<p>Dragonflies outlasted the dinosaurs and even endured asteroid strikes. But now they face a survival threat unlike any before. Rising heat and wildfires are reshaping the very traits they depend on to attract mates.</p>



<p>A study from the <a href="https://www.ucdenver.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Denver</a> shows how this shift could push some species toward local extinction. Traits that once drew partners are now putting dragonflies at risk.</p>



<p>“Dragonflies have survived asteroids, but now climate change and wildfires are threatening them in ways evolution can’t keep up with,” said lead author Sarah Nalley, a PhD student in CU Denver’s Integrative Biology program. </p>



<p>“Our findings suggest that adaptation alone may not be fast enough to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-larvae-expose-climates-hidden-influence-on-biology/">species</a> in a rapidly changing climate.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-ornaments-backfire">When ornaments backfire</h2>



<p>Many dragonflies have dark spots on their wings. These patterns attract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-hunt-perfectly-even-in-extreme-temperatures/">mates</a>. They also absorb heat. In hotter regions and burned habitats, that heat builds too quickly. Males tire, rest, and lose chances to compete for females.</p>



<p>Thermal imaging confirmed the problem. Dark spots made wings hotter, faster. Unlike the peppered moth, where wing color affected survival through camouflage, dragonflies face a different pressure. Here, color weakens reproductive success. Survival is not enough if mating fails.</p>



<p>This twist highlights a blind spot in conservation. Scientists usually check if species survive hotter, drier habitats. But if mating collapses, the population vanishes regardless of survival, leaving ecosystems weaker and biodiversity loss far greater.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-survival-amid-wildfires">Dragonfly survival amid wildfires</h2>



<p>“This changes how we think about vulnerability,” said Professor Michael Moore. “It’s not just about whether animals can survive after wildfire - it’s about whether they can reproduce in those modified environments. That’s the key to long-term survival.”</p>



<p>If reproduction falters, decline accelerates. And dragonflies matter. They eat mosquitoes, keeping insect numbers in check. They also feed birds, fish, and amphibians. Lose them, and entire food webs shift, unraveling in unpredictable ways.</p>



<p>Dragonflies have always seemed resilient. But this study suggests they may not keep pace with today’s rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-developed-dark-wing-spots-for-survival/">changes</a>, showing how climate and fire pressures can overwhelm even long-lasting species once thought secure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-data-reveal-worrying-trends">Wildfire data reveal worrying trends</h2>



<p>The project began as a class assignment in Professor Moore’s course. Students worked with open datasets: wildfire maps from the U.S. Geological Survey, climate records, and citizen science observations spanning 40 years. No external funding backed the research.</p>



<p>Despite the simple beginnings, the analysis uncovered a serious trend. Dragonflies with ornamental wings are disappearing from fire-damaged and hotter regions. The data gave a broad view of how climate and wildfires interact with reproductive traits.</p>



<p>Nalley brought personal motivation. She lost her home in Superior, Colorado, during the 2021 Marshall Fire. That experience shaped her focus.</p>



<p>“I knew I wanted to study animals - and after the fire, I knew I wanted to study wildfires too,” said Nalley. “That experience pushed me to ask how animals are affected not just by surviving a fire, but by whether they can still reproduce and carry on the species afterward.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-conservation">Lessons for conservation</h2>



<p>The findings stretch beyond dragonflies. If ancient predators that once ruled the skies falter, what about other species? The research shows conservationists must look past survival rates. Reproduction matters just as much.</p>



<p>“Working with Sarah pushed me to think about my own research in a new way,” said Moore. “She came in with great questions about wildfires and reproduction that made me reconsider how I approach these big ecological issues.”</p>



<p>The study’s message is clear: ecosystems don’t just need species to live, they need them to breed. Dragonflies warn us of what happens when natural signals of attraction turn into liabilities, threatening stability, biodiversity, and long-term ecological resilience everywhere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-decline-from-wildfires">Dragonfly decline from wildfires</h2>



<p>Dragonflies have been here for hundreds of millions of years. Their decline would mark a profound loss. More than that, it would unsettle the balance of ecosystems that depend on them.</p>



<p>The CU Denver research shows how quickly environmental pressures reach into the smallest details of life - courtship displays, wing patterns, mating chances. Those details decide whether a species thrives or disappears, shaping both present ecosystems and future biodiversity.</p>



<p>Dragonflies are not just survivors from deep time. They are indicators of how even the most resilient animals can stumble in a warming, fire-prone world.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02417-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.</em></p>



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Dragonflies lived with dinosaurs, now they face their toughest fight for survival

Dragonflies outlasted the dinosaurs and even endured asteroid strikes. But now they face a survival threat unlike any before. Rising heat and wildfires are reshaping the very traits they depend on to attract mates. A study from the University of Colorado Denver shows how this shift could push some species toward local extinction. Traits that once drew partners are now putting dragonflies at risk. “Dragonflies have survived asteroids, but now climate change and wildfires are threatening them in ways evolution can’t keep up with,” said lead author...

Female,Orangutan,Sitting,At,Tree,Trunk,And,Looks,Around,Against

<p>According to a recent study led by the <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk/">University of Warwick</a>, orangutans are able to produce two separate sounds simultaneously. This ability is much like songbirds or human beatboxers. </p>



<p>These findings could shed new light on the evolution of human speech. They may also help us understand the interesting rhythms of human beatboxing.</p>



<p>The experts observed two populations of vocalizing orangutans in Borneo and Sumatra for a total of over 3,800 hours. From this, they discovered that primates from both groups were capable of producing highly complex types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zebra-finches-use-both-calls-and-vision-to-coordinate-flight/">vocalizations</a>.</p>



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="pIqOEjKkO0-2819565-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-about-orangutan-sounds">What the researchers learned about orangutan sounds</h2>



<p>“Humans use the lips, tongue, and jaw to make the unvoiced sounds of consonants, while activating the vocal folds in the larynx with exhaled air to make the voiced, open sounds of vowels. Orangutans are also capable of producing both types of sounds - and both at once,” explained study lead author Adriano Lameira, an associate professor of Psychology at Warwick.</p>



<p>“For example, large male orangutans in Borneo will produce noises known as&nbsp;“chomps” in combination with&nbsp;“grumbles” in combative situations. Female orangutans in Sumatra produce&nbsp;“kiss squeaks” at the same time as&nbsp;“rolling calls” to alert others of a possible predator threat. The fact that two separate populations of orangutans were observed making two calls simultaneously, is proof that this is a biological phenomenon.”</p>



<p>According to the scientists, humans rarely produce both voiced and voiceless sounds simultaneously. One exception is beatboxing. This is a form of vocal percussion in which individuals imitate drum sounds and create rhythmic patterns using their voice, mouth, lips, and throat in order to imitate the complex beats of hip hop music. </p>



<h2 id="h-evolutionary-link-between-beatboxing-and-orangutan-sounds">Evolutionary link between beatboxing and orangutan sounds?</h2>



<p>The fact that humans are anatomically able to beatbox raises the question about where this fascinating capacity came from. The current study suggests that it may have evolved from vocal abilities already existent in our primate ancestors.</p>



<p>Unfortunately, previous research focused on the vocal abilities of birds has largely underestimated the amazing vocal control and coordination abilities of wild great apes and thus failed to identify the possible evolutionary link between primate vocalizations and the emergence of human speech and other complex vocal capacities such as beatboxing.</p>



<p>“Producing two sounds, exactly how birds produce song, resembles spoken language but bird anatomy has no similarity to our own so it is difficult to make links between birdsong, and spoken human language,” said co-author and independent researcher Madeleine Hardus.</p>



<p>&nbsp;“Now that we know this vocal ability is part of the great ape repertoire, we can’t ignore the evolutionary links. It could be possible that early human language resembled something that sounded more like beatboxing, before evolution organized language into the consonant – vowel structure that we know today,” Lameira concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad182"><em>PNAS Nexus</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-orangutan-sounds">More about orangutan sounds</h2>



<p>Orangutans are known to have a complex set of vocalizations, with several distinctive calls and sounds. They use these vocalizations to communicate with each other in various scenarios, such as alerting others to danger, indicating their presence, or expressing emotions such as frustration or fear. Here are some of the known orangutan vocalizations:</p>



<h3 id="h-long-calls">Long calls</h3>



<p>Adult male orangutans are famous for their "long call." It's a series of roars that can last up to two minutes and be heard as far as one kilometer away. The long call has many purposes, including attracting females, communicating with other males, and signaling their location.</p>



<h3 id="h-kiss-squeaks">Kiss squeaks</h3>



<p>Orangutans make a "kiss squeak" noise by pursing their lips and sucking in air. This is often a sign that an orangutan is annoyed or feels threatened. Some orangutans will even use leaves to make this sound louder, suggesting that it is a deliberate form of communication.</p>



<h3 id="h-grumbles">Grumbles</h3>



<p>Orangutans produce a grumbling sound, typically used for close-range communication, such as between a mother and her offspring. It's a general sound to express dissatisfaction or mild protest.</p>



<h3 id="h-soft-hoots-or-squeals">Soft hoots or squeals</h3>



<p>Young orangutans often emit soft hoots or squeals when they are playing, excited, or exploring. These vocalizations can also be used to gain the attention of the mother or other young orangutans.</p>



<h3 id="h-throat-scrapes-and-rasps">Throat scrapes and rasps</h3>



<p>Throat scrapes and rasps are low, quiet vocalizations used for close-range communication and often occur during social interactions.</p>



<p>Remember, these vocalizations can vary between different populations of orangutans, as these great apes are known to have culturally distinct behaviors. This means that different groups of orangutans, living in different geographical areas, may have their own unique sets of calls and responses.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Adriano R. Lameira and Madeleine Hardus</em></p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Orangutans can produce two different sounds simultaneously, similar to human beatboxing

According to a recent study led by the University of...

