<p>Humans often consider tool use a mark of intelligence. Yet many animals find creative ways to solve problems. A new study reveals how carrion crows - which seldom use tools in the wild - can learn to master them when trained.</p>



<p>Their performance suggests that with only small evolutionary changes, they might one day adopt tools as part of their natural behavior.</p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://uni-tuebingen.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tübingen</a> trained three carrion crows to handle sticks and retrieve food pellets placed inside a transparent Plexiglas box. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-beaks-to-borrowed-sticks">From beaks to borrowed sticks</h2>



<p>The birds could not access the pellets with their beaks, so they had to explore with sticks. Success depended on careful manipulation: moving the pellet too quickly risked losing it from the platform.</p>



<p>"Tool use is very rare in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-hold-grudges-for-up-to-17-years/">animal kingdom</a>, but relatively common in dexterous generalists such as primates, parrots, and corvids," said lead author Felix&nbsp;Moll.</p>



<p>Only two crow species - the New Caledonian and Hawaiian crow - use tools regularly. This experiment tested whether carrion crows could, with training, refine similar skills.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crows-master-deliberate-tool-actions">Crows master deliberate tool actions</h2>



<p>The crows did more than just copy actions. They aligned sticks carefully with their beaks and guided food into reach.</p>



<p>"The crows first picked up the stick from a holder and adjusted it until they were grasping it so that it was precisely aligned with their beak. Then they used it to guide the pellet within reach," said Moll. They even returned the stick to the holder before eating.</p>



<p>Recordings showed early awkwardness: sticks shoved pellets back and forth with little success. Over time, movements became refined, efficient, and highly repeatable.</p>



<p>"By comparison, recordings of later training sessions showed extremely precise movement patterns. The movements of the stick varied little in standard situations; the crows determinedly guided the food pellet to one side of the box and fished it out," said co-author Julius Würzler.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practice-reveals-hidden-intelligence">Practice reveals hidden intelligence</h2>



<p>The study used pose estimation to analyze thousands of trials. It found that the crows improved through reinforcement learning, a trial-and-error process where variability early on helped them discover effective strategies. </p>



<p>This variability mirrors processes seen in human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-fuels-learning-in-young-songbirds/">motor learning</a>, where exploration refines skill. </p>



<p>Such parallels remind us that intelligence does not always require a complex evolutionary leap. Sometimes, it is about applying existing flexibility to new challenges.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crows-show-flexible-problem-solving">Crows show flexible problem-solving</h2>



<p>Each crow developed its own style - some preferred sliding pellets out to one side, while others adjusted depending on pellet position. </p>



<p>These strategies were consistent and efficient, highlighting not just learned precision but also individuality in problem-solving. The presence of personal approaches suggests that tool use is not a rigid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-can-recognize-geometric-patterns-in-shapes/">behavior</a> but a dynamic process shaped by learning and constant feedback. </p>



<p>Mistakes added another layer of insight: when a pellet slipped from control, the crows reacted within fractions of a second, adjusting stick movements to regain control. </p>



<p>Such rapid corrections revealed continuous monitoring and flexibility, showing a level of awareness that goes beyond instinct and hinted at truly adaptive cognition.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/carrion-crows_precise-tool-use_infographic_UTubingen_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/carrion-crows_precise-tool-use_infographic_UTubingen_1s.webp" alt="Typical stick-tip trajectories during an early and late training session. The crow can’t reach the food reward without the stick-tool. Credit: University of Tübingen" class="wp-image-1986134"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Typical stick-tip trajectories during an early and late training session. The crow can’t reach the food reward without the stick-tool. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Tübingen</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-grip-reveals-hidden-intelligence">Tool grip reveals hidden intelligence</h2>



<p>Another striking behavior was how they adjusted stick orientation before use. Often, the stick was misaligned when pulled from the dispenser. </p>



<p>The crows tossed and re-gripped it until alignment was perfect. This fine motor adjustment revealed an advanced capacity to prepare tools for effective use.</p>



