that have been in the same harem for longer periods tend to be closer in the social grid. The organization of harems into herds also appeared to be influenced by kinship. Harems led by sibling stallions are more interconnected than those of unrelated stallions.</p>



<p>Attila Fülöp, a co-author of the study, also commented. "It is an exceptional opportunity to explore the social network of an entire population and its dynamics."</p>



<p>Surprisingly, they also found that by observing present movements, future group dynamics could be anticipated. "One of the surprising outcomes of the study is that we can infer future group dynamics by observing current movement," added Zoltán Barta, another lead author.</p>



<p>These findings not only reveal unprecedented details about the Przewalski's horses' social life but also underscore the value of drone observations in studying even wild populations. Such innovative methodologies are broadening the horizons of animal behavior studies, allowing researchers to decipher the intricate dance of nature's grand tapestry.</p>



<h2>More about Przewalski horses</h2>



<p>In the vast expanse of Central Asia's steppes, the Przewalski horse (pronounced shuh-VAL-skee) gallops as a symbol of nature's undomesticated spirit. </p>



<p>Known scientifically as <em>Equus ferus przewalskii</em>, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-confirm-that-modern-horses-lost-their-additional-toes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horses</a> are the world's last truly wild horse species, never having undergone domestication. Here, we delve into the fascinating world of these unique equines.</p>



<h3>Physical features and characteristics</h3>



<p>Distinct from domesticated horses, Przewalski horses possess a robust and sturdy physique that seems custom-made for the challenges of the wild. They stand shorter than most domestic horses, averaging about 12 to 14 hands high. </p>



<p>Their coat, primarily a dun color, contrasts with a pale belly, dark legs, and a dark mane. Unlike the flowing manes of many domesticated breeds, Przewalski horses have erect, short manes that lack a forelock.</p>



<p>Their thickset build, combined with strong legs and a muscular neck, equips them perfectly for life in tough terrains. Their faces, marked with a mealy muzzle and expressive eyes, give them a distinctive appearance.</p>



<h3>Natural habitat and diet</h3>



<p>Originally roaming vast territories spanning from the Russian steppes to the Chinese plains, Przewalski <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-aim-to-breed-less-spooky-horses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horses</a> have always been creatures of open lands. Their natural habitat primarily comprises grasslands, semi-deserts, and steppes of Central Asia, especially Mongolia.</p>



<p>In these regions, they graze on a variety of grasses. Their diet, consisting mainly of fibrous grasses, can occasionally be supplemented with shrubs, leaves, and other available vegetation. Being wild, they continuously move in search of fresh grazing grounds and water sources.</p>



<h3>Social structure and behavior</h3>



<p>Przewalski <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/riding-horses-can-reduce-low-back-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horses</a> lead intricate social lives. Typically, they form groups of up to 10 individuals, with a dominant stallion at the helm, accompanied by several mares and their young. This structure ensures protection from predators and effective resource utilization.</p>



<p>Young males, as they mature, may leave their birth group and form "bachelor" bands. These bands of young stallions live on the peripheries until they can establish or take over a family group of their own.</p>



<h3>Conservation and current status</h3>



<p>The 20th century wasn't kind to Przewalski horses. Factors such as habitat loss, hunting, and competition with livestock led to a drastic decline in their numbers. By the 1960s, they were declared extinct in the wild.</p>



<p>However, a few of them remained in captivity. Thanks to the collective efforts of global zoos and conservationists, breeding programs were established to save the species from total extinction. Starting in the 1990s, reintroduction programs successfully returned these horses to protected reserves in Mongolia.</p>



<p>Today, their numbers are on the rise, but they aren't out of danger. They remain listed as "Endangered" on the IUCN Red List. Ongoing threats include habitat degradation, potential issues related to inbreeding, and the broader impacts of climate change.</p>



<p>The tale of the Przewalski horse serves as a poignant reminder of the delicate balance of nature and the indomitable spirit of life. Their resurgence from the brink of extinction stands testament to what concerted conservation efforts can achieve. As they gallop freely again in their native lands, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/congress-takes-a-step-toward-humane-management-of-wild-horses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild steeds</a> underscore the importance of preserving the world's natural wonders for future generations.</p>



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Wild horses, just like humans, live in a complex, multilevel society

In the vast expanse of Hortobágy National Park, the Przewalski’s...