<p>In some human monarchies, inherited power offers a ladder to absolute authority. In hyena monarchies, such power can be a slippery downward slide. </p>



<p>This, according to a new study conducted by the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> (MPI-AB).&nbsp;</p>



<p>By examining hyena societies over three decades, the experts came to an interesting conclusion. The process by which these animals <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hyenas-inherit-their-mothers-social-network/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inherit rank from their mothers</a> (maternal inheritance) corrodes the social status of individuals. </p>



<p>Every member of a hyena clan, besides the highest-ranking queen, experiences downward mobility during their lifetime.</p>



<h2 id="h-hyena-clans-hierarchy">Hyena clans hierarchy&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Hyena clans are arranged in a linear dominance hierarchy. Through this method, offspring inherit their rank below their mother through a monarchy-like process. </p>



<p>Thus, at the top of the hierarchy is the queen. She is followed by her offspring, and then all the other females and their young.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to study author Eli Strauss, a behavioral ecologist at MPI-AB, a hyena’s place in the hierarchy matters a lot. “A lower rank means you have less access to food, you have to travel more to hunt, you are harassed more, you even have less time nursing your babies,” he explained.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-hyena-research-was-conducted">How the hyena research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To assess whether hyenas can break rank and change status, Strauss examined a database from the Mara Hyena Project, which has been studying spotted hyenas in the Maasai Mara National Reserve in Kenya since the late 1980s. </p>



<p>By analyzing over four decades of data on hyena behavior from four social groups, Strauss found that, although hyenas could move up and down in their social hierarchy over time, they tended to slid down much more often than jumping up.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“You wouldn’t think this downward mobility was happening if you were just observing the animals in the wild, because the process happens over many years. It’s only by taking an intergenerational view that you realize that a daughter born to the alpha queen has suffered a significant downturn in status throughout the course of her life,” Strauss said.</p>



<p>To determine what causes this persistent downward trajectory, Strauss examined more closely the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-life-has-long-term-effects-on-the-health-of-hyenas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life histories</a> of all individuals. He found that hyenas descended in rank most frequently because another hyena had joined or left the group (demographic turnover).</p>



<p>“It’s tempting to imagine the intrigue and machinations of Game of Thrones, where animals are plotting to overthrow each other. But in hyena societies, an individual’s power is passively eroded as other clan members are born or die,” he explained.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered-about-hyena-clans">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;about hyena clans</h2>



<p>In a further step, by drawing on methods used to investigate social mobility in human societies, Strauss created computer simulated hyena societies, which allowed him to “turn off” various aspects of their biology and thus pinpoint the specific societal rules driving this surprising pattern.</p>



<p>The simulation revealed two causes of this specific pattern: the monarchy-like inheritance of hyena societies and the fact that higher-ranking females usually give birth to more offspring. </p>



<p>These combined factors suggest that new group members are not being added randomly, but rather on the top of the hierarchy, under the dominant females, which pushes all other individual besides the queen downwards over time.</p>



<p>These findings provide evidence that societal features can have a major impact on individuals, often usurping their agency in altering the course of their lives. </p>



<p>“It seems that no matter what a hyena does, they are going to experience a decline in rank over time. It’s hard to fathom that they navigate lives in which everybody, but the queen, suffers a loss in quality. Clearly, they do succeed, so the next question is how,” Strauss concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2022.0308"><em>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-hyenas">More about hyenas</h2>



<p>Hyenas are a fascinating group of carnivorous mammals found primarily in Africa and parts of Asia. They belong to the family Hyaenidae. </p>



<p>This family includes four species: the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), the brown hyena (Hyaena brunnea), the striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), and the aardwolf (Proteles cristata). Here are some key characteristics and facts about hyenas:</p>



<h3 id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



<p>Hyenas have a unique appearance, with a robust build, large heads, and sloping backs. They have strong jaws, powerful necks, and well-developed forelimbs. The size and appearance of hyenas vary depending on the species.</p>



<h3 id="h-social-structure">Social structure</h3>



<p>Spotted hyenas live in highly organized clans that can consist of up to 80 individuals. The clan is led by a dominant female called the matriarch. Female hyenas are typically larger and more dominant than males. Brown and striped hyenas are generally solitary or found in small family groups.</p>



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



<p>Hyenas are primarily scavengers, but they are also skilled hunters. They have strong jaws and teeth that allow them to crush and consume bones, which most other carnivores cannot do. Hyenas feed on a wide range of prey, including wildebeests, zebras, antelopes, and even larger animals like buffalo and giraffes.</p>



<h3 id="h-hunting-techniques">Hunting techniques</h3>



<p>Spotted hyenas are known for their exceptional hunting skills and cooperative hunting behavior. They often work together in groups to bring down larger prey. Brown and striped hyenas are more opportunistic hunters, targeting smaller animals and scavenging when possible.</p>



<h3 id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



<p>Hyenas communicate using a variety of vocalizations, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-hyenas-recognize-each-other-from-their-distinctive-whoops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whoops</a>, giggles, and growls. These vocalizations can convey social status, alarm calls, or coordinate group activities. They also use scent marking to establish territory and communicate with other hyenas.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



<p>Hyenas are adaptable and can thrive in a range of habitats, including grasslands, savannas, woodlands, and deserts. They have a relatively wide distribution across sub-Saharan Africa and parts of the Middle East and India.</p>



<h3 id="h-misconceptions">Misconceptions</h3>



<p>Hyenas often face negative stereotypes due to their scavenging habits and vocalizations, which are sometimes associated with eerie laughter. However, they are highly intelligent and social animals with complex behaviors.</p>



<p>Hyenas play a crucial ecological role as scavengers and predators, helping to keep ecosystems balanced. Despite some conservation concerns, hyena populations are generally stable, although they face threats from habitat loss, poaching, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprising-number-of-hyenas-are-killed-by-vehicles-every-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conflicts with humans</a>.</p>



<p>Overall, hyenas are remarkable creatures with unique adaptations and behaviors, making them a significant part of the African and Asian wildlife.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Hyena clans have a social hierarchy where very few members have upward social mobility

In some human monarchies, inherited power offers a ladder to...

3d,Medical,Animation,With,Teeth,Pain

<p>When you look at the jawbones of a blue whale, a hyena, or even a human, you'll notice something interesting. Each one, regardless of its size or purpose, consists of a pair of lower jawbones.</p>



<p>This structure is a hallmark of mammals. It gives us everything from the blue whale's 20-foot-long filter-feeding jaw, to the bone-crushing prowess of the hyena, and our own delicate human chin bones.</p>



<p>Yet, it might seem like a disadvantage at first. After all, why would having a single bone on each side of the head, forming a stiff lower jaw or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-denisovans-tibetan-plateau/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mandible</a>, be a good thing?</p>



<h2 id="h-is-there-an-advantage-to-having-just-one-lower-jawbone">Is there an advantage to having just one lower jawbone?</h2>



<p>Other vertebrates such as crocodiles and snakes have between two and 11 bones in their lower jaws. This shows that a jaw with multiple bones can be advantageous.</p>



<p>For instance, despite having about five bones on each side of their jaws, crocodiles have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dogs-crush-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bite strength</a> relative to their size that's more powerful than a hyena's.</p>



<p>Snakes, on the other hand, can open their mouths wider than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unlocking-the-secrets-of-whales-through-their-mouths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baleen whales</a> relative to their size. This is due to their lower jaws' unique structure with around four bones. This feature even allows snakes to dislocate their jaws to swallow prey larger than their heads.</p>



<p>So what's the benefit of having two single jawbones. These are fused at the chin into one solid mandible in humans and other primates?</p>



<p>That's the question paleontologist Jack Tseng, an assistant professor of integrative biology at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, aimed to answer.</p>



<h2>How the jawbone study was conducted</h2>



<p>He built a database of over 1,000 vertebrate jaws. This represented just a small fraction of the approximately 66,000 jawed vertebrate species on Earth.</p>



<p>His goal? To determine if the mammalian jaw structure was an evolutionary improvement over the multi-boned jaws of fish, lizards, snakes, and other non-mammals. To do this, Tseng even created 3D models of many lower jaws to test their durability.</p>



<h2>What the research team learned about lower jawbones</h2>



<p>The answer he found was surprising. As it turns out, having a single lower jawbone on each side doesn't provide a significant advantage over a jaw with multiple bones.</p>



<p>"Should we interpret the innovation of the mammalian jaw as a pure adaptation that enabled, in all ways, mammals to be more successful after the dinosaurs went extinct? I think the answer is no," Tseng said.</p>



<p>Instead, he found that multiple jawbones actually give animals an advantage when it comes to biting. These bones work together, providing more flexibility and speed. On the other hand, the single bone per side in mammals actually restricts their evolutionary options.</p>



<p>Interestingly, despite this limitation, mammals have managed to adapt and consume a wide variety of foods. They rival the dietary diversity of vertebrates with more than one bone in their jaw.</p>



<p>"There's this idea of a trade-off between the additional flexibility and maybe additional speed that you could achieve with multiple bones in a jaw — which essentially compounds or enlarges movement — and the increased stiffness or increased bite strength when you have a single bone in the jaw," Tseng explained.</p>



<p>"That sort of dichotomy between mammals and non-mammals supposedly enabled mammals to essentially become eaters of all things."</p>



<h2>Tseng's research is into jawbones is groundbreaking</h2>



<p>"Nobody's tried to combine information from all of these groups of jawed vertebrates to ask general questions about how jaw shape and function are related," he noted.</p>



<p>He concluded that the structure of the jaw isn't as linked to its function in vertebrates as one might assume. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-fossil-mammals-swallow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mammal jaws</a>, despite being more diverse in shape, are more constrained in their biomechanical characteristics compared to non-mammals.</p>



<p>"Mammal jaws can take, on average, more different shapes compared to non-mammal jaws, but those different shapes have narrower range of different mechanical properties than non-mammals," Tseng observed.</p>



<p>"This is a new observation that could potentially open up different ways of looking at mammal jaw biomechanics."</p>



<p>"The main finding was that, yes, indeed, mammals, given their single-boned lower jaw, have significantly higher strength or stiffness on average compared to any non-mammal jaw," Tseng said.</p>



<p>"This is true overall, regardless of what specific mammals are doing — it doesn't matter if you are a carnivore or an herbivore. Stiffness is not a predator trait or herbivore trait, it's a mammalian trait, a signature of the mammal jaw."</p>



<p>So, why do mammals have fewer bones in their lower jaw? They didn't lose them. Those extra bones evolved into the mammalian inner ear. This potentially gave mammals superior hearing compared to their vertebrate relatives.</p>



<p>"A solid, stiff jaw in mammals is thought to be a side effect of establishing a uniquely mammalian hearing system," Tseng added.</p>



<h2>Examining the jawbone through an engineering lens</h2>



<p>This transition from a complex jaw to a simpler one, but with a complex inner ear, has been primarily studied concerning the ear. </p>



<p>Tseng has a background in studying bone-crushing animals like hyenas. He wanted to explore this transition from the jaw's perspective and through an engineering lens.</p>



<p>He digitized two-dimensional jaw shapes from over 1,000 vertebrate species. Next, he established the key characteristics of these jaws. Finally, he simulated their mechanical performance, including shapes not seen in nature.</p>



<p>This research revealed how mammalian and non-mammalian jaws compare in terms of strength and function. Both groups spanned the range. </p>



<p>This indicated a similar potential for adaptation. However, mammalian jaws tend to be stiffer than non-mammalian jaws.</p>