<p>"Animal tool use is supported by a number of enabling factors: motivation, conceptual knowledge and advanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ravens-develop-sophisticated-cognitive-skills-by-the-age-of-four-months/">cognitive skills</a>, as well as fine motor control," said co-author Andreas&nbsp;Nieder.</p>



<p>The carrion crows displayed all of these, suggesting their brains integrate the stick as part of their own body. Similar processes occur in primates, where neurons adapt to represent the working end of tools.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crows-hint-at-evolution">Crows hint at evolution</h2>



<p>The findings show that non-habitual tool users can still reach high levels of dexterity. This supports the idea of “tooling,” where animals treat body and object as one system. </p>



<p>Such results deepen our understanding of cognition in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-count-out-loud-just-like-toddlers/">birds</a> and may guide future research into neural mechanisms.</p>



<p>"If woodpeckers didn't already - with their highly-specialized long tongues - fish beetle larvae out of their burrows in dead wood, this nutritious source of protein might one day be exploited by carrion crows using tools," Moll adds. </p>



<p>These experiments suggest that with only small evolutionary nudges, carrion crows could naturally evolve into regular tool users. </p>



<p>The work also invites reflection on intelligence across species: when given the right opportunities, animals may reveal skills that once seemed uniquely human.</p>



<p>Click here to <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)01100-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch videos of carrion crows using precision tools...</a></p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)01100-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em>.</p>



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Carrion crows can create, prepare, and use tools with great precision

Humans often consider tool use a mark of intelligence. Yet many animals find creative ways to solve problems. A new study reveals how carrion crows - which seldom use tools in the wild - can learn to master them when trained. Their performance suggests that with only small evolutionary changes, they might one day adopt tools as part of their natural behavior. Researchers from the University of Tübingen trained three carrion crows to handle sticks and retrieve food pellets placed inside a transparent Plexiglas box. From beaks...

<p>During the era when dinosaurs roamed the Earth, a myriad of marine reptiles, such as Tanystropheus, were extraordinarily long-necked. They looked very much unlike their modern-day counterparts.</p>



<p>For years, paleontologists hypothesized that these elongated necks, despite proving beneficial for survival, also exposed these marine creatures to a greater risk from predators. Today, nearly two centuries of persistent research have led to the discovery of direct fossil evidence substantiating this theory.</p>



<p>This landmark finding, published in the journal Current Biology on June 19, sheds light on the curious neck structure of two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-did-not-impact-dinosaur-abundance-in-the-triassic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triassic</a> species of Tanystropheus. This was a reptile species distantly related to crocodiles, birds, and dinosaurs.</p>



<h2 id="h-tanystropheus-species-had-very-unique-necks">Tanystropheus species had very unique necks</h2>



<p>The necks of these Tanystropheus species were unique. They comprised 13 highly extended vertebrae and rib-like struts. The stiffened necks allowed these marine creatures to lay in ambush for their prey. However, this unusual feature also presented an irresistible opportunity for predators to attack.</p>



<p>Recent meticulous study of the fossilized bones of these species revealed something dramatic. <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Tanystropheus-hydroides_decapitation-illustration_CREDIT-Roc-Olive-scaled.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Two specimens, each from a different species, had their necks severed</a>.  Distinct bite marks were evident at the break. These findings present compelling and macabre evidence of predator-prey interactions dating back more than 240 million years, according to the researchers.</p>



<p>"Paleontologists speculated that these long necks formed an obvious weak spot for predation, as was already vividly depicted almost 200 years ago in a famous painting by Henry de la Beche from 1830," remarked Stephan Spiekman from the <a href="https://www.smnk.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde</a> Stuttgart, Germany.</p>



<p>He went on to add, "Nevertheless, there was no evidence of decapitation—or any other sort of attack targeting the neck—known from the abundant fossil record of long-necked marine reptiles until our present study on these two specimens of Tanystropheus.”</p>



