<p>If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.</p>



<p>In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. </p>



<p>But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



<p>In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.</p>



<p>The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.</p>



<p>Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.</p>



<p>“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. </p>



<p>“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



<p>The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.</p>



<p>“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. </p>



<p>“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”</p>



<p>When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



<p>This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.</p>



<p>“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. </p>



<p>“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



<p>Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.</p>



<p>That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.</p>



<p>“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



<p>The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. </p>



<p>But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.</p>



<p>That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a></em>.</p>



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

<p>We've all seen the ant communication system in action. Picture this: You spot a lone ant skittering across your kitchen floor. In a week's time, it feels like the entire colony has set up camp in your home. But even after setting traps, you only manage to catch a handful, and the rest vanish without a trace.</p>



<p>Such mysterious behavior now has a plausible explanation, thanks to a study published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(23)00544-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientific journal, Cell, on June 14</a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-does-ant-communication-work-from-long-distances">How does ant communication work from long distances?</h2>



<p>The research focuses on the role of danger-signaling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modified-plants-produce-pheromones-to-confuse-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pheromones</a>. These are chemical cues ants use to communicate with their fellow nestmates. They then try and determine how these triggers activate a specific section of an ant’s brain, altering the behavior of the whole colony.</p>



<p>Taylor Hart of <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Rockefeller University</a>, the lead author of the study, highlighted the complexity of these tiny creatures' social structures and communication systems.</p>



<p>"Humans aren't the only animals with complex societies and communication systems," Hart says, pointing out that "over the course of evolution, ants have evolved extremely complex olfactory systems compared to other insects, which allows them to communicate using many different types of pheromones that can mean different things."</p>



<h2>Communication hub found in ant brains is similar to humans</h2>



<p>In essence, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-ants-make-a-huge-contribution-to-forest-regeneration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> possess a unique communication hub in their brains that's similar to humans. This nerve center decodes alarm pheromones, or "danger signals", from other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/there-are-2-5-million-ants-for-each-human-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a>.</p>



<p>Interestingly, it appears that this part of the ant's brain may be more specialized than in other insects like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-create-mental-maps-to-find-their-way-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honeybees</a>, which have been previously believed to rely on several brain parts to react to a single pheromone.</p>



<p>Corresponding author Daniel Kronauer also of The Rockefeller University, describes this as a "sensory hub in the ant brain that all the panic-inducing alarm pheromones feed into."</p>



<h2>How the ant communication study was conducted</h2>



<p>The researchers scanned the brain activity of clonal raider ants exposed to danger signals, using an engineered protein named GCaMP. This protein binds to calcium ions, illuminating brain activity. The resulting fluorescent chemical compound is visible on high-resolution microscopes specially adapted for the task.</p>



<p>During the scans, it was observed that the danger signals triggered activity in only a small section of the ants' brains. Despite this, the ants exhibited immediate and intricate responses, leading researchers to term these reactions as the "panic response". Such behaviors included fleeing, evacuating the nest, and transporting their offspring to safer locations.</p>



<h2>Different colony sizes use different pheromones</h2>



<p>Ant species with different colony sizes employ different pheromones to relay diverse messages. "In the wild, clonal raider ants usually have a colony size of just tens to hundreds of individuals, which is pretty small as far as ant colonies go," Hart explains.</p>



<p>This might be why these smaller colonies display 'panic responses' - their primary goal is survival, and they cannot afford to lose many members. In contrast, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/35-million-year-old-army-ant-is-the-oldest-on-record/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">army ants</a>, cousins of the clonal raider ants, boast of much larger colonies, sometimes reaching up to hundreds of thousands or even millions of individuals, making them more aggressive.</p>



<p>Irrespective of the species, ants within a colony segregate themselves by caste and role, each with slightly different anatomical features. For this study, the researchers selected clonal raider ants due to their ease of control, focusing on one sex within one caste and role (female worker ants) for consistency.</p>



<p>This controlled approach will facilitate the observation of widespread patterns, paving the way for a clearer understanding of neural differences among different castes, sexes, and roles in ant colonies, thereby enabling researchers to decipher how different ant brains process the same signals.</p>



<p>Hart shares that "we can start to look at how these sensory representations are similar or different between ants." Adding to this, Kronauer notes that they're looking into the "division of labor. Why do individuals that are genetically the same assume different tasks in the colony? How does this division of labor work?"</p>



<h2>Reshaping our understanding and appreciation of ants</h2>



<p>This groundbreaking research on ant communication is set to reshape our understanding of these industrious insects. It reveals how the intricate societal structures we observe in human societies might not be unique to us but are mirrored, in their own way, within these minute creatures.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-colonies-behave-like-neural-networks-when-making-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ant colonies</a>, despite their seemingly simple existence, operate on a complex system of communication and organization that closely resembles the way larger, more advanced societies function. By uncovering the complex olfactory systems ants have evolved and the sophisticated "panic responses" they can trigger, this study allows us to delve deeper into the fascinating, unseen world of ants.</p>



<p>In doing so, it emphasizes that there is still so much to learn about these creatures and how they organize their colonies. It's not only about the size or the aggression level of a colony but also about the intricate communication systems that underpin their existence.</p>



<h2>Many unanswered questions remain about ant communication</h2>



<p>Studying how ants interpret and respond to danger signals is a step forward, but it's only the tip of the iceberg. The different caste systems, roles, and even the sex within a colony can influence how they react.</p>



<p>By isolating female worker ants from the clonal raider ants species, the researchers have created a platform that ensures consistency in their observations. This will undoubtedly pave the way for future studies exploring how different factors influence ant behavior.</p>



<p>The authors of the study, Hart and Kronauer, hint at what the future might hold. They envisage a world where we can compare the sensory representations across different ant species and look deeper into the division of labor within the colonies.</p>



<p>"Why do individuals that are genetically the same assume different tasks in the colony? How does this division of labor work?" Kronauer asks, pointing to the tantalizing questions the study raises.</p>



<p>Unraveling the mysteries of ant communication could provide us with valuable insights into ant societies, which are among the most successful on the planet, and could potentially have far-reaching implications on our understanding of animal behavior and societal structures.</p>



<p>Who knew that the unassuming ant skittering across your kitchen floor could be part of such an intricate and complex societal structure?</p>



<h2>More about ants</h2>



<p>Ants are fascinating creatures. They are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae, part of the order Hymenoptera, which also includes bees and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wasps-are-undervalued-as-predators-and-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wasps</a>.</p>



<p>They are notable for their structured colony life, where they form organized societies that are sometimes compared to human ones due to their complexity. Here's an overview of their characteristics, behavior, and more:</p>



<h3>Diversity</h3>



<p>There are over 12,000 identified species of ants worldwide, though estimates suggest that the actual number of species could be much higher, potentially over 20,000. They inhabit a diverse range of habitats, including grasslands, forests, deserts, and even the cold climes of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/arctic-haze/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic Circle</a>.</p>



<h3>Anatomy</h3>



<p>Ants, like all insects, have a hard exoskeleton that protects their bodies. They have three distinct body parts: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. On their head, they have two strong mandibles for carrying food and other items, two antennae for touch and smell, and compound eyes for detecting movement and light levels.</p>



<h3>Colony Structure</h3>



<p>Most ant colonies contain three castes: workers, males, and queens. Worker ants, which are typically sterile females, do the majority of the labor within the colony, such as foraging for food, caring for the young, and defending the nest. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queens-have-a-secret-weapon-to-slow-down-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queens</a> are fertile females responsible for laying all of the eggs in a colony. Males have only one role: to mate with the queens.</p>



<h3>Ant communication</h3>



<p>Ants communicate using pheromones, sound, and touch. They use pheromones to leave trails for other ants to follow, often to food sources, and to signal danger or alert the colony to various situations. Some species also use sounds or physical gestures to communicate.</p>



<h3>Cooperation and Labor Division</h3>



<p>Ant colonies display a remarkable level of cooperation and division of labor, with different ants having specific jobs depending on their age, size, or caste. This division of labor and cooperative behavior allows ant colonies to accomplish tasks that would be impossible for individual ants, such as taking down large prey or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-build-higher-nests-when-there-are-no-visible-landmarks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building intricate nests</a>.</p>



<h3>Diet and Foraging</h3>



<p>Ants have a varied diet, and their food preferences can differ greatly depending on the species. Some are omnivorous, eating a mix of plant and animal material, while others may specialize in seeds, fungi, or other insects. Many species have a foraging strategy where worker ants will search for food and then leave a pheromone trail for other ants to follow once they find a source of food.</p>



<h3>Impact on the Environment</h3>



<p>Ants play a crucial role in the environment. They help with soil aeration and the decomposition of organic material, contribute to pollination, and can impact the populations of other insects through the use of their special ant communication system.</p>



<h3>Relation with Humans</h3>



<p>While ants can be seen as pests, especially when they invade homes in search of food, they can also be beneficial. For example, certain species of ants are used in agriculture to control pests.</p>



<p>Despite their small size, ants are remarkable for their ability to form complex societies, their cooperative behavior, and their impact on ecosystems. They've also been the subject of extensive research, as scientists seek to understand their social structures, ant communication methods, and collective problem-solving abilities.</p>

Ants have a communications system that closely resembles mental telepathy

We've all seen the ant communication system in action. Picture...

<p>Contrary to popular belief, not all kangaroos have always hopped. That's the surprising revelation from a detailed analysis by scientists from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> and the University of Uppsala.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Although we typically think of hopping as the signature move of kangaroos, the researchers assert that extinct kangaroos employed varied locomotion methods, from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sharks-are-walking-to-find-more-favorable-conditions/">walking</a> on two legs to traveling on all fours.</p>



<p>The findings, published in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/talc20/current"><em>Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology</em></a>, challenge our traditional view of kangaroo evolution. We're accustomed to associating kangaroos with their iconic hopping.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the researchers show that being a kangaroo isn't strictly about endurance-hopping. In fact, the large-bodied kangaroos from the not-so-distant past were experts at striding and traversing.</p>



<h2 id="h-results-of-the-kangaroo-hop-study-were-a-great-surprise">Results of the kangaroo hop study were a great surprise</h2>



<p>The study undertakes an extensive examination of kangaroo locomotion throughout history, spanning 25 million years. Focusing on kangaroos and their relatives, including wallabies, tree-kangaroos, and rat-kangaroos, it uncovers new insights about their movement. Newly analyzed limb and ankle bone metric data support previous locomotor hypotheses.</p>



<p>These discoveries suggest that high-speed endurance hopping, a hallmark of today's large-bodied kangaroos, wasn't a common trait among extinct species. It might have been unique to a few large-bodied lineages, like the direct ancestors of today's red and grey kangaroos.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The plethora of kangaroo gaits ceased to exist following the Late Pleistocene extinctions, which wiped out larger animals across various continents.</p>



<h2 id="h-extinct-kangaroos-had-different-ways-of-moving-around">Extinct kangaroos had different ways of moving around</h2>