<h2>More research planned for lower jawbone evolution</h2>



<p>Tseng plans to <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2022.0091" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">expand his research</a> by adding more vertebrate species to his database and incorporating 3D scans of jawbones for a more accurate biomechanical assessment of stiffness and strength.</p>



<p>He hopes that other researchers will further investigate the role of genetics in the evolution of mammals' complex ear structure and simple jawbone structure. </p>



<p>He's interested in understanding the consequences of this transition for mammalian evolution and why this trait seems to have become permanently fixed in mammals.</p>



<p>"We hope our findings prompt some people to search for genetic bases for why this is a one-way street," Tseng concluded.</p>



<p>This study was published last month in the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. It could lead to a greater understanding of how this characteristic separation of structure and function in mammals helped them adapt to new environments during key geological times.</p>



<p>These include the extinction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-birds-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">non-avian dinosaurs</a> and the emergence of land bridges connecting continents. Both enabled the mixing of different ecological communities.</p>



<p>Along with Tseng, the study's co-authors include Sergio Garcia-Lara and Emily Holmes of UC Berkeley, John Flynn from the American Museum of Natural History in New York, Timothy Rowe of the University of Texas at Austin, and Blake Dickson from Duke University in North Carolina.</p>



<h2>More about jawbones</h2>



<p>Jawbones, also known as mandibles, play a critical role in a variety of creatures, from mammals and reptiles to birds and fish. They are part of the body's skeletal structure. Thus, they are instrumental in eating and communication. Here are some key aspects about jawbones:</p>



<h3>Structure and Function</h3>



<p>In humans and many other animals, the jawbone is a horseshoe-shaped bone. It is the only bone in the human skull that can move and is responsible for the up and down movement of the mouth. The jawbone holds the lower teeth in place and works with the upper jaw to help in chewing food and in the articulation of speech.</p>



<p>In mammals, the mandible is typically made of a single bone on each side, which is a unique characteristic among vertebrates. Other vertebrates, like fish, reptiles, and birds, usually have complex, multipart jaws.</p>



<h3>Evolution</h3>



<p>The evolution of the jawbone is a fascinating topic in the field of evolutionary biology. Jawbones have evolved significantly over millions of years. </p>



<p>The first jawed animals appeared during the Silurian period (approximately 440 million years ago). These early jawed vertebrates, or gnathostomes, included both fish and amphibians.</p>



<p>The evolution of jawbones in mammals is particularly interesting. Early mammalian ancestors, or synapsids, started with a jaw composed of several bones.</p>



<p>However, over time, these bones simplified and eventually, mammals ended up with a single bone on each side of the jaw. Some of the other bones migrated to the ear, forming the auditory ossicles. This is a significant evolutionary change that possibly enhanced hearing in mammals.</p>



<h3>Variation Across Species</h3>



<p>Jawbones differ considerably among various animal species, not only in size and shape but also in terms of strength and the number of constituent bones.</p>



<p>For example, the blue whale, the largest creature on Earth, has massive jawbones that enable filter feeding. Crocodiles have incredibly strong and powerful jaws, and snakes have highly flexible jaws that can dislocate to swallow large prey.</p>



<h3>Health and Disease</h3>



<p>The jawbone can also be affected by various health conditions. Disorders like temporomandibular joint disorder (TMJ) can cause pain in the jawbone and the muscles controlling jaw movement.</p>



<p>Other conditions, like osteonecrosis, can cause damage to the jawbone itself. In dentistry, maintaining the health of the jawbone is crucial. </p>



<p>This is especially true for procedures like dental implants, where the implant must fuse with the jawbone to provide a sturdy foundation for artificial teeth.</p>



<h3>Fossil Records and Anthropology</h3>



<p>Jawbones are crucial in the field of anthropology and paleontology. They can provide a wealth of information about extinct species, including their diet, age, and size.</p>



<p>Jawbones can even offer hints about social structures and mating habits. In human evolution, changes in jawbone size and structure are linked with dietary shifts. These include the transition from raw to cooked food, and the advent of farming.</p>



<p>In summary, jawbones are fascinating from many perspectives, including biology, evolution, health, and anthropology. They're critical for various life functions and hold many secrets about our evolutionary past and the diversity of life on Earth.</p>

Evolutionary mystery: Why are mammals the only vertebrates to have only one lower jawbone?

When you look at the jawbones of a blue whale,...

Farm,Salmon,Fishing,In,Norway,Aerial,Fpv,Drone,Photography.

<p>The world's biggest producers of aquatic foods and the aquaculture industry are under a significant threat. Environmental changes triggered by human activities have placed over 90% of the world’s aquaculture facilities under significant threat.</p>



<p>Countries in Asia, Latin America, and Africa with the highest risk are reportedly least equipped to adapt to these changes.</p>



<p>Over 90% of worldwide 'blue' food production is facing substantial risk from environmental alterations. This covers both captured fisheries and aquaculture systems.</p>



<p>Key players like several Asian nations and the United States are predicted to face the most significant challenges to their production capabilities.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://bluefood.earth/science/vulnerability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groundbreaking paper</a> presents the first global analysis of environmental stressors influencing the quantity and safety of blue foods.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-aquaculture-and-blue-foods-study-was-conducted">How the aquaculture and blue foods study was conducted</h2>



<p>A total of 17 stressors, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-arctic-warming-sets-the-stage-for-dangerous-algae-blooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algal blooms</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-sea-level-rise-found-along-u-s-coasts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>, fluctuating temperatures, and pesticide exposure, were assessed. Based on their exposure to these key stressors, countries were ranked for the first time.</p>



<p>"Environmental stressors do not care about national borders," observed Ben Halpern, co-lead author of the study and professor at <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Barbara</a>.</p>



<p>According to him, stressors are moved by air, water, species, and humans, connecting lands to seas and ecosystems to ecosystems.</p>



<p>The study was published by Nature Sustainability under the title "Vulnerability of Blue Foods to Human-induced Environmental Change."</p>



<p>It is one of seven scientific papers released by the <a href="https://bluefood.earth/what-we-do/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Blue Food Assessment (BFA)</a>. These papers were published in a global effort to enhance the understanding of future aquatic food sustainability.</p>



<p>Climate change is not the only problem. The report underscores that highly vulnerable blue food production systems exist worldwide.</p>



<p>These include major producers such as Norway, China, and the U.S. The study emphasizes the need to better understand the complex stressors causing environmental change.</p>



<h2>Understanding how environmental stressors impact aquaculture</h2>



<p>Ling Cao is the co-lead author and professor at the <a href="https://mel2.xmu.edu.cn/melwebold/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science at Xiamen University</a> He says we've merely "scratched the surface in our understanding of how environmental stressors are connected and how they can negatively impact the production and safety of blue foods."</p>



<p>Grasping the intricacies of these stressors and their cascading effects is crucial for devising effective adaptation and mitigation strategies.</p>



<p>In the U.S., the main threats to blue food production include species invasion, inland eutrophication or algal blooms, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-could-be-devastating-to-all-living-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean warming</a>, and sea level rise.</p>



<p>Freshwater and marine fisheries are at particularly large risk. Meanwhile, China's freshwater aquaculture, being the largest blue food producer, is also under threat from inland eutrophication and severe weather events.</p>



<p>The authors point out that we should particularly focus on countries like Bangladesh, Eswatini, Guatemala, Honduras, and Uganda. They are highly exposed to environmental change but lack the capacity for adaptation.</p>



<h2>What the researchers learned about aquaculture and blue food</h2>



<p>According to the report, marine fisheries are more vulnerable to climate-related stressors, particularly temperature rise and acidification. In contrast, aquaculture is more likely to suffer from diseases and hypoxia or low oxygen levels.</p>



<p>Rebecca Short, co-lead author and researcher at the <a href="https://www.stockholmresilience.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stockholm Resilience Centre</a>, warns that although we've made progress on climate change, our strategies for blue food systems facing environmental change need urgent attention.</p>



<p>The study strongly suggests transboundary collaboration and adaptation strategies that consider the interconnectedness of ecosystems. Environmental change in one area can significantly impact other regions.</p>



<p>Diversifying blue food production in high-risk countries is recommended unless adequate mitigation and adaptation strategies are adopted. Additionally, it's essential to engage stakeholders more actively in understanding, monitoring, and mitigating pressures on blue food production systems.</p>



<p>The researchers believe that indigenous knowledge will play a vital role in strategic planning and policies. Such knowledge is particularly critical for artisanal fisheries and heavily marine fisheries-dependent countries, like Small Island Developing States (SIDS).</p>



<p>The research also provides an extended dataset ranking countries based on the exposure of their blue food production systems to environmental stressors.</p>



<h2>More about aquaculture and blue food production</h2>



<p>Aquaculture, sometimes referred to as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafree-new-technology-turns-waste-from-fish-farming-into-seaweed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish farming</a> or shellfish farming, is the cultivation of aquatic organisms. These include fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic plants.</p>



<p>It involves the farming of species that live in the water (both saltwater and freshwater) under controlled conditions.</p>



<p>Aquaculture plays a critical role in meeting the world's increasing demand for protein. It does so by providing a substantial share of the fish consumed globally.</p>



<p>Blue food refers to all types of aquatic foods. These include both those from aquaculture and wild capture fisheries. Blue foods can range from fish and shellfish to seaweed and other aquatic plants.</p>



<p>Blue food is an essential component of global food systems. It provides not only protein but also essential micronutrients and fatty acids that are beneficial to human health.</p>



<p>Here are some key points about aquaculture and blue food production:</p>



<h3>Diversity of Species</h3>



<p>Aquaculture involves a broad array of species, including finfish like salmon and tilapia, shellfish such as oysters and clams, and even seaweed. The choice of species depends on several factors, including market demand, local environmental conditions, and available technology.</p>



<h3>Types of Systems</h3>



<p>Aquaculture systems can be very diverse and are generally categorized into extensive or intensive systems. Extensive systems tend to rely on natural productivity, while intensive systems often require external inputs. </p>



<p>These include feed, aeration, and pest control. The systems can also be classified based on the type of water used. For instance, freshwater, brackish, or marine.</p>



<h3>Sustainability Issues</h3>



<p>While aquaculture has the potential to provide a sustainable source of protein, it faces several sustainability challenges. These include water pollution, habitat destruction, disease transmission, and the use of wild-caught fish as feed in some types of aquaculture. These factors can have significant environmental impacts.</p>



<h3>Role in Food Security</h3>



<p>Blue food plays a crucial role in global food security. It provides essential nutrients for billions of people and is an important source of livelihood for millions of people, particularly in developing countries.</p>



<h3>Innovation and Technological Advances</h3>



<p>New technologies and practices are continually being developed to improve the sustainability of aquaculture. These include more efficient feeding practices, closed-loop systems that recycle water, and the use of non-fish feed ingredients to reduce reliance on wild-caught fish.</p>



<h3>Regulation and Management</h3>



<p>Aquaculture is subject to a range of regulations and management practices intended to ensure its sustainability. These regulations can cover a variety of aspects, from water quality and disease management to animal welfare and labor rights.</p>



<h3>Challenges from Climate Change</h3>



<p>Like all food production systems, blue food production is vulnerable to climate change. Rising sea levels, increasing temperatures, ocean acidification, and extreme weather events can all pose significant challenges to both aquaculture and wild capture fisheries. Adapting to these changes will be a significant challenge in the coming decades.</p>



<p>Overall, aquaculture and blue food production are essential components of the global food system. They offer the potential to provide sustainable, nutritious food for a growing global population but also present significant environmental and management challenges that must be addressed.</p>

90% of the world’s aquaculture faces substantial risk from human-induced environmental changes

The world's biggest producers of aquatic foods and the aquaculture...