<h2>Two Tanystropheus species lived in the same habitat</h2>



<p>Spiekman, who conducted extensive research on these reptiles as part of his doctoral work at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en/explore/museums/palaeontologisches-museum.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paleontological Museum of the University of Zurich, Switzerland</a>, made some intriguing discoveries. He found that two species of Tanystropheus, one small and one considerably larger, inhabited the same environment.</p>



<p>The smaller species, measuring about a meter and a half, probably fed on soft-shelled animals like shrimp. The larger six-meter species subsisted on fish and squid. An investigation into the skull shape revealed that Tanystropheus most likely spent the majority of its life underwater.</p>



<p>Even though it was known that two specimens of these species had well-preserved heads and abruptly ending necks, no detailed study on these necks had been conducted.</p>



<h2>How the Tanystropheus study was conducted</h2>



<p>Spiekman joined forces with Eudald Mujal, a fellow researcher at the Stuttgart Museum and a research associate at the Institut Català de Paleontologia Miquel Crusafont, Spain, to address this gap.</p>



<p>After an afternoon spent meticulously examining the two specimens in Zurich, they arrived at a conclusive finding. The necks had clearly been bitten off by predators.</p>



<p>Something that intrigued the researchers was the condition of the skull and the preserved part of the neck. Mujal noted, "Only the neck and head are preserved; there is no evidence whatsoever of the rest of the animals. The necks end abruptly, indicating they were completely severed by another animal during a particularly violent event, as the presence of tooth traces evinces."</p>



<p>Mujal further theorized that when these creatures were buried, their bones were still covered by soft tissues like muscle and skin. He conjectured that the predator was likely more interested in the meatier parts of the body than the skinny neck and small head.</p>



<p>According to Mujal, this suggested that the animals were more likely hunted and decapitated rather than scavenged. However, he admitted that scavenging could not be entirely ruled out due to the fossils' ancient age.</p>



<h2>Long necks of Tanystropheus are an evolutionary mystery</h2>



<p>Interestingly, the same violent decapitation scenario was seen in specimens of two different Tanystropheus species. This, despite their different sizes and potential lifestyles. Spiekman found this quite remarkable.</p>



<p>These findings reinforce the notion that the necks of these ancient reptiles constituted an utterly unique evolutionary structure. They were more slender and stiffer than those of long-necked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-plesiosaurs-swim/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plesiosaurs</a>.</p>



<p>The researchers noted that the long necks posed potential risks for these sea reptiles. This is a puzzling fact, despite being a prevalent evolutionary trait that lasted over 175 million years.</p>



<p>"In a very broad sense, our research once again shows that evolution is a game of trade-offs," stated Spiekman.</p>



<p>"The advantage of having a long neck clearly outweighed the risk of being targeted by a predator for a very long time. Even Tanystropheus itself was quite successful in evolutionary terms, living for at least 10 million years and occurring in what is now Europe, the Middle East, China, North America, and possibly South America.”</p>



<h2>More about Tanystropheus</h2>



<p>Tanystropheus is a fascinating reptile known primarily from the Triassic period, which spanned from about 251 million to 199 million years ago.</p>



<p>The genus Tanystropheus is most renowned for its unusually long neck, which was made up of extremely elongated vertebrae. These neck vertebrae could make up over half of the animal's total length, which is an exceptional characteristic among vertebrates.</p>



<h3>Description</h3>



<p>Tanystropheus had a long, thin neck, with up to 13 elongated vertebrae. The body was short, with a small head and large, robust jaws. It also had long, slender teeth, which suggest that it might have been a specialist fish eater. The tail was also long, which may have aided in swimming. Its total body length is estimated to range from 1.5 to 6 meters, depending on the species.</p>