<p>A new study led by <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a> (TAU) has found that the extinction of large prey, upon which human nutrition depended hundreds of thousand years ago, compelled prehistoric humans to develop improved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-masters-woodworking-crafting-wooden-hunting-weapons/">weapons</a> to help them hunt smaller prey, thus driving significant evolutionary adaptations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By examining the evolution of hunting weapons from wooden- and stone-tipped spears to sophisticated bows and arrows, the experts found significant correlations with changes in prey size and human physiology and culture.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“This study was designed to examine a broader unifying hypothesis, which we proposed in a previous paper published in 2021. The hypothesis explains the cultural and physiological evolution of prehistoric humans – including increased cognitive abilities - as an adaptational response to the need to hunt progressively smaller and quicker prey,” the authors wrote.</p>



<p>“So far such a unified hypothesis was lacking in professional literature, with the prevailing hypothesis maintaining that the changes in hunting weapons were a reflection of an essentially unexplained cognitive improvement.”</p>



<p>The researchers analyzed findings from nine prehistoric archaeological sites from South Africa, East Africa, Spain, and France. Early humans inhabited the sites about 300,000 years ago, during the transition from the Lower to the Middle Stone Age (Paleolithic). This was a period in which Neanderthals and Homo Sapiens first emerged.</p>



<h2 id="h-decline-in-size-of-large-prey">Decline in size of large prey</h2>



<p>The analysis of animal bones and stone tools used to hunt and process prey revealed a strong correlation between the emergence of stone-tipped spears, and the progressive decline in prey size.</p>



<p>“Specifically, we examined the emergence of a sophisticated stone-knapping method known as the Levallois technique, which is especially indicative of cognitive development: unlike earlier knapping methods, here the craftsman first prepares a core of good-quality stone, then cuts a pointed item off with one stroke – a process that requires him/her to imagine the final outcome in advance," said the researchers.</p>



<p>"We found that in all cases, at all sites, stone tips made with the Levallois technology appeared simultaneously with a relative decrease in the quantity of bones of large prey."</p>



<h2 id="h-wooden-spears">Wooden spears&nbsp;</h2>



<p>According to lead author Miki Ben-Dor, an archeologist at TAU, studies of contemporary hunter-gatherers suggest that wooden spears are sufficient for hunting large prey such as elephants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>After first limiting the animal’s mobility - for instance, by driving it into a swamp or digging a trapping pit and concealing it with branches – the hunters can then thrust a spear into it and wait for it to bleed. However, middle-sized animals such as deer, are much more difficult to trap, and if hit by a wooden spear, they have more chances to run away.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-stone-tipped-spears">Stone-tipped spears&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Thus, more substantial wounds induced by stone-tipped spears are likely to slow them down and reduce the distance they can run before collapsing.</p>



<p>Archeological evidence suggests that prehistoric humans began to manufacture stone tools about three million years ago, and started to hunt about two million years ago.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While Homo Erectus (the ancestor of all later types of humans) used wooden spears, Neanderthals and Homo Sapiens upgraded their spears around 300,000 years ago by adding stone tips produced with the more sophisticated Levallois method.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-more-complex-hunting-systems">More complex hunting systems&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Around 50,000 years ago, people developed more complex hunting systems. Homo Sapiens began using bows, arrows, and spear throwers. Finally, at the end of the Upper Paleolithic (approximately 25,000 years ago), new hunting aids emerged, including dogs, traps, and fishing hooks.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While facts about this continual evolution of hunting weapons – accompanied by improvements in human cognition and skills – have been known for a long time, no unifying hypothesis for explaining them has been proposed.</p>



<h2 id="h-evolution-of-prehistoric-humans">Evolution of prehistoric humans&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“For the past ten years we have been searching for a unified explanation for focal phenomena in the cultural and biological evolution of prehistoric humans," said co-author Ran Barkai, an archeologist at TAU.</p>



<p>"Our excavations at the Qesem Cave site led us to conclude that elephants, a major component of the human diet in our region for a million years, disappeared about 300,000 years ago, as a result of overhunting and climate change. With the huge elephants gone, humans had to find ways for obtaining the same amount of calories from a larger number of smaller animals."</p>



<p>“Ultimately, we hypothesized that prey size had played a major part in human evolution: at the beginning the largest animals were hunted, and when these were gone humans went on to the next in size, and so on. Finally, when hunting was no longer energetically viable, humans began to domesticate animals and plants. That’s how the agricultural revolution began.”</p>



<h2 id="h-large-prey-decline-and-hunting-weapons">Large prey decline and hunting weapons&nbsp;</h2>