<p>Diving deep into the past, a research team has discovered an ancient mosasaur fossil. Further analysis revealed it to be a new species, Sarabosaurus dahli. They found it in the rugged gray shale badlands of the National Park Service Glen Canyon National Recreation Area.</p>



<p>This recent archaeological breakthrough in southern Utah has brought a 94-million-year-old secret to the surface. Dr. Barry Albright is a faculty member at the <a href="https://www.unf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Florida</a>. He made this fascinating discovery, along with a research team from the <a href="https://www.blm.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bureau of Land Management (BLM)</a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-mosasaurs-were-originally-land-dwelling-creatures">Mosasaurs were originally land dwelling creatures</h2>



<p>Mosasaurs were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/terrifying-mosasaur-dominated-the-ocean-66-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique creatures</a>. They were reptiles adapted entirely for marine life. Mosasaurs roamed the oceans while their dinosaur cousins reigned on land.</p>



<p>The genesis of this discovery traces back about 11 years. Scott Richardson, a dedicated volunteer trained under Dr. Albright.</p>



<p>He tirelessly scoured the land for remnants of organisms that once inhabited the vast seaway spanning across the heart of North America. This was during the Late Cretaceous Period, approximately 84 to 95 million years ago.</p>



<p>In March 2012, Richardson stumbled upon a treasure trove of ancient history. Small skull fragments and vertebrae, the vestiges of an early mosasaur, lay scattered across a large shale slope.</p>



<p>As Dr. Albright elucidates, "During the time the Tropic Shale was being deposited, about 94 million years ago, mosasaurs were still very small, primitive, and in the early evolutionary stages of becoming fully marine adapted. For these reasons, their fossils are extremely rare and difficult to find."</p>



<h2>How Sarabosaurus dahli was discovered</h2>



<p>Over the next two field seasons, a joint team from the BLM and the National Park Service painstakingly recovered nearly half of the specimen. This amount proved sufficient to identify the ancient creature.</p>



<p>The research team, captained by BLM Paria River District paleontologist Dr. Alan Titus, consisted of BLM staff and volunteers. Among them was volunteer Steve Dahl. </p>



<p>His dedication to the project led to his being immortalized in the species name, Sarabosaurus dahli. This name translates to "Dahl’s reptile of the mirage".</p>



<p>The name encapsulates both the bygone seaway this creature swam through, and the desert mirages associated with the region's intense summer heat.</p>



<h2>New mosasaur, Sarabosaurus dahli, is a monumental discovery</h2>



<p>"Mosasaurs from younger rocks are relatively abundant, but mosasaurs are extremely rare in rocks older than about 90 million years," explained Dr. Titus. "Finding one that preserves so much informative data, especially one of this age, is truly a significant discovery."</p>



<p>These oldest mosasaurs were diminutive, just about 3 feet long. Yet, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-mosasaur-species-discovered-with-strange-screwdriver-like-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">they evolved into massive, lizard-like marine predators</a>. Mosasaurs ruled the oceans during the later stages of the dinosaur era.</p>



<p>Originally, their land-bound ancestors resembled the present-day <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/all-about-the-mysterious-komodo-dragon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Komodo Dragon</a>. However, over time, their sea-faring descendants developed sleek bodies, fin-like limbs, and tails designed for swift navigation through water.</p>



<p>In contrast to its primitive predecessors, Sarabosaurus boasted a significant evolutionary advancement. It had developed a new system to pump blood into its brain.</p>



<p>According to Dr. Michael J. Polcyn of the University of Utrecht, Netherlands, and Southern Methodist University, Dallas, "Sarabosaurus sheds light on long-standing questions regarding the relationship of some early branching mosasaurid species, but also provides new insights into the evolution and antiquity of a novel cranial blood supply seen in a particular group of mosasaurs."</p>



<p>This pivotal discovery propels our understanding of the mysterious past. It also sheds light on the intriguing world of these ancient marine reptiles. This is truly a giant leap forward for science.</p>



<p>The results of this transformative research have been freshly published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195667123001490">Cretaceous Research</a>. Image credit: <strong>ANDREY ATUCHIN</strong></p>



<h2>More about mosasaurs</h2>



<p>Mosasaurs were large, carnivorous marine reptiles that lived during the Late Cretaceous period. This period spanned from around 92 to 66 million years ago.</p>



<p>These fascinating creatures are known for their adaptation to marine life. They evolved from land-dwelling, lizard-like ancestors. Here's what we know about them:</p>



<h3>Size and Appearance</h3>



<p>The size of mosasaurs varied, with the smallest species measuring about 3 feet long and the largest, such as Mosasaurus hoffmannii, reaching lengths of up to 50 feet or more.</p>



<p>Mosasaurs had elongated, streamlined bodies with powerful, paddle-like limbs and a long, strong tail that helped them navigate and accelerate in the water. They also had large, robust skulls equipped with strong jaws and sharp teeth, perfect for their predatory lifestyle.</p>



<h3>Adaptations</h3>



<p>Mosasaurs exhibited a number of fascinating adaptations for life in the sea. They had a double-hinged jaw and a flexible skull (similar to snakes), which allowed them to swallow their prey whole. Some mosasaurs also had a second set of teeth on the roofs of their mouths.</p>



<p>&nbsp;These creatures evolved from land-dwelling lizards and, over time, their limbs transformed into flippers, their tails became more like those of sharks, and they developed the ability to give live birth in the water.</p>



<h3>Diet and Hunting</h3>



<p>Mosasaurs were apex predators in their oceanic ecosystems, preying on a variety of marine life, including fish, squid, and other marine reptiles. Some larger species may have also fed on smaller species of mosasaurs.</p>



<p>Their hunting techniques are believed to have been similar to those of modern-day killer whales, isolating a member of a school of fish or a pod of squids and attacking with speed and power.</p>



<h3>Distribution and Habitat</h3>



<p>Mosasaurs were a global species, with fossils found on every continent, indicating that they inhabited a wide range of marine environments, from shallow nearshore waters to the open ocean.</p>



<h3>Discovery and Extinction</h3>



<p>The first mosasaur fossils were discovered in the Netherlands in the late 18th century, and they have since been found worldwide.</p>



<p>Mosasaurs went extinct during the K-T event (the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event) about 66 million years ago, which is also well-known for causing the demise of the dinosaurs.</p>



<h3>Relation to Modern Animals</h3>



<p>Mosasaurs are not dinosaurs but are more closely related to modern-day monitor lizards and snakes. Their closest living relatives are thought to be the Komodo dragon and the closely-related Gila monster.</p>



<p>Overall, mosasaurs were fascinating, well-adapted creatures that dominated the oceans of the Late Cretaceous period. Their fossils continue to provide valuable insights into life on Earth millions of years ago.</p>

Sarabosaurus dahli: A newly discovered mosasaur species provides incredible evolutionary insights

Diving deep into the past, a research team has discovered...

Portrait,Of,Beautiful,Woman,With,Her,Retreiver,Dog,Playing,Near

<p>Have you ever noticed how different dog breeds seem to be better at social learning, from observing humans, than others?</p>



<p>A recent study from the <a href="https://ethology.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ethology at Eötvös Loránd University</a> has shed some intriguing light on this subject. Their research findings suggest that some breeds of dogs may have more of an edge when it comes to gleaning insights from observing human actions.</p>



<p>A question that often pops up when debating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-some-dogs-howl-but-others-dont/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog behavior</a> is whether the breed of the dog has any influence on the results of such studies. And, if so, why or why not?</p>



<p>There are hundreds of distinct dog breeds out there. Each breed varies not just in their looks, but also in their behaviors. It's quite common to assume that a terrier might act differently than a Husky. Or, similarly, that a Border Collie might exhibit different tendencies than a pointer.</p>



<h2 id="h-differences-in-social-learning-ability-across-dog-breeds">Differences in social learning ability across dog breeds </h2>



<p>Ethologists have indeed found significant breed differences in many experiments. However, when it came to social learning, breed difference seemed a bit elusive. Social learning is the ability to learn by watching others' actions.</p>



<p>Over the last two decades, regardless of breed, dogs have shown an uncanny ability to learn from other dogs. Also, and even more impressively, they can also learn from watching humans.</p>



<p>But this new study, published in the journal 'Animals', has brought a fresh perspective. The researchers have shown that certain dog breeds might have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-dogs-more-intelligent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharper inclination</a> towards human behavior.</p>



<p>This tendency can be a real game-changer when dogs face a tricky spatial problem-solving task. An example of this would be finding a detour around an obstacle.</p>



<h2>How the new social learning study was conducted</h2>



<p>The researchers behind this compelling study are Dr. Péter Pongrácz, a pioneer in social learning experiments with dogs. Also, his partner, Petra Dobos, an undergraduate student with tremendous potential.</p>



<p>Dobos's bachelor thesis aimed to unearth breed-related differences that could explain variations in dogs' social learning skills.</p>



<p>The dynamic duo employed a novel approach by grouping dog breeds into two functional groups. First were the cooperative working dogs. These include herding dogs, pointers, and retrievers who work closely with their human handlers.</p>



<p>Second are independent working dogs. This group includes terriers, sighthounds, spitz type breeds and livestock guarding dogs. They function mostly without continuous human guidance.</p>



<h2>Testing dog breeds with the 'V-shaped fence detour' test</h2>



<p>In the study, nearly 100 dogs were subjected to the renowned <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/dogs_detour-with-me_credit-Peter-Pongracz_1big.png">'V-shaped fence detour' test</a>. This task involves the dog finding a reward placed behind a transparent wire-mesh fence. This is a feat that many dogs struggle to accomplish within the standard one-minute trial duration.</p>



<p>Each dog underwent three consecutive trials. Each trial had a control group receiving no additional help. </p>



<p>The other group, however, got a leg up by observing humans. Petra walked around the fence before the second and third trials. This demonstrated the correct path to the reward.</p>