<h3>Ecology</h3>



<p>There has been some debate over whether Tanystropheus was aquatic or terrestrial. Given its long neck and tail, and short, stubby body, many paleontologists believe it was likely a semi-aquatic animal, spending much of its time in the water. The large species of Tanystropheus was probably a pursuit predator, feeding on fish and squid, while the smaller species probably fed on shellfish and other small marine animals.</p>



<h3>Distribution</h3>



<p>Fossils of Tanystropheus have been found in Europe, the Middle East, China, and North America, suggesting that this genus had a wide geographic distribution.</p>



<h3>Evolutionary success</h3>



<p>Despite the apparent vulnerability of its long neck to predation, Tanystropheus was evolutionarily successful, surviving for at least 10 million years. Its long neck was a distinguishing adaptation, allowing it to potentially ambush prey, although it also provided a clear target for predators.</p>



<h3>Research</h3>



<p>Much of what we know about Tanystropheus comes from spectacularly preserved fossils found in the Monte San Giorgio locality on the border between Switzerland and Italy. The site has been called the "most important locality in the world for understanding marine life" during the Triassic period.</p>



<h3>Classification</h3>



<p>Tanystropheus is a member of the order Protorosauria, a group of early archosauromorphs, which includes the ancestors of crocodiles, birds, and dinosaurs.</p>



<p>Tanystropheus continues to be an active area of study, with new discoveries and interpretations helping us to further understand its unique biology and ecology.</p>

Long-necked reptiles, Tanystropheus, were easily decapitated by dinosaur predators

During the era when dinosaurs roamed the Earth, a myriad...

Ants,And,Fly,Agaric,With,Ladder,Fairy,Tale,In,The

<p>The secret to a flourishing, healthy garden is to 'weed early and often.' Surprisingly, we share this gardening principle with certain ant species. They are master gardeners who have been perfecting this practice over 50 million years.</p>



<p>Just like us, these fungus farming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-build-higher-nests-when-there-are-no-visible-landmarks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> carefully weed their underground fungus gardens. However, until recently, the mystery remained: how did ants distinguish between good and bad fungus in their gardens?</p>



<h2 id="h-uncovering-the-secrets-of-fungus-farming-ants">Uncovering the secrets of fungus farming ants</h2>



<p>On June 15, a diverse group of scientists offered insights into this question in a paper published in PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences).</p>



<p>The team revealed that ants identify the health of their fungal farms not through sight – a luxury they lack in their dark subterranean homes – but rather through an intriguing sense of smell.</p>



<p>Leading the research were Dr. Jonathan Klassen from the <a href="https://uconn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Connecticut</a> and Dr. Marcy Balunas from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a>. They discovered that ants identify diseased fungus by sniffing out specific chemicals named peptaibols.</p>



<p>The team focused on the species Trachymyrmex septentrionalis, commonly known as the fungus farming ant. They reside in the pine barren ecosystem stretching from Long Island to East Texas.</p>



<h2>Symbiotic relationship between the ants and their fungus</h2>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crazy-ants-carry-the-key-to-their-own-population-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> maintain subterranean fungal farms, nourishing the fungus with fresh organic detritus. The fungus reciprocates by growing around the food, digesting it, and producing edible sustenance for the ants. They behave much like an external stomach for the colony.</p>



<p>Katie Kyle, a graduate student from Klassen's lab and co-first author on the paper, ventured an experimental step further.</p>



<p>Kyle infected the ant nests with Trichoderma, a pathogenic fungus that invades the ants' gardens naturally. It emerged that the ants redoubled their fungus farming efforts to weed out the infected areas. They increased their waste output in the process.</p>



<p>While the ants took a winter break, the research team delved into the fungal biomes of various nests from different locations. Intriguingly, they found Trichoderma in all the nests.</p>



<p>The curious question remained, were the ants weeding due to the presence of certain compounds, or simply because of the invading pathogenic cells?</p>



<p>To shed light on this, co-first author Dr. Sara Puckett, a recent graduate from the Balunas' lab, prepared Trichoderma extracts containing the fungus's organic compounds.</p>