<p>Yet, the ancient locomotion records speak of a different era. They unveil a period when extinct kangaroos exhibited a broader spectrum of mobility. Early kangaroos, from the late Oligocene to the middle Miocene era (approximately 25 to 15 million years ago), likely used quadrupedal bounding, climbing, and slower hopping.</p>



<p>This contrasts with current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kangaroos-could-help-reduce-methane-emissions-from-cattle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kangaroos</a> that resort to quadrupedal movement at slower speeds. The large species also use their tail as a fifth limb in a pentapedal motion. Interestingly, these primitive kangaroo forms were small-bodied, weighing under 12kg. </p>



<h2 id="h-kangaroo-hopping-is-a-challenge-as-body-size-increases">Kangaroo hopping is a challenge as body size increases</h2>



<p>Kangaroos exceeding 20kg didn't appear until the late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-site-in-australia-indicates-abundant-life-during-the-miocene/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miocene</a> (around 10 million years ago), correlating with increased aridity and the spread of openly vegetated habitats.</p>



<p>As body size increases, hopping becomes a challenge. Consequently, later kangaroo species developed specialized anatomies that enabled efficient high-speed hopping for bodies over 35kg. No modern kangaroo exceeds 100kg, and many extinct forms were much heavier, making hopping physically impossible.</p>



<p>The lead author of the study, Professor Christine Janis from Bristol's School of Earth Sciences, stated, "We want people to appreciate that large kangaroos were much more diverse as recently as 50 thousand years ago, which may also mean that the habitat in Australia then was rather different from today. In fact, modern large hopping kangaroos are the exception in kangaroo evolution.”</p>



<p>As kangaroos grew in size during the late Miocene, they explored different movement strategies. While some kangaroos specialized in large-bodied endurance hopping, others experimented with alternative locomotion forms.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, the protemnodons, dubbed "giant wallabies," primarily relied on quadrupedal movement, rarely hopping. In contrast, the sthenurine short-faced kangaroos, which split from modern kangaroos around 15 million years ago, embraced bipedal striding.</p>



<h2 id="h-new-data-discovered-backs-up-this-kangaroo-hop-theory">New data discovered backs up this kangaroo hop theory</h2>



<p>The team's new data on tibia (shin bone) and calcaneum (ankle bone) lengths bolster these locomotor hypotheses. Adrian O’Driscoll, a former Master's student in the Palaeobiology program at Bristol, and current PhD student at the University of York, supported these findings.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Especially supported by this new data is the notion of bipedal striding rather than hopping in the sthenurines. Their calcanea lack the anatomy - a long calcaneal heel - that would help resist rotational forces at the ankle experienced during hopping, suggesting a more-erect limb posture instead of the crouched posture essential for hopping," said O’Driscoll.</p>



<p>"The assumption that increasing continent-wide aridity after the end of the Miocene selectively favored hopping kangaroos is overly simplistic," explained Professor Janis. "Hopping is only one of many gait modes employed by kangaroos both in the past and today, and the fast endurance hopping of modern kangaroos should not be regarded as some 'evolutionary pinnacle'."</p>



<p>"What makes modern endurance-hopping kangaroos appear so unusual is the geologically recent extinction of similar animals who moved in different ways. We are perhaps then in need of a rival Australian airline that covers shorter distances than QANTAS and boasts a novel motif of a striding sthenurine!"</p>



<p>This breakthrough study underscores the vast diversity of kangaroo locomotion over millions of years. It highlights the richness of kangaroo evolution, which extends beyond hopping. Notably, the research provides a fresh perspective on the remarkable adaptability of kangaroos in response to changing environmental conditions. As such, it rewrites a significant part of Australia's fascinating prehistoric narrative.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-kangaroos">More about kangaroos</h2>



<p>Kangaroos are marsupials from the family Macropodidae, a group that also includes wallabies and pademelons. They are native to Australia and are recognized globally for their unique mode of locomotion: hopping. Here are some key points about kangaroos:</p>



<h3 id="h-species-and-distribution">Species and distribution</h3>



<p>There are four main species of kangaroo: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-red-kangaroos-grow-faster-when-exposed-to-dingoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Red Kangaroo</a>, Eastern Grey Kangaroo, Western Grey Kangaroo, and Antilopine Kangaroo. All are endemic to Australia and each species has its preferred habitat, ranging from forests and woodland areas to savannas and desert-like plains.</p>



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Kangaroos are large marsupials, with the Red Kangaroo being the largest, capable of standing over 6 feet tall. They have powerful hind legs designed for hopping and long, muscular tails for balance. Their short forelimbs, equipped with sharp claws, are used for foraging and grooming.</p>



<h3 id="h-locomotion-and-the-kangaroo-hop">Locomotion and the kangaroo hop</h3>



<p>Kangaroos are famous for their hopping, which is an efficient way of travelling great distances in search of food and water. The hopping motion is powered by their strong hind legs and supported by their tail, which acts as a counterbalance. At slow speeds, they use a unique form of locomotion called "pentapedal locomotion," where they push forward on their tail and forelimbs while bringing their hind legs forward.</p>



<h3 id="h-reproduction-and-life-cycle">Reproduction and life cycle&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Kangaroos are marsupials, meaning they give birth to underdeveloped young, called joeys, which continue developing outside the womb, usually in the mother's pouch. A newborn joey is tiny, about 1 inch long, and crawls into the pouch to latch onto a teat for nourishment. It will remain in the pouch for about nine months (red kangaroo) before starting to venture out for short periods.</p>



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Kangaroos are herbivores, eating a variety of vegetation, with a preference for grasses. They have a chambered stomach, similar to cattle and sheep, where bacteria break down the cellulose in the plant matter they eat.</p>



<h3 id="h-behavior-and-social-structure">Behavior and social structure&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Kangaroos are social animals, typically found in groups called "mobs," "troops," or "courts." These are usually made up of 10 or more individuals, including males, females, and joeys. Males, known as boomers, will often fight with each other over potential mates by boxing with their forepaws or kicking with their hind legs.</p>



<h3 id="h-cultural-significance">Cultural significance</h3>



<p>The kangaroo is a symbol of <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/simultaneous-atmospheric-rivers-over-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australia</a> and appears on the country's coat of arms, currency, and is used by some of its major organizations, including the national airline, Qantas.</p>



<p>Research continues into the life and history of kangaroos, as highlighted by your earlier enquiry about kangaroo locomotion through history. While this is a general overview of kangaroos, there is a lot more detail to each of these points.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Not all kangaroo ancestors hopped as a means of locomotion

Contrary to popular belief, not all kangaroos have always hopped....

<p>Imagine being a bumblebee. Your existence is a vibrant interplay of colors and fragrances, each guiding you as you forage for nectar and pollen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>It's a world of excellent vision, where the intricate structure of compound eyes distinguishes UV and a majority of colors, save red. Beyond this, there are three additional eyes specially designed to discern polarized light.</p>



<p>Yet, the bumblebee's sense of smell steals the show. It's about a hundred times more sensitive than ours, capable of detecting illegal drugs or explosives at airports. It can even recognize early signs of pregnancies, cancers, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hibernating-bears-could-help-treat-human-diabetes/">diabetes</a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-scientists-learned-about-bumblebee-smell">What the scientists learned about bumblebee smell</h2>



<p>Now, scientists have revealed another extraordinary capability in these buzzing creatures - bumblebees use their exceptional sense of smell to locate their nests, particularly when the landscape suddenly changes. This latest revelation is reported in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1155223"><em>Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience</em></a>.</p>



<p>Sonja Eckel, a PhD student at the Department of Neurobiology of <a href="https://www.uni-bielefeld.de/(en)/">Bielefeld University</a> in Germany, who is the first author of this research, explained, "Here we show that bumblebees rely on their own scent marks, which they deposit at their nest entrance while leaving for a foraging trip, to find back home when the visual cues are not sufficiently reliable."</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-bumblebee-smell-study-was-conducted">How the bumblebee smell study was conducted</h2>



<p>In order to learn more about bumblebee smell, Eckel and her team observed the homing behavior of buff-tailed bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) in the laboratory. In the wild, these bumblebees nest in vacant mouseholes, concealed beneath grass or leaves. In the lab, the bees were trained to identify their nest entrance using two sets of visual cues inside a circular, enclosed flight arena.</p>



<p>The first set of cues included three black vertical stripes, each measuring 12cm wide and 85cm long, contrasted against the white walls of the arena. The second set comprised three cylinders, each 2.5cm wide and 15cm high, arranged in a triangle around the entrance hole.</p>



<p>The arena floor offered no visual cues. It featured a chaotic red-and-white pattern that appeared as black and white to the bumblebees. Following some training, the worker bees navigated directly to the entrance after trips to an outer chamber where they had been provided with nectar and pollen.</p>



<h2 id="h-focusing-on-bumblebees-scent-glands">Focusing on bumblebees’ scent glands</h2>



<p>Bumblebees are covered in several scent glands, which leave a chemical trace whenever they touch any surface, including their nest entrance. The researchers captured these scent marks by placing a glass ring around the entrance, which the foragers inevitably crossed when entering or exiting the nest.</p>



<p>The scientists then deceived the bees, shifting both sets of visual landmarks suddenly and independently. The landmarks now indicated false locations of the entrance. The real entrance was concealed, and none of the returning foragers could locate it.</p>



<p>Based on the conflicting landmarks, the researchers measured the time and distance at which the returning foragers hovered around either false location for the entrance. If a forager lingered around a spot for a longer duration and flew at a shorter average distance from it, she was considered more focused on that spot as the likely location of the entrance.</p>



<p>Typically, foragers seemed equally focused on either false location, indicating they relied on both sets of visual landmarks to fruitlessly try and locate their nest. However, when the researchers placed the glass ring with bumblebee scent marks around either location, foragers overwhelmingly concentrated on the false location suggested by the scent marks, hinting that bumblebee smell was guiding them.</p>



<h2 id="h-bumblebees-have-a-backup-plan-if-they-get-lost">Bumblebees have a backup plan if they get lost</h2>



<p>The researchers concluded that bumblebee foragers utilize both their sense of smell and vision to find their way back home, particularly when visual information is conflicting.</p>



<p>"While visual information is perceived over larger distances and leads a bumblebee towards the approximate location of the nest, scent marks are used to pinpoint the exact location of the nest entrance in the near range. Most likely, physical contact is necessary to identify the scent," explained Eckel.</p>



<p>"Our chemical analysis showed that this scent is a bouquet of hydrocarbons, fatty acids, and other substances, such as esters and alcohols. Many of these substances are known to be used by bumblebees in other behavioral contexts, also by other insect species.”</p>



<h2 id="h-next-step-learning-how-bumblebees-combine-their-senses">Next step: learning how bumblebees combine their senses</h2>