<p>In 2021, Barkai and Ben-Dor first proposed their unified hypothesis on the cultural and physiological development of Paleolithic humans, by connecting advancements in hunting weapons to decreases in prey size.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Their recent research supports this theory and builds upon a previous 2022 study they conducted alongside zoologists Jacob Dambitzer and Shai Meiri from TAU. This study examined archaeological data spanning 1,500,000 to 20,000 years ago, revealing a shift in predominant prey - from 12-ton elephants at the start of this period to 25 kg gazelles by the end.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, the data indicated that the average prey weight dropped from three tons a million years ago to just 50 kg 20,000 years ago, highlighting a consistent reduction in prey size.</p>



<p>“In the present study specifically, and in our broader unifying hypothesis in general, we propose for the first time an explanation for one of the most intriguing questions in prehistoric archaeology: Why did tools change? The usual explanation is that tools changed due to improvements in the cognitive abilities of humans. For instance, when humans were suddenly able to imagine the outcomes of a sophisticated process, they developed the Levallois technique," said Barkai.</p>



<p>"But one may well ask: Why did humans become smarter all of a sudden? What was the advantage of having a large brain that consumes so much energy? We demonstrate that these biological and cognitive changes correlate directly with the size of prey."</p>



<h2 id="h-small-elusive-animals">Small elusive animals&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“To hunt small elusive animals humans had to become smarter, faster, more focused, more observant, and more collaborative. They had to develop new weapons for hunting from afar and learn how to track their prey."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"And they had to choose their prey carefully, with preference for high fat content, to ensure a sufficient energetic return - because hunting a large number of agile gazelles requires a much higher investment of energy than hunting one giant elephant."</p>



<p>"This, we propose, is the evolutionary pressure that generated the improvement in human ability and tools – to ensure an adequate energy return on investment (EROI)."</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/quat6030046" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Quaternary</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>---</p>



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Large prey extinction drove evolutionary changes in early humans

A new study led by Tel Aviv University (TAU) has...

Comparing,Green,Earth,And,Effect,Of,Air,Pollution,From,Human

<p>In addition to their struggle with habitat loss, pesticides, and climate change, bees are now facing yet another threat – ozone pollution. A new study reveals that bees and other pollinators are having difficulty locating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-bees-create-perfume-from-flowers-to-attract-females/">flowers</a> due to air pollution's degradation of floral scents.</p>



<p>The extensive research involved a collaboration between the UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology (UKCEH) and several academic institutions including the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-ozone-pollution">Ozone pollution&nbsp;</h2>



<p>One of the key findings was the significant impact of ozone on floral odor plumes. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ozone-pollution-threatens-the-health-of-plants-and-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ozone</a> was found to reduce the size of these odor plumes and significantly alter their scent. </p>



<p>The most alarming revelation was the discovery that ozone pollution could reduce the ability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybee-pollination-produces-plant-offspring-vastly-inferior-to-plants-pollinated-by-other-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honeybees</a> to identify odors by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>Ozone forms at ground level when nitrogen oxide emissions from vehicular and industrial sources interact with volatile organic compounds emitted by plants, catalyzed by sunlight.</p>



<p>“Our study provides robust evidence that the changes due to ground-level ozone on floral scent cause pollinators to struggle to carry out their crucial role in the natural environment also with implications for food security," said Professor Christian Pfrang, who was actively involved in the research.</p>



<h2 id="h-detrimental-impacts">Detrimental impacts</h2>



<p>With previous studies highlighting ozone's detrimental impact on plant growth and subsequent food production, this research further emphasizes the scale of the problem.</p>



<p>Dr. Ben Langford, an atmospheric scientist at UKCEH and the lead author of the study, pointed out that 75% of our food crops and nearly 90% of wild flowering plants depend, to some extent, upon animal pollination - particularly by insects.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Therefore, understanding what adversely affects pollination, and how, is essential to helping us preserve the critical services that we rely upon for production of food, textiles, biofuels and medicines, for example.”</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To measure the impact, the research team set up an experiment in a 30-meter wind tunnel at the <a href="https://www.surrey.ac.uk/">University of Surrey</a>. This allowed them observe changes in the size and structure of odor plumes in the presence of ozone.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts found that certain compounds in the scent plume decayed faster than others due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ozone-depletion-in-the-arctic-leads-to-weather-anomalies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ozone</a>, leading to a significant change in the overall scent.</p>



<h2 id="h-floral-scents">Floral scents</h2>



<p>The role of floral scents is pivotal in the world of pollinators. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-have-surprising-abilities-to-maintain-their-nest-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Honeybees</a>, for instance, associate the unique blend of chemical compounds in a flower’s scent with the nectar it provides. </p>



<p>This association assists them in locating the same species of flower in later searches. But, with ozone-modified scents, the research disclosed a worrying pattern.&nbsp;</p>