<p>"We were curious to see if the ants were weeding because of compounds produced by the infecting fungus," Balunas shared.</p>



<h2>What the research team learned about fungus farming ants</h2>



<p>To the team's surprise, they found that applying the Trichoderma extract to the fungus garden sent the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/there-are-2-5-million-ants-for-each-human-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> into a frenzy of weeding activity. This mimicked the effect of an actual Trichoderma infection.</p>



<p>The researchers teamed up with scientists from the University of California, San Diego, and the University of North Carolina, Greensboro.</p>



<p>Together, they discovered that the ant nests contained peptaibols. These are chemicals known to be produced by Trichoderma.</p>



<p>Despite this breakthrough, the team faced the daunting challenge of identifying the specific peptaibols responsible for triggering the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-ants-make-a-huge-contribution-to-forest-regeneration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants' weeding activity</a>.</p>



<p>In a meticulous process, they tested pure peptaibols. These included two newly identified compounds called trichokindins VIII and IX.</p>



<p>To their surprise, all the peptaibols tested prompted the ants to weed their gardens to some extent. This suggests that it might not be a specific peptaibol causing the weeding but rather the entire suite of these chemicals.</p>



<p>“This suite of Trichoderma compounds inducing ant behavior is in contrast to many other natural products whose activity can often be attributed to one compound,” Balunas noted.</p>



<h2>Many questions answered, many mysteries remain</h2>



<p>While their data point towards peptaibols as a signal to weed, what the ants are exactly sensing remains unclear. Are the ants detecting the peptaibols produced by the invading Trichoderma, triggering a weeding response? Or is it a secondary reaction from the fungus garden that alerts the ants?</p>



<p>Klassen suggests that the next phase of the research will be focused on deciphering these complex ant-fungus communication mechanisms. "Maybe the fungus is signaling 'I'm sick'. Maybe the fungus is detecting the peptaibols. We need to flesh out the chain of signaling," he elaborated.</p>



<h2>Extended defense response</h2>



<p>This study uncovers a rare and fascinating phenomenon where an animal reacts to a disease afflicting its symbiotic partner rather than its own body.</p>



<p>Klassen and Balunas have termed this an 'extended defense response'. It is an intriguing aspect of the ant-fungus relationship that they are keen to unravel further.</p>



<p>The meticulous weeders of the insect world, ants, thus provide an interesting lens into symbiotic relationships and defense mechanisms in nature.</p>



<p>They might not only offer a unique perspective on how to manage a garden but also hold secrets to complex inter-species communications waiting to be decoded.</p>



<h2>More about the relationship between ants and fungus</h2>



<p>The relationship between certain ant species and fungus is a remarkable example of symbiosis in nature. Particularly notable are leafcutter ants, which are renowned for their fungus farming abilities.</p>



<h3>Fungus-farming ants harvest fungus for food</h3>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-impressive-leaf-cutter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leafcutter ants</a>, part of the tribe Attini which includes other fungus-growing ants, cultivate fungi for food. They cut pieces of leaves and carry them back to their colonies. Instead of consuming these leaf fragments directly, they use them as a substrate to grow a specialized type of fungus.</p>



<p>This fungus serves as the primary food source for the ant colony. The ants actively tend to the fungus, creating an optimal environment for its growth. They weed out other types of fungi and pests that could potentially harm their crop, much like human farmers.</p>



<h3>Fungus benefits from their ant caregivers</h3>



<p>In return, the fungus benefits from the care provided by the ants, having a constant source of nutrition from the leaf fragments, and a safe environment in which to grow. This mutual symbiosis has existed for millions of years and is an outstanding example of cooperation in the natural world.</p>



<p>A unique aspect of this relationship is the transfer of fungal strains from one generation to the next. When a new queen leaves her original colony to start a new one, she carries with her a small amount of the fungal mycelium. This 'starter culture' is used to establish a new fungal garden in the new colony.</p>