<p>Eckel and her team are eager to carry forward this research. They aim to study how bumblebees learn and combine different sensory cues. The objective is to understand how these creatures distinguish between various behaviorally relevant targets, such as the nest hole and food sources.</p>



<p>Eckel's research breaks new ground in our understanding of bumblebees, providing exciting insights into their navigational strategies. More than just charming garden visitors, bumblebees prove to be complex creatures, masterfully navigating their world using a combination of visual cues and scent marks.</p>



<p>This deep dive into the fascinating world of bumblebees and the way that bumblebees smell offers not only a greater appreciation for these humble insects but also potential inspiration for new technological applications.&nbsp;</p>



<p>From drug detection to aiding in medical diagnoses, understanding the bumblebee's sense of smell could hold significant implications for many fields of study. And who knows what further secrets these buzzing navigators of the insect world might yet reveal?</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-bumblebees">More about bumblebees</h2>



<p>Bumblebees, belonging to the genus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/multiple-habitats-must-be-protected-to-save-bumblebees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bombus</a> within the bee family Apidae, are robust and large-bodied insects known for their distinctive buzzing sound and important role in the environment. Here are some key aspects about bumblebees:</p>



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h3>



<p>Bumblebees are larger and rounder than many other bee species. They're generally characterized by their black and yellow body hairs, often in bands, although some species have orange or red on their bodies, or may be entirely black.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat-and-range">Habitat and range&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Bumblebees are native to almost every continent on Earth, but they are most common in temperate climates. They are versatile and can be found in a wide range of habitats, including forests, meadows, gardens, and even in the high arctic tundra.</p>



<h3 id="h-social-structure">Social structure&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Bumblebees live in colonies typically consisting of a single queen and worker bees. The queen is the mother of all bees in the colony. The workers, which are all female, perform various tasks such as foraging for food (pollen and nectar), feeding the young, and defending the hive.</p>



<h3 id="h-life-cycle">Life cycle&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The life cycle of a bumblebee colony begins in the spring when a queen, who has overwintered and survived in a safe place, emerges and finds a suitable location for her nest. She starts the colony by laying eggs that were fertilized the previous year.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The larvae that hatch are fed by the queen and eventually develop into worker bees. The workers then take over the task of foraging and caring for the new larvae, allowing the queen to focus on laying more eggs. As summer ends, the queen lays some eggs that develop into males and new queens. These leave the nest to mate, and the cycle continues.</p>



<h3 id="h-role-in-the-ecosystem">Role in the ecosystem&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Bumblebees are vital <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-existed-long-before-flowers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>, meaning they help plants reproduce. When a bumblebee lands on a flower to gather nectar, pollen from the flower sticks to the hairs on the bee's body. When the bee lands on the next flower, some of this pollen rubs off, pollinating the flower. Many plants, including several crops, depend on this process for fertilization.</p>



<h3 id="h-unique-characteristics">Unique characteristics&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Bumblebees are capable of a process known as buzz pollination, in which the bee grabs onto a flower's stamen and vibrates its flight muscles rapidly. This vibration dislodges pollen that would otherwise have remained trapped.</p>



<h3 id="h-sensory-abilities-and-bumblebee-smell">Sensory abilities and bumblebee smell</h3>



<p>Bumblebees have an excellent sense of smell and vision. They can distinguish UV light and most colors except red. They also rely on their sense of smell to locate their nest and even recognize early signs of pregnancies, cancers, or diabetes, as research shows.</p>



<h3 id="h-threats">Threats</h3>



<p>Bumblebee populations are facing significant decline worldwide due to factors like habitat loss, climate change, pesticide exposure, and diseases. This is a concern not only because of their ecological importance as pollinators but also because of their role in supporting wild flora and agricultural systems.</p>



<h3 id="h-conservation">Conservation&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Conservation efforts for bumblebees focus on preserving their natural habitats, reducing the use of harmful pesticides, and promoting practices that support their populations, like planting native flowering plants.</p>



<p>These are some of the key aspects about bumblebees. They are truly fascinating creatures, playing a crucial role in our natural world.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Bumblebees have an incredible sense of smell to find their way home

Imagine being a bumblebee. Your existence is a vibrant interplay...

French,Bulldog,Sleeping,On,The,Coach,With,Teddy,Bear

<p>In an interesting new study, researchers at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a> have put to test a novel technique for diagnosing sleep-disordered breathing in dogs, leveraging a neckband specifically engineered for human sleep apnea diagnostics.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jvim.16783"><em>Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine</em></a>, showed that sleep-disordered breathing is considerably more widespread in short-snouted dogs compared to those with longer snouts.</p>



<h2 id="h-brachycephalic-dogs-are-most-susceptible">Brachycephalic dogs are most susceptible</h2>



<p>Among the roster of favorite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-owners-are-happier-than-people-who-dont-have-pets/">pets</a>, we commonly find breeds like French bulldogs, pugs, and other brachycephalic dogs. Owing to selective breeding, these dogs have distinctively shorter noses and flat faces. However, these unique features also make them more prone to heat, overexertion, and a gamut of respiratory issues.</p>



<p>Moreover, it is found that brachycephalic dogs are frequently afflicted by episodes of sleep-disordered breathing, echoing symptoms of human obstructive sleep apnea due to the blockage of the upper airway.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Such episodes induce irregular breathing patterns due to the relaxation of upper airway muscles, thereby causing sleep disruptions and yielding daytime fatigue. The impact of sleep apnea can significantly degrade both human and canine wellbeing.</p>



<p>“Sleep apnea places people at considerable risk of conditions such as hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Sleep affects the body’s immune system, hormone secretion, and metabolism. Sufficient, sound sleep is vital for quality of life. For these reasons and others, we are interested in canine sleep too," said Iida Niinikoski, a doctoral researcher at the University of Helsinki's Faculty of Veterinary Medicine</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>“Previous methods for investigating sleep apnea have required dogs to sleep either while connected to all sorts of equipment or within a certain type of box in a lab. This has made research challenging and limited our knowledge of dog sleep apnea," said Niinikoski.</p>



<p>The solution to this predicament arrived in the form of the University of Helsinki Lung Insight research group's investigation. The group studied canine sleep patterns using a neckband system initially crafted to diagnose human sleep apnea.</p>



<p>Measurements were conducted in the comfort of the dogs' homes, using the screening device. The findings were striking - brachycephalic dogs exhibited a significantly higher count of sleep-disordered breathing events compared to their long-snouted counterparts. Moreover, the short-nosed dogs were found to snore more often.</p>



<p>The neckband system has proven to be a user-friendly tool for assessing sleep-disordered breathing in dogs. Though its usage is currently confined to research participants, the future may see it being widely employed for diagnosing sleep apnea in dogs in diverse contexts.</p>



<p>The next phase of the research focuses on identifying factors that predispose dogs to sleep apnea. “Good sleep is vital for the health of both humans and our animal friends," said Niinikoski.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-brachycephalic-dogs">More about brachycephalic dogs</h2>



<p>Brachycephalic dogs are breeds that have a uniquely short, broad skull shape, giving them a distinctive flat-faced or short-nosed appearance. This characteristic is the result of specific breeding practices.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Some popular examples of brachycephalic breeds include the English Bulldog, French Bulldog, Boston Terrier, Pug, Pekingese, Shih Tzu, and Boxer.</p>



<p>While many people find the pushed-in face and large, round eyes of these dogs endearing, the anatomical alterations required to create this appearance can lead to a host of health problems, collectively known as Brachycephalic Syndrome. This syndrome is characterized by a combination of upper airway abnormalities that can cause respiratory distress, among other health issues.</p>



<p>Some of the specific issues related to the brachycephalic anatomy include:</p>



<h3 id="h-stenotic-nares">Stenotic nares&nbsp;</h3>



<p>This is a congenital condition in which the dog's nostrils are too narrow or small, making it difficult for the dog to breathe through its nose.</p>



<h3 id="h-elongated-soft-palate">Elongated soft palate&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The soft part of the roof of the mouth is too long and can obstruct the airway during breathing.</p>



<h3 id="h-tracheal-stenosis">Tracheal stenosis&nbsp;</h3>



<p>A condition where the trachea (or windpipe) is narrower than normal, making it hard for the dog to breathe.</p>



<h3 id="h-hypoplastic-trachea">Hypoplastic trachea&nbsp;</h3>



<p>A developmental disorder where the trachea is narrower than it should be.</p>



<h3 id="h-distichiasis">Distichiasis</h3>



<p>This condition occurs when an extra row of eyelashes grow on the inside of the eyelid, which can irritate and harm the eye.</p>



<h3 id="h-skin-disorders">Skin disorders</h3>



<p>Brachycephalic dogs often have deep skin folds that can lead to dermatitis and other skin conditions if not kept clean and dry.</p>



<p>Apart from these physical challenges, brachycephalic breeds are also more susceptible to heatstroke due to their difficulty in panting effectively, which is a primary canine cooling behavior.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, their facial structure can cause dental and eye problems, as their shortened jaw can lead to crowded teeth and their prominent eyes are more susceptible to injury and disease.</p>



<h2 id="h-brachycephalic-breeds-remain-very-popular">Brachycephalic breeds remain very popular&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Despite these health challenges, brachycephalic breeds are generally known for their friendly, gentle nature, and they often make excellent companions. They typically require less exercise than more athletic breeds, but owners should still ensure that these dogs get regular, moderate activity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The healthcare needs of brachycephalic dogs can be demanding, so potential owners should be prepared for possible high veterinary costs and the need for specialized care.</p>



<p>There has been increasing awareness and discussion in the veterinary and breeding communities about the ethical implications of breeding brachycephalic dogs due to the health problems associated with their physical characteristics. Some countries and kennel clubs have also started to implement guidelines and rules to promote the breeding of healthier, less extreme versions of these breeds.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Dogs can have sleep apnea, too

In an interesting new study, researchers at the University of...