<p>At the center of scent plumes, only 52% of honeybees could recognize a scent from 6 meters away, dropping to 38% at 12 meters. Even more concerning, at the edges of these plumes, which decayed faster due to ozone, just 32% of the bees could identify the scent from 6 meters, and only 10% could do so from 12 meters.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Beyond the hunt for flowers, the research hints at potential disruptions in other odor-controlled behaviors of insects, such as mating.</p>



<p>This pivotal research was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council, which operates under UK Research and Innovation, and the findings are published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122336" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Environmental Pollution</em></a>.</p>



<p>“We know that air pollution has a detrimental effect on human health, biodiversity, and the climate, but now we can see how it prevents bees and other pollinating insects from carrying out their key job," said Professor Pfrang.</p>



<p>"This should act as a wake-up call to take action on air pollution and help safeguard food production and biodiversity for the future.“</p>



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Ozone pollution makes it difficult for bees to find flowers

In addition to their struggle with habitat loss, pesticides, and...

<p>In an extraordinary display of nature's power, Hurricane Idalia, which recently devastated parts of the United States, pushed flamingos out of eastern Mexico into states as far north as Ohio.</p>



<p>Scientists believe the flamingos were on their migratory path between Cuba and the Yucatan when they got swept up by the intense winds of Idalia. "We have never seen anything like this," said Jerry Lorenz, the state director of research for <a href="https://fl.audubon.org/">Audubon Florida</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-rare-flamingo-sightings">Rare flamingo sightings</h2>



<p>As Hurricane Idalia tore through the Caribbean sea and hit Florida, flamingos began appearing in its wake. They were first spotted in Florida, a state where their presence has become exceedingly rare due to hunting.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Flamingo sightings soon spread from Georgia to the Carolinas, Virginia, and even inland states like Tennessee, Alabama, Kentucky, and Ohio. Following the trajectory of the hurricane, the locations of these sightings almost mapped the storm's path.</p>



<p>"It's just really surprising that if you follow the path of Idalia, it really does kind of fall out to the north and south of that central track," said Lorenz.</p>



<h2 id="h-unprecedented-event">Unprecedented event</h2>



<p>Florida, despite being emblematic for these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/demand-for-lithium-comes-at-a-cost-to-flamingos/">birds</a>, is home to only one percent of the global flamingo population. The appearance of "flamboyances" (a term used to describe a group of flamingos) was an astonishing sight to locals.</p>



<p>Lorenz told the media: "We will get a flamingo or two following storms but this is really unprecedented."</p>



<p>A particularly noteworthy sighting occurred at the scenic Caesar Creek Park lake, near Waynesville in southwest Ohio. Here, an adult and a juvenile flamingo were observed "just hanging out and sleeping in about a foot of water near the shore," according to eyewitness Jacob Roalef.</p>



<h2 id="h-resilient-birds">Resilient birds</h2>



<p>With over 150 flamingos displaced by Idalia's powerful winds, their well-being and return have become a topic of discussion among experts and bird enthusiasts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While Lorenz assures that the resilient flamingos are capable of flying thousands of miles and should have no issues returning before the onset of the winter season, he urges bird-watchers to exercise caution. "These birds are stressed right now. They just went through a terrible ordeal."</p>



<h2 id="h-unexpected-treat-for-bird-watchers">Unexpected treat for bird watchers&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Nate Swick from the <a href="https://www.aba.org/">American Birding Association</a> told ABC News that Hurricane Idalia was the kind of storm that bird watchers dream of "because you never know what kind of species it will bring with it."&nbsp;</p>



<p>While ocean-going birds like terns are commonly associated with such storms, flamingos were a surprise. "No one really expected that flamingos would be the bird that Idalia was known for," Swick told ABC News.</p>



<p>One particular flamingo was identified by a unique alphanumeric code, which traced back to Río Lagartos, a breeding colony in Mexico. This confirmed that the birds were from the Yucatan Peninsula.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-do-flamingos-navigate-storms">How do flamingos navigate storms?</h2>



<p>The experts do not know how birds travel within a storm. One theory is that flocks get caught up in the front edge of the storm, in the northwest quadrant, which meteorologists refer to as "the dirty side" of the storm due to the stronger winds, said Swick.</p>



<p>He told NPR that the birds were likely either in Yucatan or on their way to Cuba when the storm hit them. The flamingos went with the winds instead of fighting against them, as the eastern portion of the storm drove the birds up the western side of Florida.</p>



<h2 id="h-returning-home">Returning home</h2>



<p>Swick noted to NPR that flamingos are big, strong birds, more than capable of making their way back home - like they did in 2019 following Hurricane Barry. That particular storm pushed a handful of flamingos into western Tennessee and Missouri.</p>