<p>As they dove into the data, the researchers found that both independent and cooperative breeds had a similar success rate in the control condition. This was to be expected considering the inherent difficulty of the detour task for dogs.</p>



<h2>What the researchers discovered</h2>



<p>Interestingly, when the dogs were given the chance to observe a human demonstrator navigate the detour, the cooperative working dog breeds clearly had the upper hand. </p>



<p>Unlike the independent dogs, cooperative dogs significantly improved their detour time compared to their initial trial, even though both groups observed the same human demonstration.</p>



<p>Dr. Pongrácz, the supervisor of the research program, reflected on the study's findings. “The beauty of this finding lays in the fact that we did not find any specific dog breed to be especially talented in social learning,” he said. </p>



<p>The groups consisted of unrelated dog breeds, positioned at distant branches on the genetic ‘tree’ of dogs. This highlights the role of functional breed selection that possibly focuses on enhancing dogs' attention and interest towards human behavior.</p>



<h2>More research planned on dog breeds and social learning</h2>



<p>The research duo has plans to delve deeper into these breed differences in future studies. Petra voiced the team's ambition. </p>



<p>“We won’t stop here of course. There are so many things still to discover. For example, whether the cooperative and independent dogs would equally regard our attention calling words interesting. Or, would we find the cooperative breeds as being more attracted to human encouragement?”</p>



<p>In conclusion, this study has taken a significant stride in understanding the nuanced ways in which breed differences may influence a dog's ability to learn from human actions. It paves the way for more fascinating discoveries in the world of ethology.</p>



<h2>More about relationship between dogs and humans</h2>



<p>Dogs and humans have shared a unique bond for thousands of years. These bonds have spanned different cultures, regions, and societies.</p>



<p>This human/dog relationship is marked by mutual companionship, assistance, and love. In fact, dogs were the first species to be domesticated by humans. This occured somewhere between 20,000 and 40,000 years ago. Here's a deeper look into this special connection:</p>



<h3>Domestication</h3>



<p>Wolves, the ancestors of all modern dogs, were likely first attracted to human settlements due to the availability of food scraps. Over time, wolves that were more tolerant of humans and human behavior likely had an advantage. This led to a process of self-domestication.</p>



<p>Humans, in turn, found value in these animals. Dogs were used not only as sources of food and fur, but also as guards, hunters, and companions.</p>



<h3>Co-Evolution</h3>



<p>Humans and dogs have co-evolved. This means that as humans have shaped dogs through selective breeding, dogs have also influenced human evolution.</p>



<p>Some theories suggest that the collaboration between dogs and early humans allowed the latter to hunt more efficiently and have a more regular source of nutrients. These nutrients might have contributed to the development of our large brains.</p>



<h3>Communication</h3>



<p>Dogs have developed a unique ability to understand human signals, gestures, and speech. They can read our body language and vocal cues. They respond to our commands. Most dogs can even interpret our emotions.</p>



<p>This capacity for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-can-read-dogs-emotions-from-their-expressions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding and communication</a> far exceeds that of any other animal species. It is a testament to the deep connection between dogs and humans.</p>



<h3>Emotional Bonding</h3>



<p>Dogs and humans have the capacity to form deep emotional bonds. Dogs are known for their loyalty and are often considered members of the family.</p>



<p>Research has found that interacting with dogs can release the hormone oxytocin, known as the "love hormone", in both the human and the dog. Oxytocin further reinforces this human/dog bond.</p>



<h3>Assistance Roles</h3>



<p>Dogs play many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neighborhoods-with-more-dogs-have-less-crime/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crucial roles in human society</a> beyond companionship. They can be trained as service dogs to assist people with disabilities, as therapy dogs to provide emotional support, and as working dogs in various professions. These include search and rescue, law enforcement, and herding livestock.</p>



<h3>Health Benefits</h3>



<p>Interacting with dogs has been shown to provide numerous health benefits for humans. These include lower stress levels, reduced blood pressure, increased physical activity, and improved mental health.</p>



<p>Some studies have also shown that children who grow up with dogs have a lower risk of developing allergies and asthma.</p>



<h3>Cultural Significance</h3>



<p>Dogs hold significant cultural importance in many societies. They are often featured in art, literature, and mythology. In some cultures, dogs are revered and considered sacred, while in others, they are cherished pets and family members.</p>



<p>The relationship between humans and dogs continues to evolve as we learn more about these remarkable animals. While the form of the relationship can vary from place to place and person to person, the mutual respect and love that form its foundation remain constant.</p>

Some dog breeds are better at learning by observing humans than others

Have you ever noticed how different dog breeds seem to...

Megalodon,Scene,3d,Illustration

<p>The enormous megalodon was the most formidable marine predator that ever graced our oceans. It was indeed a killer, but not the cold-blooded kind.</p>



<p>Environmental scientists from <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a>, <a href="https://www.ucmerced.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Merced</a>, and <a href="https://www.wpunj.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">William Paterson University</a> have completed an exciting research analysis about the megalodon.</p>



<p>The study provides new insight into the warm-blooded nature of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Megalodon_shark_credit-Alex-Boersma_1big-scaled.jpg">ancient shark</a>. The insights derived could potentially explain the reasons behind the megalodon's extinction.</p>



<p>The ancient megalodon, which went extinct roughly 3.6 million years ago, once dominated the seas. The researchers analyzed isotopes in the tooth enamel of these monstrous creatures.</p>



<p>They concluded that megalodons maintained a body temperature of approximately 13 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 7 degrees Celsius). This was warmer than the water in which they swam.</p>



<h2 id="h-megalodon-was-a-warm-blooded-creature">Megalodon was a warm-blooded creature</h2>



<p>This significant temperature difference sets the megalodon apart from other sharks that coexisted during its era. It's enough evidence to categorize the megalodon as a warm-blooded creature. This finding was reported in their paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.</p>



<p>The study also posits that the energy the megalodon used to maintain its warm body temperature could have contributed to its eventual extinction. This offers a valuable perspective for understanding current and future environmental shifts.</p>



<p>“Studying the driving factors behind the extinction of a highly successful predatory shark like the megalodon can provide insight into the vulnerability of large marine predators in modern ocean ecosystems experiencing the effects of ongoing climate change,” commented lead researcher Robert Eagle. He is an assistant professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences at UCLA. He’s also a member of the UCLA Institute of the Environment and Sustainability.</p>



<h2>Megalodon was part of a group known as mackerel sharks</h2>



<p>Believed to have grown up to 50 feet in length, megalodons were part of a group of sharks known as mackerel sharks. This category includes modern-day creatures such as the great white and thresher sharks.</p>



<p>Most fish are cold-blooded, with body temperatures that match their surroundings. Mackerel sharks, however, can keep parts of their bodies warmer than the surrounding water. This unique trait is known as mesothermy and regional endothermy.</p>



<p>Sharks are distinct from fully warm-blooded or endothermic animals like mammals. This is because they store heat generated by their muscles. In mammals, body temperature is regulated by a part of the brain called the hypothalamus.</p>



<p>Evidence has suggested that the megalodon may have been mesothermic. However, until now, there was no data to support this theory.</p>



<p>Without evidence from soft tissues that influence body temperature in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-white-sharks-may-have-sped-up-megalodon-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern sharks</a>, it has been challenging to determine if, or to what extent, the megalodon was endothermic.</p>



<h2>Studying the megalodon’s teeth to find answers</h2>



<p>In their pioneering study, the scientists sought answers in the most abundant fossil remains of the megalodon: its teeth. Teeth are primarily composed of a mineral called apatite.</p>



<p>Apatite contains atoms of carbon and oxygen. These atoms can appear in "light" or "heavy" forms, known as isotopes. The ratio of light to heavy isotopes in apatite can depend on a range of environmental factors.</p>



<p>“The isotopes preserved in the minerals that make up teeth can be seen as a kind of thermometer, but one whose reading can be preserved for millions of years,” explained Randy Flores, a UCLA doctoral student who worked on the study.</p>



<p>“Because teeth form in the tissue of an animal when it’s alive, we can measure the isotopic composition of fossil teeth to estimate the temperature at which they formed. That gives us the approximate body temperature of the animal in life.”</p>



<p>Most ancient and modern sharks cannot maintain body temperatures significantly higher than the surrounding seawater. Thus, the isotopes in their teeth reflect temperatures close to that of the ocean.</p>



<p>However, in warm-blooded animals, the isotopes in their teeth document the effect of body heat. This gives an indication of temperatures warmer than the surrounding water.</p>



<p>The researchers hypothesized that any difference between the isotope values of the megalodon and those of other sharks from the same period would reveal the megalodon's ability to warm its body.</p>



<p>They collected teeth from megalodon and other contemporary sharks from five global locations. The research team then analyzed them using mass spectrometers.</p>



<p>They found that megalodons' teeth consistently yielded average temperatures. This indicated an impressive ability to regulate body temperature.</p>



<h2>Being warm-blooded probably resulted in megalodon’s extinction</h2>



<p>This warm body temperature allowed the megalodon to move faster. It could also survive in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodons-grew-larger-in-cold-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colder waters</a> and spread around the world. Ironically, this evolutionary advantage may have contributed to the species' downfall.</p>



<p>The megalodon thrived during the Pliocene Epoch, from 5.33 million years ago until 2.58 million years ago. Global cooling during this period triggered sea level changes and ecological shifts that the megalodon could not survive.</p>



<p>“Maintaining an energy level that would allow for the megalodon’s elevated body temperature would require a voracious appetite. This appetite may not have been sustainable in a time of changing marine ecosystem balances when it may have even had to compete against newcomers like the great white shark,” Flores said.</p>



<p>Looking to the future, project co-leader Aradhna Tripati, a UCLA professor of Earth, planetary, and space sciences, mentioned that the team plans to use the same methodology to study other species.</p>



<p>“Having established endothermy in the megalodon, the question arises of how frequently it is found in apex marine predators throughout geologic history,” she added.</p>



<h2>More about megalodon</h2>



<p>The megalodon, whose name translates from Greek to "big tooth," is one of the most famous extinct species of shark, known for its enormous size and powerful build. Here's everything we knew about the megalodon:</p>



<h3>Size and Appearance</h3>



<p>The megalodon is considered one of the largest predatory marine animals in the history of our planet. Although the exact size is debated, most scientists agree that megalodons likely reached lengths of 50 to 60 feet.</p>



<p>As for its appearance, due to the lack of a complete megalodon skeleton (shark skeletons, made of cartilage, do not fossilize well), <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodons-appearance-still-remains-a-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">much of what we know</a> comes from the size and structure of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-caused-a-giant-megalodon-tooth-to-split/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remaining teeth</a> and vertebrae.</p>