<p>In a pioneering study, researchers from Nanjing University and the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> have discovered that the early ancestors of reptiles, birds, and mammals might have given birth to live young. This counters the prevailing belief that the secret to the evolutionary success of amniotes - a group of vertebrates whose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-ever-dinosaur-found-incubating-eggs-with-embryos/">embryos</a> develop within a protective membrane inside an egg - was the hard-shelled egg (see image <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/amniotic-egg_credit-Mike-Benton.png">here</a>).</p>



<p>The research team analyzed a mix of 51 fossil species and 29 contemporary species. They classified these species as either oviparous (laying hard or soft-shelled eggs) or viviparous (birthing live offspring).&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/"><em>Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</em></a>, present an intriguing twist. Evidence of viviparity and extended embryo retention (EER) cropped up across all major evolutionary branches of Amniota. This included Mammalia, Lepidosauria (lizards and their kin), and Archosauria (dinosaurs, crocodilians, birds).</p>



<p>EER refers to a process where the mother retains the young inside her for varying periods. This duration likely depends on optimal survival conditions. Despite the conventional notion that the hard-shelled egg represents a pinnacle of evolutionary innovation, this study proposes EER as the primary protective mechanism for these species.</p>



<h2 id="h-the-evolutionary-journey-toward-the-egg">The evolutionary journey toward the egg</h2>



<p>Michael Benton, a professor in Bristol’s School of Earth Sciences, described the evolutionary journey. He noted that the first tetrapods, which evolved limbs from fish fins, were generally amphibious in nature. They depended on proximity to water for feeding and reproduction, akin to modern amphibians like frogs and salamanders.</p>



<p>The advent of amniotes around 320 million years ago marked a significant shift. With the evolution of waterproof skin and mechanisms to control water loss, they could break free from water bodies.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"But the amniotic egg was the key. It was said to be a ‘private pond’ in which the developing reptile was protected from drying out in the warm climates and enabled the Amniota to move away from the waterside and dominate terrestrial ecosystems," explained Professor Benton.</p>



<h2 id="h-challenging-the-current-textbooks">Challenging the current textbooks</h2>



<p>However, this traditional perspective has now been challenged, according to project leader Professor Baoyu Jiang. Biologists had observed that many lizards and snakes exhibit flexible reproductive strategies, shifting between oviparity and viviparity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Sometimes, closely related species show both behaviors, and it turns out that live-bearing lizards can flip back to laying eggs much more easily than had been assumed," said Professor Jiang.</p>



<p>Fossil evidence, too, has indicated a predilection for live birth. "Many of them were live-bearers, including the Mesozoic marine reptiles like ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs," noted Dr. Armin Elsler.</p>



<p>He also mentioned the case of a choristodere from the Cretaceous of China, which underscored the recurring interplay between oviparity and viviparity across various groups, not just in lizards.</p>



<p>Dr. Joseph Keating elaborated on the pervasiveness of EER among today's vertebrates: "Their young can be released, either inside an egg or as little wrigglers, at different developmental stages."&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dr. Keating also speculated on the potential ecological advantages of EER. The strategy could potentially allow mothers to birth their young when conditions are most favorable - when temperatures are warm enough, and food supplies are abundant.</p>



<p>The "reptile egg" model once lauded in textbooks now seems to be obsolete, according to Professor Benton. He argued that the earliest amniotes likely employed EER instead of laying hard-shelled eggs. This enabled them to safeguard the developing embryo within the mother for an adjustable duration, thereby postponing birth until conditions were favorable.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Whether the first amniote babies were born in parchment eggs or emerged as live, quick little insect-eaters remains a mystery," said Professor Benton. "However, this adaptive parental protection gave them an edge over the earlier tetrapods."</p>



<h2 id="h-study-upends-long-held-beliefs">Study upends long held beliefs</h2>



<p>This research provides a profound revision of our understanding of early vertebrate evolution. It replaces the idea of the hard-shelled egg as the key protective measure with the concept of EER.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The latter not only provides the offspring with a safeguarding environment but also allows for birth to be delayed until the most suitable conditions are met. This significantly enhances the offspring's chances of survival and, consequently, the successful continuation of the species.</p>



<p>The evidence from both fossil and living species sheds new light on the reproductive flexibility in the animal kingdom. It underlines how nature's strategies for survival can be far more diverse and adaptable than previously assumed.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-shaking-the-foundations-but-still-much-to-learn">Shaking the foundations, but still much to learn</h2>



<p>This aspect, which seems to be particularly relevant among lizards and snakes, suggests that the reproductive methods of these creatures are much more plastic and reactive to environmental conditions than we understood before.</p>



<p>In conclusion, the research shakes the foundations of the conventional belief surrounding the evolution of amniotes. The study highlights how early reptiles, birds, and mammals might have leaned more toward live birth than egg-laying.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Although it raises as many questions as it answers, one thing is certain: this finding injects fresh perspective into our understanding of the complex journey of life on Earth. The story of amniotes and their reproduction methods is evidently more intricate and fascinating than we ever imagined.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-amniotes">More about amniotes</h2>



<p>Amniotes are a group of tetrapods (four-limbed animals with vertebrae) that includes reptiles, birds, and mammals. The defining characteristic of amniotes is the presence of the amnion during embryonic development—a thin, tough membrane that surrounds the embryo, enclosing it in an amniotic cavity filled with fluid.</p>



<p>Here's a deeper look into what makes amniotes unique:</p>



<h3 id="h-evolutionary-origin">Evolutionary origin&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Amniotes first appeared during the Carboniferous period, roughly 312 million years ago. The earliest amniotes, like Casineria and Westlothiana, were small, lizard-like animals. They were among the first land-dwelling vertebrates, evolving from amphibian ancestors.</p>



<h3 id="h-amniotic-egg">Amniotic egg</h3>



<p>The name "amniote" comes from the amniotic egg, which is a key evolutionary adaptation. The egg contains several extraembryonic membranes: the amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois. The amnion, as mentioned before, surrounds the embryo in a fluid-filled cavity, protecting it from desiccation and physical shock. The chorion facilitates gas exchange. The yolk sac provides nourishment from the yolk, while the allantois deals with waste management and also aids in respiration.</p>



<h3 id="h-water-independent-reproduction">Water-independent reproduction&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The evolution of the amniotic egg allowed amniotes to reproduce away from bodies of water, unlike their amphibian ancestors which needed to return to water to lay their eggs. This was a significant development that helped amniotes spread across the globe and colonize a variety of terrestrial habitats.</p>



<h3 id="h-internal-fertilization">Internal fertilization&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Amniotes also exhibit internal fertilization, meaning the egg is fertilized inside the body of the female. This is another adaptation that allowed amniotes to become fully terrestrial.</p>



<h3 id="h-diverse-classification">Diverse classification</h3>



<p>There are two main classes of amniotes: the synapsids and the sauropsids. Synapsids include mammals and their extinct relatives. Sauropsids include birds, reptiles, and their extinct relatives, such as dinosaurs. This division is based on differences in the number and arrangement of temporal fenestrae (openings) in the skull.</p>



<h3 id="h-thermoregulation">Thermoregulation&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Amniotes can be ectothermic (relying on external sources to regulate body temperature) like most reptiles, or endothermic (regulating body temperature internally) like birds and mammals.</p>



<h3 id="h-variety-in-size-and-habitats">Variety in size and habitats</h3>



<p>Amniotes can range from very small creatures such as shrews and hummingbirds, to some of the largest animals ever to have existed, like the blue whale and the long-necked, long-tailed dinosaurs known as sauropods. They have colonized nearly all habitats on Earth, from the deepest oceans (like whales) to the air (like birds), and from tropical rainforests to polar regions.</p>



<h3 id="h-anatomical-features">Anatomical features&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Other common features of amniotes include a more advanced jaw structure compared to amphibians, a high metabolic rate, a well-developed nervous system, and complex social behaviors.</p>



<p>More research is being done to understand the evolution and adaptation mechanisms of amniotes, including studies related to their reproductive strategies.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Did the reptile or the egg come first? Scientists have changed their minds

In a pioneering study, researchers from Nanjing University and the...

<p>Researchers in England have made a breakthrough in understanding the emotional lives of horses. In a recent study, they have pinpointed distinct facial expressions that differentiate between frustration and disappointment in horses.</p>



<p>The research team is composed of Claire Ricci-Bonot and Daniel Simon Mills from the <a href="https://www.lincoln.ac.uk/">University of Lincoln</a>. The study involved a series of tests that centered on the availability of food as a reward, which they conducted on a diverse group of 31 horses, aged 2 to 23.</p>



<p>“There is good reason to suppose that horses live in an emotionally complex world,” the researchers wrote in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/applied-animal-behaviour-science"><em>Applied Animal Behaviour Science</em></a>.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-horses-have-an-intricate-communication-system">Horses have an intricate communication system</h2>



<p>According to the researchers, horses are not just <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-animals-suppress-their-personalities-for-safety/">social animals</a>. They also possess an intricate system of communication that involves subtle visual signals like eye direction, ear position, and, importantly, facial expressions.</p>



<p>However, the experts noted a prevalent issue: the common misunderstanding of horses' negative emotions. Most of the time, the emotions horses express are misread or overlooked altogether. This problem is partly because much of our understanding of horse expressions comes from anecdotes, lacking in scientific evidence.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>Ricci-Bonot and Mills set out to bring science into this arena. They trained the horses to anticipate a food reward in a controlled environment. The food, in the form of pellets, was placed inside a clear acrylic screen. After a wait of 10 seconds, the screen was moved back, making the food accessible.</p>



<p>Once the horses had familiarized themselves with this process and the 10-second wait, the researchers conducted tests under three different conditions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The first scenario created anticipation of the reward, considered a positive emotional state. The second was a frustration phase, where the horses had to wait for a minute before they could reach the food. The third stage was a disappointment phase, where the horses found no food after the wait. The second and third situations were considered negative emotional states.</p>



<p>To accurately gauge the horses' reactions, all interactions were videotaped for later examination. These videos were analyzed using the Horse Facial Action Coding System (EquiFACS), which objectively records facial movements based on muscle contractions.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>While the researchers couldn't pin down facial markers for anticipation, they found a set of nine distinct actions that occurred under the scenarios of frustration and disappointment. When frustrated, horses often revealed more of the whites of their eyes, rotated their ears more, and tended to turn their heads to the left more frequently than when disappointed.</p>



<p>On the other hand, disappointment was characterized by increased blinking, nostril-lifting, showing the tongue more often, and more frequent chewing behaviors. These horses also exhibited a tendency to lick the feeder. Frustration, rather than disappointment, prompted horses to bite the feeder.</p>



<h2 id="h-gender-also-plays-a-role-in-how-horses-emote-their-feelings">Gender also plays a role in how horses emote their feelings</h2>



<p>In addition, the researchers found a gender difference in the disappointment phase, with female horses blinking more than their male counterparts.</p>



<p>According to Ricci-Bonot and Mills, these findings show that specific facial expressions can potentially help discern a horse's emotional state. “The results highlight how there may be different qualities of a given emotional valence (frustration and disappointment) which can be distinguished from the facial expressions shown at the time," they wrote.</p>



<p>However, the researchers added a note of caution, stating that these results might only be applicable in feeding situations, underlining the need for further research. Another question raised by their study is whether the anticipation of food is truly a positive event for horses, as they were unable to identify facial markers for this state.</p>



<p>The study marks a significant stride in understanding horse emotions, and their research could open the door to improving our interactions and overall relationship with these remarkable animals.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-horses">More about horses&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Horses, or Equus ferus caballus, are large mammals within the family Equidae. Domesticated over 5,000 years ago, they have been used by humans in a wide variety of roles, including transportation, work, sport, companionship, and therapy.</p>



<h3 id="h-anatomy-and-physiology">Anatomy and physiology</h3>



<p>Horses are known for their size and strength. They typically stand around 4.5-6 feet at the shoulder and can weigh anywhere from 900 to 2,200 pounds, although size can vary greatly among different breeds. Horses have a well-muscled body, a long neck, and a head with large, expressive eyes.</p>