<p>"They kind of hung around there for a little while, and then eventually started making their way back," Swick told NPR. "I think the flamingos are likely to start heading towards the coast, whether or not they know which direction to go, I don't know. Birds are capable of things that we cannot imagine."</p>



<h2 id="h-flamingos-in-florida">Flamingos in Florida</h2>



<p>Historically, flamingos were native to Florida but were hunted extensively in the 19th century for their feathers, which were coveted in women's fashion.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Lorenz spoke about the occasional flamingos that visit South Florida for breeding purposes, emphasizing the efforts to rejuvenate wetlands for their permanent return.</p>



<h2 id="h-phenomenal-event">Phenomenal event</h2>



<p>This is not the first instance of flamingos being rerouted by storm systems, but the sheer numbers observed post-Hurricane Idalia are unprecedented. As Greg Neise of the American Birding Association noted, "It's been pretty phenomenal."</p>



<p>Birders are reveling in the unexpected opportunity to observe the flamingos in the United States. While many of the birds may soon find their way back home, their brief visit will be remembered for years to come.</p>



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Flamingos were blown out of Mexico as far north as Ohio by Hurricane Idalia

In an extraordinary display of nature's power, Hurricane Idalia, which...

<p>Human societies assign significant importance to names, and all languages have them. While forming an integral part of our identity, they also facilitate communication.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Although personal names have always been considered exclusive to humans, a recent study led by the <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> has now suggested that wild African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-value-of-elephants/">elephants</a> might use distinct calls – the equivalent of elephant names - to identify each other, paving the way for novel insights into language evolution.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This amazing study, currently available only as a preprint and awaiting peer review, examined the calls of wild elephants from two Kenyan regions: the expansive Samburu ecosystem in the north and the southern Amboseli National Park.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In the dataset, we gathered 625 calls, and family groups exchanged 597 of them within the same group. The study identified 114 unique initiators and 119 unique recipients of these calls. The analysis was confined to calls aimed at a single individual elephant, thus ensuring the recipient’s identification -- the elephant's name.</p>



<h2 id="h-acoustic-characteristics">Acoustic characteristics&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To determine if the call could predict the receiving elephant’s identity, the researchers assessed the elephants’ acoustic characteristics and subjected the data to a series of statistical tests.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings were compelling. According to the study's lead author, “receivers of calls could be correctly identified from call structure statistically significantly better than chance.”</p>



<h2 id="h-vocal-labels-from-elephant-communication">Vocal labels from elephant communication</h2>



<p>Moreover, the researchers investigated if the calls mirrored the recipient’s own vocal patterns. Such phenomena, where creatures recognize and react to their vocal tag, are evident in species like dolphins.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, in the case of elephants, something unprecedented occurred: the callers did not seem to be replicating the recipient’s call. Thus, this study provides the first evidence for vocal addressing of conspecifics without imitation of the receiver’s calls in nonhuman animals.</p>



<h2 id="h-recorded-calls">Recorded calls</h2>



<p>The experts also selected 17 elephants and played recordings of calls addressed to them to observe their responses.</p>



<p>“Further supporting the existence of vocal labels, subjects approached the speaker more quickly and vocalized more quickly in response to test playbacks than control playbacks,” the authors reported.</p>



<p>The elephants’ social structures offer some insights into this amazing behavior, which could be the first evidence of a non-human species using a naming system akin to humans to refer to their conspecifics.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-social-dynamics-of-elephant-names">Social dynamics of elephant names</h2>



<p>“Due to their fission-fusion social dynamics, elephants are often out of sight of their closely bonded social partners and produce contact rumbles to communicate over long distances,”&nbsp;the authors explained, referring to elephants’ tendency to segregate themselves into smaller units, which occasionally come together to form massive assemblies, often larger than one hundred individuals.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Although vocal labels might enhance their coordination when they can't see each other, they only used them in a minority of vocalizations. This is most likely because in many contexts there is no need to employ them. Finally, calling each other by their names could also play a major role in fostering social connections, as it happens between humans.</p>



<p>The findings, published as a preprint on <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.08.25.554872v1.full.pdf">bioRxiv</a>, raise important questions about the complexity of elephant social cognition, offering new insights into the fascinating and unique behaviors of this species.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-elephant-communication">More about elephant communication&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Elephants are highly social animals and communicate in various ways. Understanding these communication methods provides valuable insights into elephant behavior and can aid in conservation efforts.</p>



<h3 id="h-vocal-sounds">Vocal sounds</h3>



<p>Elephants produce a wide range of sounds, the most famous being trumpeting. People use this to signal distress, anger, excitement, or call for attention for various reasons.</p>