<p>Scientists also use comparisons with contemporary sharks. It likely resembled a significantly larger, bulkier version of today's great white shark.</p>



<h3>Diet and Hunting Style</h3>



<p>The megalodon was a top-level predator and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodon-devoured-huge-prey-up-to-eight-meters-long/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">could take down large marine mammals like whales</a> and seals. The megalodon's powerful jaws, lined with serrated, heart-shaped teeth, could exert an incredible bite force. It was perhaps one of the strongest among all known animals.</p>



<p>The exact hunting strategies are not known. They may have involved attacking the soft underbelly or fins of their prey to immobilize them. This is a similar strategy to that of modern great white sharks.</p>



<h3>Habitat and Range</h3>



<p>Megalodon fossils have been found all over the world. This suggests that these giant sharks were cosmopolitan. They lived in a variety of marine environments, from shallow coastal waters to deeper oceans. They were likely more prevalent in warmer waters.</p>



<h3>Reproduction</h3>



<p>Little is known about megalodon's reproductive habits. It is possible they gave live birth like modern sharks. It's also likely that, similar to some shark species today, they practiced intrauterine cannibalism. This is where the larger, stronger pups consume their siblings in the womb.</p>



<h3>Extinction</h3>



<p>The megalodon went extinct around 3.6 million years ago. This was likely due to a combination of climate change, a decline in their food supply, and competition with other apex predators like the great white shark.</p>



<p>As the Earth entered an ice age, the seas cooled and sea levels dropped. This may have impacted the megalodon's preferred warm, coastal habitats. It would have also reduced the populations of the marine mammals they hunted.</p>



<h3>Legacy and Influence</h3>



<p>Today, the megalodon continues to capture public interest. It has made appearances in pop culture, movies, and video games, often portrayed (somewhat inaccuratively) as a monster of the deep. </p>



<p>Scientifically, studying megalodon and its ecology can provide important insights into marine ecosystems' past and present dynamics.</p>

Megalodon was a truly vicious killer, but not a cold-blooded one

The enormous megalodon was the most formidable marine predator that...

<p>In a revolutionary new study from <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>, researchers have found that not only do warmer temperatures make turtle eggs more likely to hatch as females, but these females may also be better equipped to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queens-have-a-secret-weapon-to-slow-down-aging/">reproduce</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.06.008"><em>Current Biology</em></a>, hint at why many animals have temperature-dependent sex determination, despite the inherent risks of such a strategy in the face of fluctuating climates. Moreover, these findings could also predict the future of these species in a rapidly warming world.</p>



<h2 id="h-intriguing-results">Intriguing results</h2>



<p>The study was led by senior author Professor Blanche Capel and postdoctoral researcher Boris Tezak. According to the results, the number of "germ cells" or pre-eggs that an embryo carries is heightened by higher incubation temperatures. Intriguingly, the researchers discovered that these germ cells themselves contribute to the embryo's feminization.</p>



<p>"Sex determination by temperature isn’t just one mechanism," explained Professor Capel. “Higher temperatures seem to affect sex determination in incremental ways through multiple cell types in the embryo.”</p>



<p>These germ cells, in their increased numbers, appear to fuel the feminization process, explained Tezak. “The temperatures that produce females are also the temperatures that increase germ cell number,” he said.</p>



<p>This process isn't limited to turtles, either. Professor Capel pointed out that higher numbers of germ cells also govern female development in fish. To validate their theory that a larger number of germ cells leads to female turtles, the researchers removed some germ cells from red-eared slider embryos incubated at a temperature expected to produce equal proportions of males and females. The result was a surprising increase in male hatchlings.</p>



<h2 id="h-temperature-dependent-sex-development">Temperature-dependent sex development</h2>



<p>The enigma of temperature-dependent sex development, known to scientists for decades and apparent across various parts of the tree of life, is thought to have evolved in diverse ways. "It popped up everywhere," said Tezak. The question then arises: "Why would this seemingly risky strategy, especially in the context of weather variations and climate change, persist?”</p>



<p>The Duke team believes the answer lies in the reproductive advantage this system provides. "A female that hatches with more germ cells is presumably more reproductively fit - it increases her reproductive potential to carry more eggs,” said Tezak.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We’ve linked the female pathway to the increased number of germ cells, and if that does make her more reproductively fit, that would go a long way toward explaining why temperature-dependent sex development persists."</p>



<p>As global warming continues to escalate, concerns emerge about the fate of turtles and other temperature-sensitive breeders. Tezak expressed the need to evaluate the effects of further temperature increases on the pool of germ cells. "Will it produce less-fit females?"&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



<p>To investigate, Tezak nurtured clutches of red-eared slider eggs in a controlled environment. Each clutch, sourced from a Louisiana breeder, was incubated in a plastic box filled with moist medium and maintained at a constant temperature.&nbsp;</p>



<p>An interesting phenomenon emerged when eggs incubated at different temperatures were compared. The embryos incubated at higher temperatures (31 degrees Celsius, optimal for female production) were noticeably larger and more active than those incubated at a cooler 26 degrees Celsius, which yields more males.</p>



<p>“We are hypothesizing that there’s a temperature ‘sweet-spot,’” said Professor Capel. “There is a short range where you get a large number of germ cells, and beyond that you start to see declines."</p>



<p>This theory was further underscored by Tezak, who reported peculiar results when eggs were incubated at 33.5 degrees Celsius, only a mere two and a half degrees higher than the optimal temperature for females. "It created some really wonky embryos – there were cyclops and two-headed embryos. We haven’t counted their germ cells yet."&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-future-research">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To expand their research, the Capel lab is gearing up to receive a delivery of alligator eggs. Notably, alligators exhibit a different pattern of temperature-dependent sex determination compared to the red-eared slider turtle. They produce females at low temperatures and males at high ones.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Intriguingly, the low temperature in alligators aligns with the high temperature in turtles, leading both species to produce females at 31 degrees Celsius.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Warming temperatures could make female turtles better mothers

In a revolutionary new study from Duke University, researchers have...

<p>Sleep is a universal experience that encompasses complex biological functions. For us humans, it is divided into different phases – rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM sleep. These sleep phases have unique associations with our physiology, brain activity, and cognition.&nbsp;</p>



<p>During REM <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-counteracts-negative-effects-of-sleep-deprivation/">sleep</a>, our brain activity peaks and ushers in vivid, peculiar, and emotional dreams. Meanwhile, non-REM sleep, a time of metabolic slowdown, enables the brain to flush out waste products. This cleaning mechanism plays a vital role in preventing neurological disorders like Alzheimer's disease.</p>



<p>Despite the clarity in understanding human sleep, the question of whether birds undergo similar processes during sleep has been a mystery. However, new research led by Professor Onur Güntürkün, head of the Biopsychology Department at <a href="http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/en">Ruhr University Bochum</a>, has recently uncovered fascinating insights into avian sleep patterns.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-is-happening-in-pigeon-brains-while-they-sleep">What is happening in pigeon brains while they sleep?</h2>



<p>"Birds and mammals share a common evolutionary ancestor dating back about 315 million years, yet their sleep patterns, including both REM and non-REM phases, are remarkably alike," said Güntürkün.</p>



<p>In order to further investigate the intricacies of bird sleep, the research team combined cutting-edge technologies, namely infrared video cameras and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). They trained 15 pigeons to sleep under these experimental conditions, and closely observed their sleeping and wakeful states.</p>



<p>The video recordings revealed interesting details about avian sleep. "We observed whether one or both eyes were open or closed, tracked eye movements and changes in pupil size through the transparent eyelids of the pigeons during sleep," explained Mehdi Behroozi, a member of the Bochum team.</p>



<p>Simultaneously, the fMRI recordings delivered insights about brain activation and cerebral spinal fluid flow in the ventricles.</p>



<h2 id="h-do-pigeons-dream-of-flying">Do pigeons dream of flying?</h2>



<p>"During REM sleep, we observed strong activity in brain regions responsible for visual processing, including those areas analyzing the movement of a pigeon's surroundings during flight," said Behroozi. In addition, areas processing signals from the body, especially the wings, were also active.</p>



<p>Based on these observations, Behroozi suggests that birds may dream during REM sleep, possibly even reliving their flight experiences in their dreams.</p>



<p>Another intriguing finding was the activation of the amygdala during REM sleep. This implies that birds, like humans, may experience emotional content in their dreams.</p>



<p>"Pigeons’ dreams might include emotions as well," said Gianina Ungurean from the Avian Sleep Group at the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence. This theory is further supported by the birds' rapid pupil contraction during REM sleep, similar to their reactions during courtship or aggressive behaviors.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-rem-sleep-helps-birds">How REM sleep helps birds</h2>



<p>Just like in humans, non-REM sleep in pigeons is a period of enhanced cerebral spinal fluid flow through ventricles. However, a ground-breaking discovery was made: for the first time in any species, the researchers found that this fluid flow diminished significantly during REM sleep.</p>



<p>Niels Rattenborg, head of the Avian Sleep Group, explained this phenomenon: "The increased influx of blood into the brain during REM sleep, which supports the heightened brain activity, might obstruct the cerebral spinal fluid from moving from the ventricles into the brain. This implies that REM sleep and its functions might come at the cost of waste removal from the brain."</p>



<p>Despite this, the team is contemplating that REM sleep might aid in waste removal in unexpected ways. "The surge of blood at the onset of REM sleep increases vessel diameter. This could push cerebral spinal fluid that entered the space during non-REM sleep into the brain tissue, promoting outflow of waste-laden fluids," said Ungurean.</p>



<p>This cleaning process might be particularly critical for birds due to their higher neuronal density compared to mammals. As such, they might need more efficient, or more frequent flushing cycles to remove waste products.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Birds' sleep consists of more, but shorter REM phases compared to mammals. The frequent surges of blood associated with these REM phases might be instrumental in keeping their densely packed brains free of harmful waste products.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-future-holds-for-bird-sleep-research">What the future holds for bird sleep research</h2>



<p>The experts are enthusiastic about future research possibilities. They plan to delve further into the potential role of REM sleep in waste removal. Additionally, they hope to decode the content of a pigeon’s dream.</p>



<p>"We hope to train birds to report if and what they just saw upon awakening from REM sleep. That would be a crucial step towards confirming whether they dream," said Ungurean.</p>



<p>Without the detailed analysis of bird dreams, these new findings already enhance our understanding of sleep's role in birds and humans. The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-38669-1"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>, underscores the significance of sleep in sustaining a healthy brain and averting cognitive decline. It also suggests that dreaming, this peculiar yet universal phenomenon, has a deeply-rooted evolutionary history.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-rem-sleep">More about REM sleep</h2>



<p>Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep is one of the five stages of the human sleep cycle, named for the characteristic rapid movement of the eyes that occurs during this phase. REM sleep is distinct from the four stages of non-REM sleep, characterized by unique physiological, neurological, and psychological features.</p>