<p>A horse's teeth can tell you a lot about its age because they continue to grow throughout most of a horse's life. Horses have a digestive system designed for grazing, with a small stomach but a very large cecum where fiber from grasses and hay is broken down.</p>



<p>Horses have hooves made of keratin, the same substance that forms human hair and nails. These hooves require regular care from a farrier to prevent foot problems. Their legs are strong and designed for speed, with most of the power coming from large muscles in the hindquarters.</p>



<h3 id="h-behavior">Behavior</h3>



<p>Horses are social herd animals and establish a hierarchy known as a "pecking order." They communicate with each other through vocalizations, body language, and facial expressions. Horses are crepuscular, which means they are most active during dawn and dusk.</p>



<p>Horses are prey animals and have a strong flight or fight response. Their large eyes, set on the side of their head, give them a wide field of vision to spot predators. They also have excellent hearing and a good sense of balance.</p>



<h3 id="h-breeds-and-uses">Breeds and uses&nbsp;</h3>



<p>There are over 300 different breeds of horses, which can be categorized into three types: hot-bloods, cold-bloods, and warm-bloods. Hot-bloods, like Arabians and Thoroughbreds, are known for their speed and endurance.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Cold-bloods, like Clydesdales and Shires, are heavier and known for their strength and calm demeanor. Warm-bloods, a mix of the two, are often used in riding competitions, such as show jumping and dressage.</p>



<p>Horses have been used by humans for various purposes, including agriculture, warfare, transportation, and companionship. Today, they're commonly seen in equestrian sports, police work, and therapeutic riding programs. They're also often kept as pets or used for leisure activities.</p>



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



<p>Horses are seasonal breeders, most often in the spring and summer. The gestation period lasts about 11 months, and the mare usually gives birth to a single foal. Twins are rare. Within a few hours of birth, the foal is able to stand and run.</p>



<h3 id="h-health-and-lifespan">Health and lifespan</h3>



<p>Horses have a lifespan of around 25 to 30 years, although many live into their 30s and a few into their 40s. They require regular veterinary care, including vaccinations and deworming. Common health problems include colic, lameness, and respiratory diseases.</p>



<p>Horses also need a balanced diet and plenty of exercise to stay healthy. They are grazing animals and will naturally spend many hours a day eating grass or hay. They need access to clean water, mineral salt licks, and possibly supplemental feeds, depending on their work level and health status.</p>



<h3 id="h-cognition">Cognition</h3>



<p>Horses are intelligent animals capable of problem-solving and learning through conditioning. They also show emotional responses and have good memories. Research, like the study mentioned earlier, is continuously deepening our understanding of horse cognition and emotional life.</p>



<p>Horses are fascinating, complex creatures with a rich history alongside humans. Their significant contributions to various aspects of human civilization, from transportation and agriculture to sports and warfare, have made them an integral part of our history and culture. Moreover, their unique combination of strength, grace, and intelligence has endeared them to people worldwide.</p>



<h3 id="h-emotional-intelligence">Emotional intelligence</h3>



<p>Horses display a remarkable level of emotional intelligence. They can read and respond to human emotions, making them effective in therapeutic settings. This sensitivity to emotions is also apparent in their herd dynamics, where they communicate through a sophisticated system of body language and vocal cues.</p>



<h3 id="h-riding-and-training">Riding and training&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The ability to ride horses has been a valuable skill throughout history. Riding styles vary greatly, including Western (often used for ranch work and rodeo events) and English (used in sport disciplines like show jumping, dressage, and eventing).</p>



<p>Training a horse requires understanding its mentality as a prey animal. Positive reinforcement and gentle methods tend to be the most effective and are part of a philosophy known as "natural horsemanship."</p>



<h3 id="h-impact-on-culture-and-history">Impact on culture and history&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Horses have deeply impacted human culture and history. Horse-drawn chariots and cavalry units were key components of many ancient armies. Horsepower played a crucial role in agricultural societies for plowing fields and transportation.</p>



<p>In the modern age, while their role has decreased with mechanization, horses remain symbolically potent. They appear in numerous mythologies, artworks, literature, and are often associated with qualities like power, grace, nobility, and freedom.</p>



<h3 id="h-preservation-and-conservation">Preservation and conservation&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Many breeds of horses have come under threat due to changes in agricultural practices and mechanization. Efforts are being made to conserve these breeds and maintain genetic diversity within the species. Organizations worldwide are dedicated to the welfare and protection of horses, aiming to prevent cruelty and neglect.</p>



<h3 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Understanding horses, their behavior, physiology, and history helps us appreciate these magnificent creatures more fully. It can also enhance the ways we train, work with, and care for horses. From Ricci-Bonot and Mills' study of horse emotions to ongoing conservation efforts, our relationship with horses continues to evolve, striving towards more informed, respectful, and empathetic interactions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Despite the vast knowledge we've already acquired, horses remain fascinating subjects of study, continuing to captivate us with their strength, grace, and complexity.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Horses have complex emotions, but interpreting them has proven difficult

Researchers in England have made a breakthrough in understanding the...

<p>A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a> has recently found a significant connection between social organization and cognitive skills in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkey-stone-tools-look-like-early-human-artifacts/">monkeys</a>, with the most socially tolerant species of macaques having greater self-control than their more authoritarian and violent counterparts. These findings could also shed new light on how humans evolved to become more cooperative and cognitively sophisticated.</p>



<p>Through a series of cognitive touchscreen tasks, the experts evaluated the performance of 66 macaques from the&nbsp;<a href="https://cfm.har.mrc.ac.uk/">Medical Research Council Center for Macaques</a>&nbsp;in the UK and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.euprim-net.eu/management/consortium_UdS-CdP_photo_banner.htm">Center of Primatology of the University of Strasbourg</a>&nbsp;in France to identify interspecies differences in impulsive behaviors.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The experiments revealed that Tonkean macaques, which get along with each other the most and tend to form diverse, complex relationships, exhibited better overall control of distractions, emotions, and actions compared to the less socially-tolerant long-tailed and rhesus macaques.</p>



<p>“This relationship between social tolerance and cognitive abilities could explain why Tonkean macaques are better at managing complex relationships with others,” said study lead author Louise Loyant, a doctoral student in Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology at Portsmouth.</p>



<p>“This is important, as it improves our understanding of our own social evolution. Macaques live in complex communities, not too dissimilar from our own, and we can learn a lot from them. Existing research on human inhibitory control, or self-control, suggests the better a person is at managing their emotions and reactions, the more successful they’re likely to be in life; whether that be in relationships, work, or just generally. Our results support this hypothesis.”</p>



<h2 id="h-environmental-pressures-play-a-role">Environmental pressures play a role</h2>



<p>Moreover, the investigation highlighted the important role ecological factors play on self-control skills. According to the researchers, the different risks and environmental pressures faced by each species have likely shaped their behaviors, emotions, and impulsivity levels.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, long-tailed and rhesus macaques living in areas with a greater number of predators usually display more reactive and cautious behaviors, while Tonkean macaques that face lower risks of predation exhibit quieter and less reactive behaviors. Thus, both social and ecological factors are likely to influence self-control skills in primates.</p>



<p>“A macaque living in a more competitive environment would benefit from learning how to contain inappropriate behaviors, like feeding or mating, if they’re around others higher up in the social pyramid. But there’s also the hypothesis that our closest primate species have evolved over time to have increased brain size and higher cognitive performances, including better self-control,” said senior author Marine Joly, an expert in the evolution of human and non-human primates at Portsmouth.</p>



<p>“Our findings support both of these potential explanations, as well as suggest that species living in more complex societies might have better socio-cognitive skills too, including perception, attention, memory, and action planning.”</p>



<p>However, since the study has some limitations – such as the small sample size and some prior cognitive testing experience among the species - further research is needed involving a larger cohort and a closer evaluation of monkeys’ complex behaviors. The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10071-023-01789-8"><em>Animal Cognition</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-self-control">More about self control</h2>



<p>Self-control, often referred to as self-regulation, is the ability to manage one's behavior, emotions, and thoughts that often leads to long-term benefits. It is considered a crucial skill in achieving personal and professional success.</p>



<p>This trait enables individuals to resist immediate desires and impulses in favor of actions that align with their long-term goals. Self-control is also closely related to the concept of willpower, the capacity to resist short-term temptations to meet long-term goals.</p>



<p>Self-control has been extensively studied in various disciplines such as psychology, neuroscience, and behavioral economics. In psychology, for instance, the concept of self-control is a key element of many theories of personality and development. Some psychological research, such as the famous "marshmallow test", has demonstrated that early self-control abilities can predict important outcomes later in life, such as academic success and physical health.</p>



<p>In the context of social interactions and group living, self-control can also refer to the ability to regulate one's behavior in ways that are socially acceptable or beneficial for group cohesion.</p>



<p>However, self-control is not always beneficial. There can be circumstances where excessive self-control can lead to over-regulation, denying oneself the experience of pleasure or joy, or to mental health issues such as anxiety and depression. Thus, a balance is necessary.</p>



<p>Self-control is not a fixed trait; it can be improved with practice and training. Techniques like mindfulness meditation, cognitive behavioral therapies, and certain types of physical exercise are often suggested to improve self-control.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Monkeys with greater social tolerance have more self-control

A team of scientists led by the University of Portsmouth...