<h3 id="h-infrasound">Infrasound</h3>



<p>Elephants produce infrasonic sounds, which are low-frequency sounds below the range of human hearing. These can travel long distances, allowing elephants to communicate with each other over several kilometers. Such communications can convey information about estrous cycles, potential threats, or coordinating movements among herds.</p>



<h3 id="h-tactile-communication">Tactile communication</h3>



<p>Touch is an essential form of communication among elephants. They use their trunks to greet, comfort, or play with each other. Physical contact helps in reinforcing bonds within the group.</p>



<h3 id="h-visual-signals">Visual signals</h3>



<p>Body posture, ear flapping, tail raising, and other physical displays can signal various emotions and intentions. For example, an elephant flapping its ears can be a sign of aggression or agitation.</p>



<h3 id="h-chemical-communication">Chemical communication</h3>



<p>Elephants have a keen sense of smell and use it for communication. They can detect pheromones released by other elephants and gather information about their reproductive status or emotional state.</p>



<h3 id="h-seismic-communication">Seismic communication</h3>



<p>Recent research suggests that elephants might detect vibrations in the ground produced by other elephants' vocalizations, potentially serving as another long-distance communication channel.</p>



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Elephants call each other by names and may be the first non-humans to do so

Human societies assign significant importance to names, and all languages...

<p>The story of early bird evolution has long fascinated scientists. It is well-established that birds descended from theropod <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-coexisted-with-dinosaurs-yes-according-to-shocking-new-research/">dinosaurs</a>, a transition occurring by the Late Jurassic period.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, there are still gaps in this evolutionary story that have been challenging to fill due to a limited variety of fossils from the Jurassic era, which ended around 145 million years ago.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-fujianvenator-prodigiosus">Fujianvenator prodigiosus</h2>



<p>Researchers have recently described the discovery of a 150-million-year-old avialan theropod found in Zhenghe County, Fujian Province. The skeletal remains are shedding new light on the earliest days of bird evolution.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research was a collaboration between the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP) of the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> in Beijing and the Fujian Institute of Geological Survey (FIGS).</p>



<p>The new species, named Fujianvenator prodigiosus, has a skeletal structure that reflects characteristics shared with avialans, troodontids, and dromaeosaurids. This highlights the complexity of the pathways which emerged during early bird evolution.</p>



<h2 id="h-unique-characteristics">Unique characteristics</h2>



<p>Dr. WANG Min from IVPP, the study's co-lead author, remarked on the species' unique characteristics:&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Our comparative analyses show that marked changes in body plan occurred along the early avialan line, which is largely driven by the forelimb, eventually giving rise to the typical bird limb proportion."</p>



<p>"However, Fujianvenator is an odd species that diverged from this main trajectory and evolved bizarre hindlimb architecture."</p>



<h2 id="h-diverse-ecosystem">Diverse ecosystem</h2>



<p>Certain features of Fujianvenator suggest it thrived in a swamp-like habitat and could have been adapted for rapid movement, or perhaps functioned as a long-legged wader. Researchers previously did not associate such an ecological role with early avialans.</p>



<p>But Fujianvenator wasn't alone in its environment. XU Liming from FIGS is the co-lead author of the study. He explained, "Besides Fujianvenator, we have found abundant other vertebrates, including teleosts, testudines and choristoderes." This paints a vivid picture of a diverse and dynamic Late Jurassic ecosystem.</p>



<h2 id="h-zhenghe-fauna">Zhenghe Fauna</h2>



<p>Furthermore, the region's geological history provides context for this discovery. During the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous transition, southeastern China underwent significant tectonic changes due to the subduction of the paleo-Pacific plate. This activity birthed a landscape similar to where the older Yanliao Biota is preserved.</p>



<p>"The extraordinary diversity, unique vertebrate composition, and paleoenvironment strongly indicate that this locality documents a terrestrial fauna, which we named the Zhenghe Fauna," said study co-author Dr. ZHOU Zhonghe.</p>



<p>Researchers pinpoint the fauna's age between 150-148 Ma. This makes Fujianvenator one of the youngest and most southerly members of Jurassic avialans.</p>



<p>The Zhenghe Fauna reveals a snapshot of the Late Jurassic's terrestrial world, and the joint research teams are eager to continue unraveling its secrets.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-early-bird-evolution">More about early bird evolution</h2>



<p>The evolution of birds is a fascinating journey that stretches back over 150 million years. Here's a brief overview of some of the milestones in early bird evolution:</p>