<h3 id="h-physiologically">Physiologically</h3>



<p>REM sleep is fascinating. While the brain shows activity levels similar to wakefulness, most of the body's voluntary muscles are paralyzed. This phenomenon, known as REM atonia, is believed to be a protective mechanism that prevents us from acting out our dreams. Heart rate and blood pressure tend to fluctuate, and breathing can become irregular.</p>



<h3 id="h-neurologically">Neurologically</h3>



<p>REM sleep is a period of high brain activity. Brain waves during this stage resemble those during wakefulness, which is why REM sleep is sometimes referred to as paradoxical sleep. Several neurotransmitters play pivotal roles in modulating REM sleep, including acetylcholine, which is particularly active, and monoamines (serotonin, norepinephrine, and histamine), which are almost completely inactive.</p>



<h3 id="h-psychologically">Psychologically&nbsp;</h3>



<p>REM sleep is the stage when the most vivid dreaming occurs. This is thought to be related to the high brain activity and the function of certain brain regions during REM sleep. The exact purpose of dreams is still a topic of ongoing scientific debate, but theories suggest they may help with processing emotions, consolidating memory, and learning.</p>



<p>Additionally, REM sleep is believed to play a crucial role in brain development. Infants, for instance, spend much of their sleep time in the REM phase. It's also during REM sleep that proteins are synthesized, contributing to brain repair and growth.</p>



<p>Though it's known that REM sleep is important, as evidenced by its conservation across many animal species and the negative health impacts linked to its deprivation, many aspects of REM sleep remain a mystery. Sleep, in general, is an active area of research as scientists continue to unveil its many complexities.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-dreaming">More about dreaming&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Dreaming is a fascinating and complex phenomenon that occurs during sleep, particularly during the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) phase, but also during certain stages of non-REM sleep. While we often associate dreams with vivid visual or auditory experiences, dreams can involve any of the senses and a wide range of emotions. Dream content can range from mundane daily activities to bizarre or surreal scenarios.</p>



<p>While everyone dreams, not everyone recalls their dreams. The ability to remember dreams varies greatly among individuals and can be influenced by a variety of factors including sleep stages, interruptions in sleep, stress, and certain lifestyle factors. Some people remember multiple dreams per night, while others recall their dreams infrequently.</p>



<p>There are many theories about why we dream, and understanding the purpose of dreams has been a subject of debate in the scientific and philosophical community for thousands of years. Here are a few key theories:</p>



<h3 id="h-emotional-processing">Emotional processing&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Some believe dreams are a way for the brain to process emotions and experiences from the day. This might explain why certain events or feelings from waking life often recur in dreams.</p>



<h3 id="h-memory-consolidation">Memory consolidation</h3>



<p>Another theory proposes that dreams play a role in consolidating and processing information gathered during the day, integrating it into long-term memory.</p>



<h3 id="h-problem-solving">Problem-solving</h3>



<p>Some theories suggest that dreams are a space where the brain can work on solving problems encountered during waking hours, without the constraints of reality.</p>



<h3 id="h-neural-pathway-stimulation">Neural pathway stimulation</h3>



<p>Dreams might serve as a means for the brain to stimulate and develop neural connections, especially during infancy and early childhood when brain development is most active.</p>



<h3 id="h-psychodynamic-freudian-interpretation">Psychodynamic (Freudian) interpretation</h3>



<p>Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud posited that dreams are a reflection of repressed desires and unconscious thoughts. While this theory has been influential, it is not widely accepted in contemporary neuroscience.</p>



<p>It's important to note that while these theories offer different perspectives, they're not mutually exclusive, and the true purpose of dreams may encompass elements from each theory or be something yet undiscovered.</p>



<p>A relatively new field of research, dream science, employs various technologies such as electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to better understand the neurological underpinnings of dreaming.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Despite advancements in this area, much about the nature and purpose of dreams remains enigmatic and continues to captivate both scientists and the general public.</p>



<p>The study represents the collective efforts of various researchers including the Bochum Biopsychology team, the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, the Max Planck Institute for Neurobiology of Behaviour, the Neurophysiology Department at Ruhr University Bochum, and the Université Claude Bernard Lyon. This cross-institution collaboration adds further robustness and breadth to these intriguing insights into avian sleep processes.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Do birds dream of flying? Scientists say they now know the answer

Sleep is a universal experience that encompasses complex biological functions....

Spider,Web,(cobweb),Varicoloured,Background

<p>In the world of materials science, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-silk-can-help-human-cells-kill-cancer/">spider</a> silk is fascinating. It's a material that's super strong, incredibly light, and remarkably flexible. Yet, despite the tireless efforts of many researchers, the complex process spiders use to create this extraordinary substance remains a mystery.&nbsp;</p>



<p>If scientists can crack the code, synthetic spider silk would revolutionize industries, displacing Kevlar, polyester, and carbon fiber. This material could transform everything from the production of bulletproof vests to construction materials.</p>



<p>Biophysicist Irina Iachina has been studying spider silk since her master's degree at the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en">University of Southern Denmark</a> (SDU). She now carries out her research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, with financial backing from the Villum Foundation.</p>



<p>In collaboration with fellow SDU biophysicist Jonathan Brewer, Iachina has recently made an unprecedented breakthrough in her spider silk investigation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For the first time, the pair has managed to delve into the interior structure of spider silk without having to cut or damage the fiber in any way. The groundbreaking research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/"><em>Scientific Reports</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>"We have utilized multiple advanced microscopy techniques, and we have also created a novel type of optical microscope that allows us to peer deep within a fiber and visualize its internal structure," explained Brewer.</p>



<p>Earlier attempts at analyzing spider silk utilized methods that required slicing open the fiber to capture a cross-section, or even freezing the samples. While these methods provided novel insights, Brewer points out the obvious drawbacks.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The processes invariably altered the natural structure of the silk, potentially skewing the findings. "We aspired to examine pure, unadulterated fibers that haven't been cut, frozen, or manipulated in any manner," said Iachina.</p>



<p>To avoid the need for invasive procedures, the team employed techniques such as Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering, Confocal Microscopy, Ultra-resolution Confocal Reflection Fluorescence Depletion Microscopy, Scanning Helium Ion Microscopy, and Helium Ion Sputtering.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The investigations led to the discovery that spider silk fibers consist of at least two outer lipid (fat) layers. Beyond these layers, within the fiber, there are multitudinous tightly packed fibrils in a linear arrangement.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These fibrils, with diameters between 100 and 150 nanometers, are beyond the measurement capabilities of conventional light microscopes. "They aren't twisted as we might have imagined, which informs us that there's no necessity to twist them while creating synthetic spider silk," said Iachina.</p>



<p>The research was specifically focused on the silk from the golden orb-web spider, Nephila Madagascariensis, which produces two distinct silk types. </p>



<p>Major Ampullate Silk fibers (MAS) is used to build the spider's web and serve as a lifeline. It is robust with a diameter of around 10 micrometers. Minor Ampullate Silk fibers (MiS) is used for auxiliary construction. It is more elastic with a typical diameter of five micrometers.</p>



<p>The analysis has revealed that the MAS silk contains fibrils with a diameter of approximately 145 nanometers, while for MiS, it's around 116 nanometers. These fibrils are comprised of multiple proteins, generated by the spider during silk production.</p>



<h2 id="h-new-insights">New insights</h2>



<p>Gaining an understanding of how these strong fibers are created is crucial, yet the manufacture of these fibers also poses a significant challenge. Given these difficulties, many researchers depend on the spiders themselves to yield the silk required for study.</p>



<p>However, as technology evolves, there's a promising alternative. Many researchers are now turning to the realm of computational science, and Iachina is at the forefront of this transition at MIT. </p>



<p>She is conducting computer simulations to understand the transformation of proteins into silk, a project that promises to unlock new insights into this enigmatic material.</p>



<p>"Currently, I'm engrossed in computer simulations of protein-to-silk transformation. The overarching objective, naturally, is to ascertain how to synthesize artificial spider silk. But beyond this, I'm profoundly committed to fostering a broader understanding of the world we inhabit," said Iachina.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-spider-silk">More about spider silk</h2>



<p>Spider silk is a protein fiber spun by spiders. Spiders use their silk to make webs or other structures, which serve as both a home and an effective trap for catching their prey. There are around 35,000 species of spiders, each spinning its own unique type of silk.</p>



<p>Spider silk is noteworthy for its remarkable characteristics. It's renowned for its strength and resilience. On a weight-to-weight basis, it is stronger than steel and tougher than Kevlar. The exact properties can vary, but all spider silks have some degree of strength, flexibility, and elasticity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The silk also has a very high tensile strength, meaning it can be stretched a long way before it breaks. These traits vary depending on the type of silk a spider produces, with some silks being stronger or more elastic than others.</p>



<p>The silk's strength comes from the highly organized arrangement of proteins within the silk fibers. These proteins form complex structures that lend the silk its incredible durability and elasticity. </p>



<p>In the SDU study, the scientists discovered that spider silk is composed of at least two outer layers of lipids (fats) and numerous tightly packed fibrils inside.</p>



<p>In addition to its mechanical properties, spider silk has a number of other interesting features. It's incredibly lightweight; a strand long enough to circle the Earth would weigh less than 500 grams. </p>



<p>Spider silk is also biodegradable and biocompatible, which opens the possibility for various medical applications such as sutures, artificial ligaments, or tissue scaffolds.</p>



<p>Despite the significant scientific and industrial interest, producing spider silk on a large scale is challenging. Unlike silkworms, spiders can't be farmed for their silk as they tend to be territorial and cannibalistic.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Synthetic production also poses its own set of challenges due to the complex protein structure of the silk. However, ongoing research continues to bring us closer to understanding the secrets of spider silk and how to produce it artificially. If successful, this could lead to a new generation of materials with extraordinary properties.</p>



<p><em>—--</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Scientists are closer to unlocking the secrets of the strongest spider silk in the world

In the world of materials science, spider silk is fascinating....