<p>A recent exploration into the prehistoric past by a research team from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has unveiled fascinating aspects about the Rhynchosaur, an ancient reptile that roamed our planet between 250 and 225 million years ago, predating the era of dinosaurs.</p>



<p>Rhynchosaurs are often clouded in mystery. Imagine ancient creatures, roughly the size of modern-day sheep, prevailing during the Triassic Period, an era characterized by its warm climate and hardy vegetation (see image <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/ancient-reptile_rhynchosaur-Bentonyx_Credit-Mark-Witton.jpg">here</a>).</p>



<h2 id="h-how-researchers-studied-the-rhynchosaur">How researchers studied the Rhynchosaur&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To pierce this veil of obscurity, the Bristol team embarked on an investigative journey, scrutinizing specimens unearthed in Devon. They utilized cutting-edge CT scanning to examine the wear and tear on the rhynchosaur's teeth as they munched through their meals, and to observe how new teeth were continually added at the back of the dental rows as the creatures grew.</p>



<p>The results, published in the latest edition of <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pala.12654"><em>Palaeontology</em></a>, reveal an intriguing yet grim aspect of these early plant-eaters' lives. They would most likely starve to death in their old age as a result of the relentless wear on their teeth caused by tough vegetation.</p>



<p>“I was amazed to find that in many cases they dominated their ecosystems. If you found one fossil, you found hundreds. They were the sheep or antelopes of their day, and yet they had specialized dental systems that were apparently adapted for dealing with masses of tough plant food," said Professor Mike Benton, the team leader from Bristol’s School of Earth Sciences.</p>



<h2 id="h-rhynchosaur-fossils-are-a-rare-find">Rhynchosaur fossils are a rare find</h2>



<p>It was Dr. Rob Coram who discovered the fossils in Devon. “The fossils are rare, but occasionally individuals were entombed during river floods. This has made it possible to put together a series of jaw bones of rhynchosaurs that ranged in age from quite young, maybe even babies, through adults, and including one particularly old animal, a Triassic old-timer whose teeth had worn right down and probably struggled to get enough nutrition each day," said Dr. Coram.</p>



<p>Thitiwoot Sethapanichsakul, who examined the jaws for his MSc in Palaeobiology, explained the wear patterns in more detail: “As the animals aged, the area of the jaws under wear at any time moved backwards relative to the front of the skull, bringing new teeth and new bone into wear. They were clearly eating really tough food such as ferns, that wore the teeth down to the bone of the jaw, meaning that they were basically chopping their meals by a mix of teeth and bone.”</p>



<p>However, there was a limit to this system. “Eventually, after a certain age – we’re not sure quite how many years – their growth slowed down and the area of wear was fixed and just got deeper and deeper," said Dr. Coram.</p>



<p>"It’s like elephants today – they have a fixed number of teeth that come into use from the back, and after the age of seventy or so they’re on their last tooth, and then that’s that. We don’t think the rhynchosaurs lived that long, but their plant food was so testing that their jaws simply wore out and presumably they eventually starved to death.”</p>



<h2 id="h-played-a-crucial-role-in-triassic-ecosystems">Played a crucial role in Triassic ecosystems</h2>



<p>Rhynchosaurs served as a significant cog in the Triassic ecosystems as life reemerged from the world’s largest mass extinction that marked the end of the Permian Period. These creatures played a crucial role in this resurrection, setting the stage for new types of ecologies where dinosaurs, and later mammals, would reign supreme, thereby laying the groundwork for the modern world.</p>



<p>Upon comparing earlier rhynchosaurs, like those from Devon, with later ones from Scotland and Argentina, the researchers also unearthed how their dentitions evolved over time, facilitating two spurts of diversification in the Middle and then the Late Triassic. But these evolutionary triumphs ultimately found their terminus as changes in climate and available vegetation paved the way for dinosaurs to replace rhynchosaurs as the dominant species.</p>



<h2 id="h-incredibly-interesting-narrative-emerged-from-the-research-results">Incredibly interesting narrative emerged from the research results</h2>



<p>The findings from this study take us on a deep dive into the life of a creature that has long since vanished from our planet, but whose story remains embedded in the rocks beneath us. It's a narrative of success, adaptation, struggle, and ultimately, extinction - a sobering reminder of nature's impermanence and the constant flux of life on Earth.</p>



<p>Yet, the importance of the rhynchosaurs goes beyond their own species. By studying them, we gain a broader understanding of the Earth's history and the forces that have shaped it.&nbsp;</p>



<p>From the debris of their downfall, a new world rose - a world of dinosaurs, and much later, a world dominated by mammals. The teeth of these ancient herbivores reveal not only the story of their lives and deaths but also the dawn of the world as we know it today.</p>



<p>Professor Benton’s fascination and admiration for these ancient creatures are clear. "I first studied the rhynchosaurs years ago, and I was amazed to find that in many cases they dominated their ecosystems." That domination may be long past, but the legacy of the rhynchosaurs continues to be felt in the ongoing saga of life on Earth.</p>



<p>This research also reminds us that the world is not static. Species rise and fall, climates change, and life adapts. The extinction of the rhynchosaurs paved the way for the rise of the dinosaurs, who themselves would later give way to mammals. It's a cycle that continues today, and by understanding it, we can better prepare for the changes still to come.</p>



<p>So, let us remember the rhynchosaurs - not just as the "sheep of their day," but as crucial players in the grand tapestry of Earth's history, serving a vital role in the ever-evolving narrative of life on our planet.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-triassic-period">More about the Triassic period</h2>



<p>The Triassic Period, occurring between approximately 252 million and 201 million years ago, marks the beginning of the Mesozoic Era, often referred to as the "Age of Dinosaurs". However, the Triassic itself was a time of transition and recovery, following the end-Permian mass extinction event, the most devastating extinction event in Earth's history.</p>



<h3 id="h-here-s-an-overview-of-what-we-know-about-the-triassic-period">Here's an overview of what we know about the Triassic Period:</h3>



<h4 id="h-life-after-the-mass-extinction">Life After the Mass Extinction</h4>



<p>The Permian-Triassic extinction event killed off an estimated 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species. Life in the Triassic period, therefore, began with relatively few species. However, this allowed for a great deal of diversification and adaptive radiation, as species evolved to fill the ecological niches left vacant by the extinction event.</p>



<h4 id="h-flora">Flora</h4>



<p>The Triassic saw the continued dominance of gymnosperms, a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers. The first true mammals also appeared during this period. Ferns, horsetails, and ginkgo trees were prevalent, and it was during the Triassic that the first types of modern conifer trees emerged.</p>



<h4 id="h-fauna">Fauna</h4>



<p>This period saw the emergence and evolution of many significant groups of organisms. The first true mammals appeared during this period, as did the first dinosaurs. However, dinosaurs weren't the dominant terrestrial vertebrates in the Triassic; this role was instead filled by other reptiles such as the aforementioned rhynchosaurs and various archosaurs. In the seas, fish continued to diversify, and marine reptiles like ichthyosaurs and nothosaurs became prevalent. The first flying vertebrates, the pterosaurs, appeared in the late Triassic.</p>



<h4 id="h-climate">Climate</h4>



<p>The Triassic Period began in the aftermath of the greatest ice age known. The period was mostly hot and dry, and it had no ice caps at the poles. The interior of the supercontinent Pangaea was likely arid, with great seasonal fluctuations between hot and cold, given the vast distance from the interior of the supercontinent to the ocean.</p>



<h4 id="h-geology">Geology</h4>



<p>The Triassic was a time of significant tectonic activity. The supercontinent Pangaea was still assembled, but the first signs of stress that would eventually lead to its breakup in the Jurassic started to appear. This included the rifting of the supercontinent along what is now the eastern coast of North America and the western coast of Europe and Africa.</p>



<h4 id="h-extinction">Extinction</h4>



<p>The Triassic period ended with another mass extinction event, the causes of which are still a matter of scientific debate. Climate change, asteroid impact, and volcanic activity have all been suggested as potential culprits. This extinction led to the dominance of dinosaurs in the ensuing Jurassic Period.</p>



<p>This is a brief overview and, as with all areas of paleontology, our understanding of the Triassic period continues to evolve as new discoveries are made and existing data is reinterpreted. By examining the fossil record, scientists can piece together a picture of what life might have been like during this important period in Earth's history.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Ancient reptile Rhynchosaur died off before the dinosaurs due to weak teeth

A recent exploration into the prehistoric past by a research...

<p>How do the lifestyle and environment of our four-legged companions impact their health and aging? Professor Noah Snyder-Mackler from the <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">ASU</a> School of Life Sciences poses this question, underlining the fact that the shorter lifespan of dogs and the intensive care they receive from their owners make them perfect models for studying the effects of social and physical environment on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flat-faced-dogs-remain-wildly-popular-despite-severe-health-risks/">health</a>, aging, and survival.</p>



<p>Now, an enormous survey and data collection effort involving over 21,000 dog owners has shed light on key social determinants that influence the health and aging of our beloved canines.</p>



<h2 id="h-dogs-need-other-dogs">Dogs need other dogs</h2>



<p>The findings indicate that a dog's social support network has the most substantial impact on their health outcomes. In fact, social support is found to be five times more influential than financial factors, household stability, or the owner's age.</p>



<p>Under the guidance of Professor Snyder-Mackler, PhD student Bri McCoy, and MSc student Layla Brassington, the team embarked on an extensive analysis of the collected data, which represented a staggering 21,410 dogs.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers aimed to identify the vital social factors for a healthy lifestyle, a significant stride in the Dog Aging Project's community-science endeavor.</p>



<h2 id="h-the-dog-aging-project">The Dog Aging Project</h2>



<p>For those unfamiliar, the Dog Aging Project is a collaborative effort spearheaded by the University of Washington and Texas A&amp;M School of Medicine.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The initiative includes over a dozen institutions around the country, including ASU. It aims to understand how genes, lifestyle, and the environment influence aging and disease outcomes. So far, more than 45,000 dogs from across the U.S. are enrolled in the project.</p>



<p>Daniel Promislow, the co-director and principal investigator, proudly describes the study's broad reach. He notes that the data gathered through the Dog Aging Project will allow follow-up studies to explore how and why environmental factors affect dogs' health.</p>



<p>The ASU team used a large survey that posed a variety of questions to dog owners about themselves and their pets. The inquiries spanned numerous areas, including physical activity, environment, dog behavior, diet, medications and preventatives, health status, and owner demographics.</p>



<h2 id="h-five-key-factors-that-influence-a-dog-s-wellbeing">Five key factors that influence a dog’s wellbeing</h2>



<p>From these responses, the team identified five key factors - neighborhood stability, total household income, social time with children, social time with animals, and owner age - that combined to shape a dog's social environment and were associated with canine wellbeing.</p>



<p>The analysis revealed that the environment in which a dog lives significantly impacts their health, disease diagnoses, and physical mobility, even after accounting for the dog's age and weight. Specifically, financial and household adversity correlated with poorer health and reduced physical mobility.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Conversely, more social companionship, such as living with other dogs, was associated with better health. The influence of social support was five times stronger than financial factors.</p>



<p>McCoy emphasizes the importance of social companionship for a dog's health, mirroring the importance of social connections among humans and other animals.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-finds-a-few-unexpected-results">Study finds a few unexpected results</h2>



<p>Two unexpected findings emerged from the study, which is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/emph/eoad011/7161464"><em>Evolution Medicine and Public Health</em></a>. First, an inverse relationship was found between the number of children in the household and dog health. Brassington explains that dedicating more time to children likely results in less time spent with the "furry" children. McCoy frames this as a "resource allocation" issue, rather than children being harmful to dogs.</p>



<p>The second counterintuitive finding highlighted the role of finance in disease diagnoses. Dogs from wealthier households tend to have more diseases diagnosed, likely due to more frequent veterinary care and the financial ability to afford additional tests.</p>



<p>The study's results were consistent across both pure and mixed breed dogs, as well as specific breeds. However, as the data was obtained through owner-reported surveys, there may be errors, biases, or misinterpretations.</p>



<h2 id="h-next-steps-for-the-research-team">Next steps for the research team</h2>



<p>The research team's next steps involve exploring potential links between survey data and underlying physiology. Professor Snyder-Mackler is interested in understanding how these external factors are translating into tangible health effects on dogs.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"We now want to understand how these external factors are getting under the skin to affect the dog's health - how is the environment altering their bodies and cells?" he noted.</p>