<h3 id="h-dinosaur-lineage">Dinosaur lineage</h3>



<p>Birds belong to the group called theropods, the mostly meat-eating dinosaurs that include the Tyrannosaurus rex and the Velociraptor.&nbsp;</p>



<p>One of the most groundbreaking realizations in paleontology was the discovery that birds didn't just evolve from dinosaurs. They ARE dinosaurs.</p>



<h3 id="h-archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</h3>



<p>Found in the Late Jurassic limestones of Germany, Archaeopteryx is one of the most famous transitional fossils. It lived about 150 million years ago and had features of both birds and dinosaurs. It had feathers and could possibly fly, but it also had teeth, a bony tail, and claws at the end of its wings.</p>



<h3 id="h-avialae">Avialae</h3>



<p>This is a group within theropods that includes all modern birds and their closest fossil relatives. As the press release mentioned, the earliest evolution of the Avialae has been difficult to piece together due to limited fossil records.</p>



<h3 id="h-feathers">Feathers</h3>



<p>The discovery of feathered fossils in China, particularly from the Yanliao Biota and the Jehol Biota, revolutionized our understanding of early bird evolution.&nbsp;</p>



<p>It has become clear that many theropods, not just the direct ancestors of birds, had feathers of some kind. Feathers might not have evolved for flight initially but possibly for insulation or display.</p>



<h3 id="h-physiological-changes">Physiological changes</h3>



<p>Over time, several physiological changes occurred in theropods, setting the stage for the emergence of birds. These included the hollowing out of bones, making them lighter; the shift of the center of gravity to the hip area for better balance during flight; and the evolution of a wishbone.</p>



<h3 id="h-diverse-early-birds">Diverse early birds</h3>



<p>The early Cretaceous period (around 130-120 million years ago) in China has provided fossils of a variety of early bird species. These discoveries have revealed that early birds were much more diverse in size, habitat, and behavior than previously thought.</p>



<h3 id="h-flight">Flight</h3>



<p>There's an ongoing debate about how flight evolved. The two main theories are the "trees-down" hypothesis (birds first glided down from trees) and the "ground-up" hypothesis (birds developed flight from running on the ground). Both theories have their sets of supporting evidence.</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06513-7"><em>Nature</em></a>.</p>



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New extinct species provides a glimpse into early bird evolution 

The story of early bird evolution has long fascinated scientists....

<p>A team of scientists led by <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth College</a> has recently argued that the shoulder rotation and elbow extension we use to grab something from an elevated shelf or play catch may have originally evolved as a safety mechanism to help our primate ancestors descend from trees without facing injury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to the experts, due to gravity acting on their heavier bodies, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-may-have-begun-walking-upright-to-eat-leaves-not-fruits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> and early humans developed movable shoulders and bendable elbows to control their descent from trees.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As early humans transitioned from forests to open grasslands, these flexible limbs became instrumental in food collection and tool usage for both hunting and protection.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To better understand various climbing techniques, the researchers used sports-analysis and statistical tools to study videos and images of wild chimpanzees and small monkeys known as mangabeys climbing in the wild.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The investigation revealed that both species climbed trees in a similar manner, with their shoulders and elbows positioned close to their bodies.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, when descending, chimps stretched their arms upwards, gripping branches akin to how humans descend a ladder, with their weight causing them to descend rear-end first.</p>



<h2 id="h-downclimbing">Downclimbing&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Luke Fannin, a graduate student in Ecology, Evolution, Environment and Society at Dartmouth and the study’s lead author, emphasized the significance of “downclimbing” in the evolution of apes and ancient humans, who are both genetically closer to each other than they are to monkeys.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Through their extensive video recordings taken in natural settings, the researchers could analyze the physical adaptations these animals developed for downward climbing.</p>



<p>“Our study broaches the idea of downclimbing as an undervalued, yet incredibly important factor in the diverging anatomical differences between monkeys and apes that would eventually manifest in humans,” Fannin said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Downclimbing represented such a significant physical challenge given the size of apes and early humans that their morphology would have responded through natural selection because of the risk of falls.”</p>



<h2 id="h-getting-out-of-a-tree">Getting out of a tree&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Our field has thought about apes climbing up trees for a long time - what was essentially absent from the literature was any focus on them getting out of a tree. We’ve been ignoring the second half of this behavior,” added co-author&nbsp;Jeremy DeSilva, a professor of Anthropology at Dartmouth.</p>



<p>“The first apes evolved 20 million years ago in the kind of dispersed forests where they would go up a tree to get their food, then come back down to move on to the next tree. Getting out of a tree presents all kinds of new challenges. Big apes can’t afford to fall because it could kill or badly injure them. Natural selection would have favored those anatomies that allowed them to descend safely.”</p>