<p>Interestingly, as the original text points out, there is ongoing research into how ants deal with threats to their fungus gardens, such as the harmful fungus Trichoderma. It has been found that ants can detect specific chemicals (peptaibols) produced by this invading fungus, which prompts them to increase their weeding efforts to protect their food source.</p>



<p>Overall, the relationship between ants and fungus is complex and finely balanced, a testament to the intricate and interconnected nature of ecosystems. This symbiotic relationship has significant benefits for both ants and fungus, showcasing the remarkable adaptability and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-colonies-behave-like-neural-networks-when-making-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooperation found within the natural world</a>.</p>

Fungus farming ants work hard to maintain healthy gardens

The secret to a flourishing, healthy garden is to 'weed...

<p>In a shocking study, Faysal Bibi of the <a href="https://museumfuernaturkunde.berlin/">Museum für Naturkunde</a> in Berlin and Juan L. Cantalapiedra of the University of Alcalá have unlocked key insights into the history of African large mammals.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Using measurements from thousands of fossilized teeth, the researchers have reconstructed the size and population data of these mammals over the past 10 million years. The task was not without its difficulties, especially due to the various uncertainties inherent to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earliest-gibbon-fossil-discovered-in-china/">fossil</a> preservation.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>However, despite these challenges, their research has identified a significant correlation between the size of an animal and its population, a relationship which remains consistent across both fossil and extant communities. This discovery suggests that the same fundamental ecological principles shaping living communities today are also echoed in the ancient fossil record.</p>



<p>In creatures exceeding 45 kg, Bibi and Cantalapiedra uncovered evidence for a decrease in population density correlating with an increase in size. This finding corresponds with the known "rule of metabolic scaling," where larger species tend to have lower population densities compared to their smaller counterparts.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered</h2>



<p>Interestingly, the experts discovered that mammals ranging between approximately 15 to 45 kg were less abundant than predicted, in both living and fossil communities. This unexpected observation, according to the researchers, is likely due to these species' rarity in savanna habitats, an ecosystem where monkeys and small forest-dwelling antelopes are scarce.</p>



<p>A major revelation came when they investigated how the relationship between size and abundance has evolved over time. Earlier communities, particularly those older than about 4 million years, displayed a markedly higher number of large individuals. Furthermore, a higher proportion of total biomass was found in larger size categories compared to younger communities.</p>



<p>This abundant presence of large mammals in ancient African ecosystems - some elephants weighed in at over 10 tons - is an extraordinary phenomenon seldom seen in today's ecosystems.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Over time, there has been a steady disappearance of large individuals from the fossil record. This slow loss reflects the long-term decline of large mammal diversity since the late Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs, leading to the smaller and less diverse communities we observe today.</p>



<h2 id="h-african-megafauna-began-vanishing-much-earlier-than-believed">African megafauna began vanishing much earlier than believed</h2>



<p>This study bolsters recent arguments suggesting that the massive loss of African megafauna began significantly earlier than previously thought, challenging the prevalent belief that humans were the primary drivers of these declines.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While the dispersion of humans worldwide during the late Pleistocene and Holocene epochs coincides with significant extinction events, this new research supports the idea that megafaunal losses in Africa began as early as 4 million years ago, much before humans developed efficient hunting strategies. Instead, the researchers identify environmental factors, such as a decrease in global temperatures and the growth of tropical grasslands, as potential triggers for megafaunal extinctions.</p>



<p>Bibi and Cantalapiedra also found that the gradual disappearance of larger mammals and the consequent shift in biomass distribution could be associated with a reduction in primary productivity. Using a well-established relationship between mammalian tooth morphology and current plant productivity, they estimated past productivity for African communities.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings suggest a significant, approximately two-thirds decrease in productivity since the Late Miocene epoch, more than 5 million years ago. This global trend could have substantially reduced the carrying capacity of large mammal communities, thereby accelerating the decline of large species diversity and hastening their extinction.</p>