<p>The researchers are keeping a close eye on a subgroup of around 1,000 dogs from the larger study. These animals are part of a focused cohort where blood and other biological samples are being collected over several years to uncover these environmental impacts.</p>



<p>"In future research, we will look at electronic veterinary medical records, molecular and immunological measures, and at-home physical tests to generate more accurate measures of health and frailty in the companion dog," said Professor Snyder-Mackler.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-s-conclusions-are-very-clear">Study’s conclusions are very clear</h2>



<p>Still, the central takeaway from the study is clear. "Having a good network, having good social connectedness is good for the dogs that are living with us, said McCoy. "But the structure and equities that are in our society also have a detrimental effect on our companion animals as well. And they are not the ones thinking about their next paycheck or their health care.”</p>



<p>In conclusion, the findings could serve as a prescription for people to lead healthier lives. After all, what is good for our dogs may also be good for us.</p>



<p>“Overall, our study provides further evidence for the strong link between the social environment and health outcomes that reflects what is known for humans," said Professor Snyder-Mackler.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"We need to focus more attention to the role of the social environment on health and disease, and continued investigation of how each environmental factor can contribute to more years of healthy living (i.e., 'healthspan') in both companion dogs and humans."</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-bond-between-dogs-and-humans">More about the bond between dogs and humans</h2>



<p>The bond between dogs and humans is an enduring relationship that dates back thousands of years. Dogs were among the first animals to be domesticated, and this long-shared history has resulted in a deep emotional and social bond between the two species.</p>



<h3 id="h-companionship">Companionship&nbsp;</h3>



<p>At the heart of this bond is the notion of companionship. Dogs, often referred to as "man's best friend," are cherished members of many families worldwide. They provide their owners with emotional support, companionship, and often contribute to their sense of safety and security.</p>



<p>This connection goes beyond simple companionship. Numerous studies have shown that having a dog can provide a range of health benefits. For example, dog owners tend to have lower blood pressure, lower cholesterol, and are less likely to experience heart attacks.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dogs also promote a more active lifestyle, as they require regular exercise. This increased physical activity can benefit the cardiovascular system and help maintain a healthy weight.</p>



<h3 id="h-psychological">Psychological&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Psychologically, the bond between dogs and humans can also have profound impacts. Interacting with dogs can lead to lower stress levels and can even help ease symptoms of depression and anxiety. The simple act of petting a dog can increase levels of the stress-reducing hormone oxytocin and decrease the production of the stress hormone cortisol.</p>



<h3 id="h-emotional">Emotional</h3>



<p>Furthermore, dogs have been shown to offer significant social and emotional benefits. For children, growing up with a dog can aid in their emotional development and boost their self-esteem.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dogs can also teach children about responsibility, empathy, and compassion. For older adults, dogs can provide companionship and a sense of purpose, which can help combat feelings of loneliness and isolation.</p>



<p>It's also important to note that dogs have evolved to understand human emotions and to respond in ways that provide comfort and companionship. They are attuned to human emotions and often react empathetically to their owners' feelings. This emotional intelligence, combined with their unconditional love and loyalty, makes the bond between humans and dogs truly special.</p>



<h3 id="h-two-way-street">Two-way street&nbsp;</h3>



<p>However, this bond is not a one-way street. Just as humans derive emotional and health benefits from their dogs, the dogs also thrive on the love, care, and companionship provided by their human partners. As the study we discussed earlier suggests, dogs' health and well-being can be greatly affected by their social environment, which underscores the importance of this mutual bond.</p>



<p>Ultimately, the bond between dogs and humans is a symbiotic relationship characterized by mutual affection, emotional connection, and shared benefits. It's a relationship that is treasured by many and continues to be a subject of fascinating scientific study.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Dogs live longer and happier lives when they get to socialize often

How do the lifestyle and environment of our four-legged companions...

<p>Each year, rescue centers release animals into the wild, assuming that they will thrive most in their natural habitat. However, such assumptions have not been tested scientifically with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-danger-extinction/">primates</a> and investigations into the most effective methods of release have been scarce.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Now, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/">Durham University</a> and the <a href="https://janegoodall.org/">Jane Goodall Institute</a> has found that a group of mandrills (<em>Mandrillus sphinx</em>) – a species of monkey native to west central Africa – who were returned to the wild using a carefully phased approach adapted well, exhibiting a lower stress response in the wild than in the sanctuary from which they were released.</p>



<p>“Many primate releases are conducted based on the assumption that it improves animal welfare, but very few studies have actually tested this,” said senior author Joanna Setchell, a zoologist at Durham. “Our work applies rigorous science to this assumption, providing evidence that a carefully planned release of mandrills can work well with the right design, monitoring, and evaluation.”</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



<p>The <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for the Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN) recommends a gradual release and post-release monitoring to ensure that, when animals are released into the wild, their stress responses are low, allowing them to survive and adapt to the new environment. However, this slow and steady process is rarely applied due to high costs and time restrictions.</p>



<p>For the current study, the experts transferred 15 mandrills from the Tchimpounga Sanctuary – which were orphaned by hunting and rescued by Congolese authorities - to a pre-release enclosure in the Conkouati-Douli National Park, and afterwards into the park itself.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This process involved the mandrills spending time in a pre-release enclosure built in the forest, provisions of extra food, careful observations of the animals’ condition, and interventions to remove animals that were not doing well. Even though all of the 15 mandrills survived, three of them had to be returned to the sanctuary as their transfer was not successful.</p>



<h2 id="h-measuring-the-primates-stress-response">Measuring the primates' stress response&nbsp;</h2>



<p>At every stage of the transfer, the scientists collected fecal samples from the mandrills, which they then used to measure their stress response non-invasively. As expected, the animals’ stress response initially increased after their move from the sanctuary to the pre-release enclosure, most likely due to their being transported in crates by car and boat.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, in the pre-release enclosure, which provided the mandrills a safe place to adjust to their new environment, their stress response dropped again and did not increase after they were released in the forest. In fact, just one month after their release into the wild, their stress response dropped below the levels observed while they were in the sanctuary.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, after one year spent in the wild, the response was nearly half what it had been in the sanctuary, suggesting that the mandrills were faring quite well in their natural habitat. The results are published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coad025"><em>Conservation Physiology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>“This project was ultimately successful because of years of pre-release preparation and extensive post-release support.&nbsp;We went to the extreme lengths to conduct this study because it’s important that all releases are&nbsp;learnt from and the results are reported,” said lead author Miles Woodruff, a primatologist at Durham.</p>



<p>“We are dealing with the life and death of critical&nbsp;species in sensitive environments and every individual matters.&nbsp;Our findings are very exciting because we now have physiological evidence to support the ‘why’ behind the IUCN’s suggestions to conduct soft releases of animals.”</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-mandrills">More about mandrills&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) are a type of primate that are native to rainforests in equatorial Africa, specifically in countries like Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Congo. They're a member of the Old World monkey family, Cercopithecidae, and are close relatives of baboons and drill monkeys.</p>



<p>Physically, mandrills are recognized for their vibrant, multicolored facial and rump markings. Males, in particular, have incredibly vivid markings, with blue and red skin on their faces and a yellow beard, while their rumps feature similar coloration. These striking colors become brighter when the animal is excited.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Mandrills are sexually dimorphic, meaning males and females have different physical characteristics. Male mandrills are significantly larger and more colorful than females, with males weighing up to 54 kilograms (120 pounds) and females usually around 12 kilograms (26 pounds).</p>



<p>In terms of behavior, mandrills are social animals, living in large groups called hordes, which can number in the hundreds. These groups are typically dominated by a single, older male and consist of several females and their young. They are primarily terrestrial animals, spending much of their time on the ground, but they can climb trees and often sleep in them.</p>



<p>Mandrills are omnivorous and their diet consists of a mix of fruits, roots, and insects, but they can also eat small vertebrates. Their cheek pouches allow them to carry food to be eaten later.&nbsp;</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Gradual release of rescued primates into the wild is highly effective

Each year, rescue centers release animals into the wild, assuming...

<p>The global COVID-19 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-pandemic-affect-young-peoples-mental-health/">pandemic</a> and subsequent lockdowns led to a substantial shift in human behavior. As people huddled indoors, it appeared that land mammals seized the opportunity to explore more freely and widely, as per a recent study conducted by Marlee Tucker of <a href="https://www.ru.nl/en/home-basis-seo">Radboud University</a> and his team of 174 colleagues.</p>



<p>In the first few months of the pandemic, when most countries were in stringent lockdown, reports of wildlife reclaiming spaces in urban areas began to circulate. One could spot cougars strolling down the streets of Santiago, Chile.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, Tucker questioned, "Is there any evidence of this? Or were people simply paying more attention to everything while being at home?" This doubt inspired a global investigation into the behavioral changes of land mammals.</p>



<h2 id="h-studying-the-movements-of-mammals-worldwide">Studying the movements of mammals worldwide</h2>



<p>To dig deeper into the phenomenon, the team, which included members of the COVID-19 Bio-Logging Initiative, embarked on a mission to analyze GPS tracking data of land mammals worldwide.&nbsp;</p>



<p>They collected and scrutinized data from a diverse array of 43 different species, ranging from elephants and giraffes to bears and deer. The team studied more than 2,300 individual mammals in all.</p>



<p>The data under scrutiny was specifically from the first period of lockdowns, spanning from January to mid-May 2020. The team then compared these figures to movement data from the same months the previous year. The patterns they discovered were intriguing.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The research,&nbsp; published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abo6499"><em>Science</em></a>, revealed that animals traveled up to 73% longer distances within a span of 10 days during the strict lockdown period, compared to the same time the previous year when no lockdown was in place.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, animals were found to be on average 36% closer to roads. "This is probably because those roads were quieter during strict lockdowns," explained Tucker.</p>



<p>Fewer people outside, especially in heavily urbanized areas, offered animals an unprecedented opportunity to explore new territories. However, the results varied in regions with less stringent lockdown measures.</p>



<p>"In contrast, in areas with less strict lockdowns, we saw that animals traveled shorter distances," said Thomas Mueller of the Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre and Goethe University Frankfurt, who co-designed the study with Tucker.</p>



<p>"This may have to do with the fact that during those lockdowns, people were actually encouraged to go into nature. As a result, some nature areas were busier than before COVID-19."</p>



<h2 id="h-unique-opportunity-for-study-that-may-not-happen-again">Unique opportunity for study that may not happen again</h2>



<p>The unique circumstances presented by the pandemic lockdowns allowed the researchers to observe the immediate effects of a sudden change in human presence on wildlife behavior.</p>



<p>"Our research has shown that animals can respond directly to changes in human behavior. This offers hope for the future, because in principle this means that making some adjustments to our own behavior could have a positive effect on animals," said Tucker.</p>



<p>This intriguing study provides crucial insights into how human activity impacts wildlife, potentially guiding our path towards more sustainable cohabitation with the natural world.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-happens-when-mammals-lose-their-habitat-to-humans">What happens when mammals lose their habitat to humans</h2>