<p>A new study has made significant strides in the field of evolutionary biology, unveiling proof of climate adaptation at the genomic level within an endangered species - the Southwestern Willow Flycatcher. The groundbreaking research, led by postdoctoral researcher Sheela Turbek of <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a>, is an exceptional demonstration of a wild species adapting to its environmental conditions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Species across the globe are responding to changing climates through either geographical shifts or genetic changes. While experts can observe and document cases where species change locations, genetic adaptations are not as easy to trace.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To investigate, Turbek and her team focused on the Willow Flycatcher, an endangered migratory bird native to the Southwestern United States. The research spanned over a century, comparing the genomes of modern specimens to their historical counterparts, some dating back to the late 1800s.</p>



<p>“We used over 200 contemporary samples from the Willow Flycatcher to scan the genetic material for specific regions of the genome associated with important environmental variables,” said Turbek. “This includes things like monthly precipitation and monthly maximum temperature. Once we identified the regions of the DNA we think are involved in climate adaptation, we extracted the genetic information from those regions in both our historical and our modern San Diego samples.”</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The findings, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/"><em>Nature Climate Change</em></a>, show a discernible increase in the genetic variation in the Willow Flycatcher population in San Diego, California, over the past century. Turbek theorized that the climatic changes in the region, primarily increasing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humidity-increases-urban-heat-stress/">humidity</a> and precipitation, led to these genomic adaptations in the local Willow Flycatcher population.</p>



<p>Turbek's study builds upon the foundational research conducted by Kristen Ruegg and her team at CSU, who had been exploring similar genetic adaptations for roughly a decade. However, it wasn't until recent technological advancements in genome sequencing in the 2010s that a project of this magnitude became feasible.</p>



<p>Ruegg's preliminary research suggested that the Willow Flycatcher, comprising four different subspecies, had locally adapted to varying climate conditions across geographical regions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Turbek emphasized the importance of this, stating: "The Willow Flycatcher is made up of four different subspecies, and the subspecies in the southwest has faced really precipitous population declines and was listed as federally endangered in 1995." She pointed out the urgency in understanding these adaptive mechanisms, particularly in the face of potential climate-induced extinction.</p>



<p>However, historical samples often contain degraded or contaminated DNA, making it difficult to establish genetic adaptation with a high degree of certainty. This challenge was compounded by the minuscule quantity of DNA available from museum samples, often tiny clippings from a toe pad.</p>



<p>“Museums will send us a little clipping from a toe pad that often has really low DNA concentrations so it’s hard to acquire enough reads of the DNA to have a good idea of what the genetic code looks like,” said Turbek.</p>



<h2 id="h-genetic-adaptations-confirmed">Genetic adaptations confirmed&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Nevertheless, after several years of meticulous genomic sequencing and comparative analysis between historical and contemporary DNA samples, the team finally succeeded. They unveiled compelling evidence that the Southwestern Willow Flycatcher had indeed increased its genetic variation over time.</p>



<p>“We think that it was actually mixing or gene flow into the population from neighboring populations that helped recover the gene pool of the Willow Flycatchers in the San Diego area,” said Ruegg.</p>



<p>“Human-induced climate change is really having a drastic effect on the reproductive activities of many species, and it is going to drive a lot of organisms to the brink of extinction,” said Turbek. “So, the fact that we can document this amount of adaptation over a century-long time scale is somewhat encouraging in that these birds seem to be responding to the amount of climate change that has already occurred. It can help us better predict what’s going to happen in the future, and how species might respond.”</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-willow-flycatcher">More about the Willow Flycatcher</h2>



<p>The Southwestern Willow Flycatcher is classified as an endangered species primarily due to habitat loss and fragmentation. This small bird, which relies heavily on riparian ecosystems (near rivers or streams) for breeding, has seen much of its habitat destroyed or altered due to various human activities.</p>



<p>Some of the key factors leading to habitat loss include:</p>



<h3 id="h-urban-development-and-agriculture">Urban development and agriculture&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The growth of cities, roads, and farmland often encroaches on the riparian ecosystems that the flycatchers inhabit.</p>



<h3 id="h-water-management">Water management</h3>



<p>Dams, water diversions for irrigation, and other alterations of river systems can lead to the loss of the vegetation that flycatchers need for nesting.</p>



<h3 id="h-invasive-species">Invasive species</h3>



<p>Non-native plants, such as tamarisk (saltcedar), can change the structure of the vegetation in riparian areas, making them unsuitable for flycatcher nesting.</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate change</h3>



<p>Changes in weather patterns can further degrade the flycatcher's habitat and lead to reduced food availability.</p>



<h3 id="h-predation-and-brood-parasitism">Predation and brood parasitism</h3>



<p>Nest predators, such as snakes and larger birds, as well as brood parasites like the Brown-headed Cowbird (which lays its eggs in the nests of other birds, leading to the other birds raising the cowbird's offspring), can also threaten Willow Flycatcher populations.</p>



<p>These challenges have led to significant population declines, leading to the Southwestern Willow Flycatcher to be listed as an endangered species in 1995.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Genes and climate: Hidden adaptations of an endangered flycatcher

A new study has made significant strides in the field...

<p>For those curious about the origins of modern-day dolphins, researchers have unveiled a fascinating new species of toothed whale. The Olympicetus thalassodon, an early form of toothed whale, or odontocete, swam along the North Pacific coastline about 28 million years ago.</p>



<p>This new discovery is another significant piece in the evolutionary puzzle. It sheds light on the early evolution and diversity of contemporary <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/dolphin-everything-you-need-to-know-about-these-magical-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-and-porpoises-need-protection-from-fisheries-bycatch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">porpoises</a>, and other toothed whales.</p>



<p>The principal investigator in this study was Jorge Velez-Juarbe. He is a noted paleontologist from Puerto Rico. Jorge is also an Associate Curator of Marine Mammals at the <a href="https://nhm.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County</a>.</p>



<p>Dr. Velez-Juarbe explains, "Olympicetus thalassodon and its close relatives show a combination of features that truly sets them apart from any other group of toothed whales. Some of these characteristics, like the multi-cusped teeth, symmetric skulls, and forward position of the nostrils make them look more like an intermediate between archaic whales and the dolphins we are more familiar with."</p>



<h2>This study discovered other toothed whale species</h2>



<p>Interestingly, the study described Olympicetus thalassodon and other odontocetes as well. The researchers identified two additional closely related species from the same fossil collection.</p>



<p>These were found in a geologic formation known as the Pysht Formation. This formation is located along the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/olympic-national-park-washington/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Olympic Peninsula</a> coastline in Washington State. It dates back to between 26.5 to 30.5 million years ago.</p>



<p>The research study further revealed that the Olympicetus and its related species belonged to a unique family of whales known as the Simocetidae. This family, known only from the North Pacific region, is one of the earliest branching groups of toothed whales.</p>



<h2>Simocetidae – a very early group of toothed whales</h2>



<p>The Simocetidae shared their prehistoric world with an unusual range of fauna. This fauna is represented by fossils found in the Pysht Formation. These include plotopterids (an extinct group of flightless, penguin-like birds), bizarre desmostylians, early relatives of seals and walruses, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-ancient-whales-had-both-teeth-and-baleen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toothed baleen whales</a>.</p>



<p>These ancient whales exhibited diversity in body size, teeth, and other feeding-related structures, which suggest that they might have had different methods of acquiring prey and preferred different types of prey.</p>



<p>Dr. Velez-Juarbe adds, "The teeth of Olympicetus are truly weird, they are what we refer to as heterodont, meaning that they show differences along the tooth row. This stands out against the teeth of more advanced odontocetes whose teeth are simpler and tend to look nearly the same."</p>



<h2>Many questions remain unanswered</h2>



<p>Despite these discoveries, there are still many unanswered questions regarding these ancient marine creatures. It remains unknown whether these early toothed whales could <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-must-shout-over-underwater-noise-to-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">echolocate</a>. This is a skill their present-day relatives possess.</p>



<p>The team could connect certain skull features to echolocating-related structures, such as a melon. Previous studies suggest that neonatal individuals might not have been able to hear ultrasonic sounds.</p>



<p>These findings have motivated researchers to investigate the earbones of subadult and adult individuals in the future to see if this ability developed with age. This ongoing work continues to reveal the rich history of these fascinating marine mammals.</p>



<p>The scientific report revealing this discovery was published in the open-access journal<a href="https://peerj.com/articles/15576/">, PeerJ Life and Environment</a>.</p>



<h2>More about toothed whales</h2>



<p>Toothed whales, also known as odontocetes, are a subgroup of cetaceans. This group includes over 70 species such as dolphins, porpoises, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-a-beluga-whale/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">belugas</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/narwhals-are-modifying-their-behavior-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">narwhals</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-project-aims-to-help-humans-talk-to-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm whales</a>.</p>



<p>They are defined by the presence of teeth, as their name suggests. They are distinct from baleen whales, which have filter-feeding systems in their mouths instead of teeth.</p>



<p>The lineage that led to today's toothed whales began around 50 million years ago with the evolution of the first whales, or cetaceans, from even-toed ungulates (artiodactyls). These were a group of mammals that also includes deer, cows, and hippos.</p>



<h3>Evolving features better suited for aquatic life</h3>



<p>These early cetaceans, like Pakicetus and Ambulocetus, were semi-aquatic and lived in near-shore environments. Over millions of years, these early whales evolved and diversified. They developed features better suited for life in the water and gradually becoming fully aquatic.</p>



<p>Around 40 million years ago, the cetacean lineage split into two groups: the Mysticeti (baleen whales) and the Odontoceti (toothed whales). The toothed whales further diversified into a variety of different forms. Each new form adapted to different marine environments and developed specialized features for hunting and feeding.</p>



<h3>Which species was the first to develop echolocation?</h3>



<p>One of the distinguishing characteristics of toothed whales is their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toothed-whales-use-vocal-fry-to-catch-their-prey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">echolocation ability</a>. Echolocation is the use of sound to locate and identify objects underwater. This adaptation has proven to be invaluable for navigating murky waters and hunting prey.</p>



<p>For instance, dolphins have gained special recognition for their sophisticated echolocation skills. It's currently unknown when exactly this ability evolved. However, evidence suggests that ancient toothed whales like Squalodon, which lived about 30 million years ago, may have possessed this capability.</p>



<h3>Toothed whales come in all shapes and sizes</h3>



<p>Throughout their history, toothed whales have shown an impressive range of size and body form. The smallest toothed whale, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaquita-porpoises-may-have-a-good-chance-at-recovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vaquita</a>, is only about 5 feet long. At the other end of the spectrum, the sperm whale is the largest. It can reach lengths of over 60 feet.</p>



<p>Some toothed whales, like the now-extinct Livyatan melvillei, had massive teeth for hunting large prey. Others, like the modern beaked whales, have small teeth used for catching squid and fish.</p>



<p>Many species of toothed whales have gone extinct over the millions of years of their existence. Some of these extinct species provide key information about the evolution and history of this group.</p>



<p>For instance, the recent discovery of the Olympicetus thalassodon, an ancient odontocete species from 28 million years ago, has revealed interesting information about the early diversification of toothed whales.</p>



<p>Scientists continue to discover new fossil species that fill in the gaps in our understanding of these remarkable creatures.</p>

Newly-discovered species of toothed whale is the earliest ancestor of modern dolphins

For those curious about the origins of modern-day dolphins, researchers...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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