<h2 id="h-ecosystem-dynamics-are-incredibly-complex">Ecosystem dynamics are incredibly complex</h2>



<p>This research provides a fresh perspective on ecosystem dynamics and the complex interplay between individuals, species, and their environment. It demonstrates how using fossil abundance data and size-based methodologies can offer invaluable insights into the ecological factors driving extinction.</p>



<p>The findings of this study represent a significant step forward in our understanding of African megafaunal extinctions and the evolution of ecosystems over geological time. The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.add8366"><em>Science</em></a>, has the potential to shape future conservation strategies and enhance our capacity to predict and manage biodiversity loss in response to environmental shifts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study emphasizes the deep-time origins of African megafaunal losses, challenging conventional wisdom and presenting a new timeline for these declines.</p>



<h2 id="h-using-these-findings-to-slow-this-rapid-decline">Using these findings to slow this rapid decline</h2>



<p>Understanding how environmental changes impacted past ecosystems can help predict how current and future shifts might affect biodiversity. The data provided by Bibi and Cantalapiedra's study may inform conservation efforts, highlighting the potential consequences of losing large individuals from our ecosystems.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The work provides a sobering reminder of the cascading effects environmental changes can have on biodiversity and the overall health of our planet. This study also highlights the importance of paleontological research in conservation science.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By peering into the past, scientists can gain a better understanding of how ecological communities are structured and how they respond to large-scale changes. This knowledge can, in turn, provide valuable insights for managing the impacts of ongoing environmental changes on our ecosystems.</p>



<p>In conclusion, the research has opened new avenues for understanding the dynamics of ecosystems and the complex interactions between individuals, species, and their environment. Their findings offer fresh perspectives that can contribute to mitigating the impact of biodiversity loss.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This in-depth exploration into the life and death of ancient African megafauna offers valuable lessons for the present and future, showing how vital it is to preserve our planet's biodiversity for generations to come.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-african-megafauna">More about African megafauna&nbsp;</h2>



<p>African megafauna refers to the continent's large animals, typically weighing over 100 pounds or around 45 kilograms. This group includes a diverse range of animals, from large herbivores like elephants and giraffes to large carnivores like lions and hyenas. It also includes a variety of lesser-known, yet equally impressive species such as the hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and the Cape buffalo.</p>



<p>The term "megafauna" is often associated with animals from a previous geological era, notably the Pleistocene epoch which ended around 11,700 years ago. During this time, Africa was home to a number of species that are now extinct, such as various species of proboscideans (the group that includes elephants and their extinct relatives) and the saber-toothed cat.</p>



<p>Africa is unique in that it's the only continent that has preserved a diverse range of megafauna to the present day. For instance, in many parts of the world, megafauna such as mammoths, mastodons, and giant sloths went extinct at the end of the Pleistocene, an event known as the Quaternary extinction. However, Africa retained much of its large mammalian biodiversity, with the extant fauna including charismatic species like elephants, rhinos, and big cats.</p>



<p>That said, Africa's megafauna has not been immune to decline. Many species have seen their ranges shrink and populations dwindle due to human activity such as habitat destruction, hunting, and climate change. Even animals that are seemingly plentiful, like elephants, face significant threats that could lead to their extinction if not properly addressed.</p>



<p>Furthermore, the research conducted by Bibi and Cantalapiedra suggests that this trend is not entirely new. Their findings indicate that the loss of megafauna in Africa started around 4 million years ago, far earlier than the spread of humans. They argue that changes in climate and habitat, rather than human hunting, initiated this gradual decline in megafauna diversity and abundance.</p>



<p>Understanding Africa's megafauna and their history is crucial for conserving these magnificent animals and the ecosystems they inhabit. These creatures play vital roles in their environments, influencing everything from vegetation patterns to the behavior of other animals. Their loss would drastically alter African ecosystems and could have far-reaching impacts on global biodiversity.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Vanishing giants: Study reveals shocking decline of large mammals in Africa

In a shocking study, Faysal Bibi of the Museum für...