<p>When humans encroach on the habitats of land mammals, it can lead to a variety of negative impacts on these animals and their environments, as well as potential negative effects on human populations. Here are several key issues:</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat-loss-and-fragmentation">Habitat Loss and Fragmentation</h3>



<p>When humans convert forests, grasslands, or other natural habitats into residential areas, commercial zones, farms, or roads, this results in habitat loss for many species. Furthermore, remaining natural areas often become fragmented, isolating wildlife populations. Fragmented habitats can prevent animals from moving freely to find food, mates, or new territory, leading to declines in population size and potentially even extinction.</p>



<h3 id="h-conflict-with-humans">Conflict with Humans&nbsp;</h3>



<p>As human settlements expand into wild areas, the potential for human-wildlife conflict increases. For instance, animals such as bears, coyotes, or elephants can encroach on human settlements in search of food, which can result in property damage or even human injuries or deaths. Conversely, humans may kill or injure animals perceived as threats or nuisances.</p>



<h3 id="h-spread-of-diseases">Spread of Diseases</h3>



<p>Encroachment can also facilitate the spread of diseases between wildlife and human populations. For example, the Ebola virus is believed to have jumped from wildlife to humans in areas where humans are encroaching on previously undisturbed habitats.</p>



<h3 id="h-decreased-biodiversity">Decreased Biodiversity&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Human encroachment can lead to decreased biodiversity as habitats are destroyed or altered, and certain species may not be able to adapt to the changes. This can result in a loss of species richness and an imbalance in ecosystems, which can lead to a decrease in ecosystem health and resilience.</p>



<h3 id="h-disruption-of-animal-behavior">Disruption of Animal Behavior</h3>



<p>Human encroachment can cause changes in animal behavior. For example, it can change migration patterns or feeding habits, causing stress to the animals and potentially impacting their survival. Animals might also start to avoid areas populated by humans, resulting in a reduced habitat area.</p>



<h3 id="h-overexploitation-of-resources">Overexploitation of Resources</h3>



<p>Humans often exploit natural resources within animal habitats, such as water, timber, or mineral resources. This exploitation can alter or destroy habitats and leave fewer resources available for animal populations.</p>



<p>Ultimately, the encroachment of human activities into animal habitats poses a significant threat to wildlife. It highlights the importance of sustainable development practices, habitat conservation, and coexistence strategies to mitigate these impacts.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Behavior of land mammals changed dramatically during COVID-19 lockdowns

The global COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdowns led to a...

<p>In the grand tapestry of life, the octopus, with its eight twisting arms and sharp intellect, stands out as one of the most fascinating creatures of the deep. But beneath its pulsating colors and inscrutable gaze lies a unique biological strategy for adapting to its ever-changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2023-beatplasticpollution/">environment</a>.</p>



<p>Unlike many organisms, octopuses don't thermoregulate. This means their well-developed brains are exposed to and potentially threatened by fluctuations in temperature. Yet, these adaptable cephalopods have evolved an intriguing way to shield their neural networks from seasonal temperature shifts: RNA editing.</p>



<h2 id="h-the-role-of-rna-in-this-incredible-feat">The role of RNA in this incredible feat</h2>



<p>RNA, the messenger molecule bridging DNA and proteins, is subject to an exceptional degree of editing in the two-spot octopus, according to a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2023.05.004"><em>Cell</em></a>. This rewiring of genetic information, the researchers believe, could be a widespread strategy among octopuses and squid to defend their brains from environmental hazards.</p>



<p>"We generally think that our genetic information is fixed, but the environment can influence how you encode proteins, and in cephalopods this happens on a massive scale," says senior author Joshua Rosenthal of the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/">Marine Biological Laboratory of Woods Hole</a>, Massachusetts.</p>



<p>In comparison to DNA mutations that drive evolution over generations, RNA editing offers a nimble, temporary way for individual organisms to adjust to their surroundings. It's a process known to occur across all life forms, but RNA recoding - a subtype of editing that alters the resulting protein structure - is far more prevalent among the soft-bodied cephalopods like octopuses and squid.</p>



<p>"RNA recoding gives organisms the option to express a diverse quiver of proteins when and where they choose," Rosenthal explains. "In cephalopods, most of the recoding is for proteins that are really important for nervous system function, so the natural question is, are they using this to acclimate to changes in their physical environment?"</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>Keen to unravel this mystery, the research team embarked on an exploration of whether octopuses utilize RNA editing to counter temperature shifts, and if so, whether this editing affects their brain proteins.</p>



<p>California two-spot octopuses, small, yellowish-brown species with two luminous blue eyespots beneath their real eyes, were the subjects of their inquiry. Native to the coastlines of California and Mexico, these octopuses, with their already sequenced genomes, presented a unique opportunity for the researchers to study RNA editing in relation to temperature variation.</p>



<p>The scientists acclimated wild-caught adult octopuses to either warm (22ºC) or cold (13ºC) waters in tanks at the Marine Biological Laboratory. After several weeks, they scrutinized the RNA transcripts from both sets of octopuses, searching for signs of RNA editing among more than 60,000 previously identified editing sites.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-research-team-discovered">What the research team discovered</h2>



<p>"Temperature-sensitive editing occurred at about one third of our sites - over 20,000 individual places - so this is not something that happens here or there; this is a global phenomenon," says co-senior author Eli Eisenberg of <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel-Aviv University</a>, who managed the computational aspects of the study. "But that being said, it does not happen equally: proteins that are edited tend to be neural proteins, and almost all sites that are temperature sensitive are more highly edited in the cold."</p>



<p>Delving further into their findings, the team noted that certain types of neural proteins, particularly those linked with cell membranes and calcium-binding proteins, were more likely to be sensitive to temperature.</p>



<p>The researchers then turned their attention to the speed at which these changes occur. By adjusting the temperature in tanks housing juvenile octopuses - from 14°C to 24°C and vice versa at hourly 0.5°C increments - they measured the extent of RNA editing at several time points. They found the process happens astonishingly quickly.</p>



<p>"We had no real idea how quickly this can occur: whether it takes weeks or hours," says first author Matthew Birk, who led the project as a postdoctoral fellow at the Marine Biological Laboratory and is now an assistant professor at Saint Francis University. "We could see significant changes in less than a day, and within 4 days, they were at the new steady-state levels that you find them in after a month."</p>



<h2 id="h-going-a-step-further-yielded-even-more-surprises">Going a step further yielded even more surprises</h2>



<p>Taking the study a step further, the team collaborated with Kristen Verhey at the University of Michigan and Roger Sutton at Texas Tech to understand how RNA recoding impacts protein structure function.&nbsp;</p>



<p>They zeroed in on kinesin and synaptotagmin, two proteins vital for nervous system function, and compared the edited and unedited versions. In both instances, they observed that recoding introduced structural changes in the proteins, altering their function.</p>



<p>The researchers also confirmed that temperature-sensitive RNA editing happens in the wild in response to seasonal temperature fluctuations. Wild octopuses, captured in winter versus summer, displayed similar patterns of temperature-sensitive RNA editing as those noted in the laboratory setting.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This pattern extended beyond the California two-spot octopuses to the closely related Verrill’s two-spot octopus, bolstering the researchers' suspicions that temperature-sensitive RNA editing might be common among other octopuses and squid.</p>



<p>Nevertheless, mysteries still abound. It remains unclear how octopuses regulate RNA editing and why editing is more prevalent in response to cold temperatures.</p>



<p>In future research, the scientists aim to uncover whether octopuses and other cephalopods utilize RNA recoding to adapt to other environmental variables, such as low oxygen availability or varied social environments. It seems that the octopus, with its flexible RNA and remarkable ability to adapt, still has plenty of secrets to share.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-octopuses">More about Octopuses</h2>



<p>Octopuses are a type of mollusk belonging to the class Cephalopoda, which also includes squid, cuttlefish, and nautiluses. Here's a rundown of some key facts and characteristics about these fascinating creatures:</p>



<h3 id="h-physical-features">Physical Features</h3>



<p>Octopuses are renowned for their bulbous heads, large eyes, and eight arms adorned with suction cups. These arms are incredibly dexterous and strong. They use them to explore their environment, manipulate objects, capture prey, and for defense. Despite their solid appearance, octopuses are boneless and can squeeze through incredibly small spaces.</p>



<h3 id="h-intelligence">Intelligence</h3>



<p>Octopuses are among the most intelligent invertebrates. They demonstrate complex behaviors, such as using tools, solving puzzles, and escaping from enclosures. Some species have been observed to use rocks and shells to construct "forts" or defensive perimeters around their lairs.</p>



<h3 id="h-camouflage-and-defense">Camouflage and Defense</h3>



<p>Octopuses are masters of disguise. They can change the color and texture of their skin to blend in with their environment in a matter of seconds, making them virtually invisible to predators. If threatened, they can also release a cloud of black ink to confuse predators and facilitate their escape.</p>



<h3 id="h-diet-and-hunting">Diet and Hunting</h3>



<p>Octopuses are primarily carnivorous, feeding on crabs, shrimps, lobsters, fish, and other small sea creatures. Some larger species, such as the giant Pacific octopus, have been known to prey on sharks and seabirds. They typically use their strong arms and suction cups to capture prey, and their sharp beak to break open shells.</p>



<h3 id="h-reproduction-and-life-cycle">Reproduction and Life Cycle</h3>



<p>Octopuses have a relatively short lifespan, with most species living for only a few years. After mating, the female lays thousands to hundreds of thousands of eggs, which she obsessively guards and cares for. Once the eggs hatch, both parents usually die soon after. This is called semelparity or "big bang" reproduction.</p>



<h3 id="h-species-diversity">Species Diversity</h3>



<p>There are approximately 300 known species of octopus, ranging from the small and relatively common common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) to the giant Pacific octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini), which is the largest known octopus species. The latter can reach an arm span of up to 30 feet and weigh more than 600 pounds.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



<p>Octopuses are found in every ocean of the world, from the warm waters of the tropics to the cold seafloor. They inhabit a range of depths, from shallow coastal waters to abyssal depths.</p>



<h3 id="h-conservation">Conservation</h3>



<p>While some octopus species are common and not currently at risk, others are less well-known and could be threatened by factors such as habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change. Overfishing is also a concern for some species, as octopuses are caught for food in many parts of the world.</p>



<h3 id="h-scientific-research">Scientific Research</h3>



<p>Octopuses are of great interest to scientists due to their unique biology and behavior. Their ability to regenerate lost arms, their complex nervous system, their sophisticated camouflage abilities, and their unique methods of manipulating RNA are just a few of the areas that researchers are studying.</p>



<p>In short, octopuses are complex, intelligent, and highly adaptable creatures with a wide range of fascinating behaviors and abilities.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Octopuses adapt to seasonal temperatures by rewiring their brains

In the grand tapestry of life, the octopus, with its...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>



<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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