<h2 id="h-shoulder-flexibility">Shoulder flexibility </h2>



<p>This flexibility in shoulders and elbows, inherited from ancient apes, would have enabled early humans like the <em>Australopithecus</em> to safely ascend and descend trees.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Once <em>Home erectus </em>began to use fire to protect itself from nocturnal predators, the human anatomy changed once more, with broader shoulders capable of a 90-degree angle allowing our ancestors to efficiently throw weapons such as spears.</p>



<h2 id="h-early-ape-anatomy">Early-ape anatomy&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“It’s that same early-ape anatomy with a couple of tweaks. Now you have something that can throw a spear or rocks to protect itself from being eaten or to kill things to eat for itself. That’s what evolution does - it’s a great tinkerer,” DeSilva explained.</p>



<p>“Climbing down out of a tree set the anatomical stage for something that evolved millions of years later. When an NFL quarterback throws a football, that movement is all thanks to our ape ancestors.”</p>



<p>Despite chimpanzees’ lack of grace, their limbs – which are remarkably similar to those of modern humans - have efficiently adapted to make sure that the animals can reach the ground safely.</p>



<h2 id="h-shoulder-movement">Shoulder movement&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“It’s the template that we came from - going down was probably far more of a challenge for our early ancestors, too,” Fannin said. “Even once humans became upright, the ability to ascend, then descend, a tree would’ve been incredibly useful for safety and nourishment, which is the name of the game when it comes to survival.<strong>&nbsp;</strong>We’re modified, but the hallmarks of our ape ancestry remain in our modern skeletons.”</p>



<p>The scientists also analyzed the anatomical structure of both chimp and mangabey arms using specimens from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and the <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ohio State University</a>. Chimps, like humans, possess a shallow ball-and-socket shoulder joint, allowing a broader range of movement. Moreover, they can fully extend their arms due to the reduced length of the bone behind the elbow (known as the “olecranon process”).&nbsp;</p>



<p>By contrast, mangabeys and other monkeys are built more like quadrupedal animals such as cats and dogs, with deep pear-shaped shoulder sockets and elbows with a protruding olecranon process making the joint resembling the letter “L.” Although such joints are more stable, they have limited flexibility and range of movement.</p>



<h2 id="h-resisting-the-pull-of-gravity">Resisting the pull of gravity</h2>



<p>The investigations also revealed that the angle of a chimp’s shoulders was 14 degrees larger during descent than when climbing up, while their arm extended outward at the elbow 34 degrees more when coming down from a tree then when going up. In the case of mangabeys, such differences were far less pronounced, not exceeding four degrees.</p>



<p>“If cats could talk, they would&nbsp;tell you that climbing down is trickier than climbing up and many human rock climbers would&nbsp;agree. But the question is why is it so hard,” said co-author Nathaniel Dominy, a professor of Anthropology at Dartmouth.</p>



<p>“The reason is that you’re not only resisting the pull of gravity, but you also have to decelerate. Our study is important for tackling a theoretical problem with formal measurements of how wild primates&nbsp;climb up and down. We found important differences between monkeys and chimpanzees that may explain why the shoulders and elbows of apes evolved greater flexibility.”</p>



<h2 id="h-controlled-descent">Controlled descent&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Mary Joy, another co-author and a Dartmouth 2021 graduate, observed distinct differences in the way chimps climb down trees compared to ascending them, while reviewing videos filmed by DeSilva.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It was very erratic, just crashing down, everything’s flying. It’s very much a controlled fall,” she explained. “In the end, we concluded that the way chimps descend a tree is likely related to weight. Greater momentum potentially expends less energy and they’re much more likely to reach the ground safely than by making small, restricted movements.”</p>



<p>Joy, also a trail runner, drew parallels from her personal experience, emphasizing that controlled descent, like chimps demonstrate, might be more energy-efficient.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“When I’m moving downhill, the slower I’m going and restricting my movement, the more I’m fatiguing. It catches up to me very quickly. No one would think the speed and abandon with which chimps climb down from trees would be the preferred method for a heavier primate, but my experience tells me it’s more energy efficient.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Movement in humans is a masterpiece of evolutionary compromises. This increased range of motion that began in apes ended up being pretty good for us. What would the advantage of losing that be? If evolution selected for people with less range of motion, what advantages would that confer? I can’t see any advantage to losing that,” she concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.230145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Royal Society Open Science</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>---</p>



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Apes evolved shoulders as "brakes" to safely climb down trees

A team of scientists led by Dartmouth College has recently...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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