Beautiful,And,Lovely,Bird,,Black-backed,Kingfisher,Or,Three-toed,Kingfisher,(ceyx

<p>Imagine looking out of your window and spotting a bird. The sight of some birds might stir a sense of thrill within you, while others might not provoke much of a reaction. </p>



<p>A team of researchers at the <a href="https://www.luomus.fi/en">Finnish Museum of Natural History</a> set out on a fascinating quest to decipher these varying human responses towards different bird species.</p>



<p>Leveraging an online application, Iratebirds, the research team conducted a global examination of how we humans perceive bird appearances. This intriguing platform enabled users to express their preferences based on photographs of birds and the likes they garnered. </p>



<h2>Scoring method for attractive birds goes from 1 to 10</h2>



<p>Covering all the bird species known to humankind, the study has resulted in a comprehensive scoring of the most attractive birds. The system uses a scale from 1 to 10, rating the aesthetic attractiveness of almost 10,000 bird species worldwide.</p>



<p>"Delving into Finland's bird viewing habits, we found that a majority of small to mid-sized, colorful birds ranked high on the attractiveness scale," explained Anna Haukka, a PhD researcher at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a>. "In fact, among the top ten most admired species, half were birds of prey, with owls taking four spots and the remaining taken up by eagles, hawks, and falcons."</p>



<p>The bird that claimed the highest accolade for attractiveness was the snow-white snowy owl. It stood out not just within Finnish borders but also registered a high likeability score on the global scale.</p>



<p>Typically, Finnish bird species lean towards more muted shades of brown, black, grey, and white. However, there is a small population of more vibrant species as well. </p>



<h2>Most attractive bird scores globally lean towards birds of prey</h2>



<p>Looking at the global picture, there's a clear inclination towards colorful birds over <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scavenging-birds-rise-climate-change/">birds of prey</a>, with a higher concentration of colorful species in tropical regions compared to the north's higher latitudes.</p>



<p>"Some high-scoring colorful bird species worldwide include the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/females-evolved-beauty-defense-status/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kingfisher</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbird-flight-could-be-mimicked-by-aerial-vehicles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbird</a>, and bee-eater species. Notably, the long-tailed tit, mainly white in color but with distinct, beady eyes, also found favor among the smaller birds," explained Haukka.</p>



<p>The current study goes beyond an amusing comparison of bird aesthetics. It provides valuable insights that can serve as critical inputs for bird conservation initiatives and understand the pet trade's dynamics. </p>



<h2>Attractive birds help raise conservation awareness</h2>



<p>A bird's appeal might partially influence conservation priorities, given that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birdwatching-boosts-alaskas-economy-by-hundreds-of-millions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird watching</a> is a popular hobby that contributes significantly to human well-being. However, popular species can face increased disruption from nature tourism.</p>



<p>Additionally, the illegal pet trade often targets aesthetically pleasing bird species, transforming a bird's beauty into a threat to its survival. "This is a stark example of how aesthetics can play a double-edged role in a bird's life," Haukka added.</p>



<p>Conducted at the University of Helsinki's Finnish Museum of Natural History, this research project witnessed thousands of people engaging in the scoring of thousands of bird species' aesthetic appeal.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The project's open-access data, along with its description, have been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41597-023-02169-0"><em>Scientific Data</em></a>. It showcases the top 10 birds worldwide with the highest score on the visual aesthetic attractiveness scale, ranging from one, indicating low aesthetic appeal, to 10, denoting high aesthetic appeal.</p>



<p><em>Top 10 birds in the world with the highest score on the visual aesthetic attractiveness scale, ranging from 1 (low aesthetic appeal) to 10 (high aesthetic appeal).</em></p>



<figure class="wp-block-table"><table><tbody><tr><td><br><strong>Black-backed dwarf kingfisher 8.21</strong><br><br><strong>Yellow-throated tucan                8.17</strong><br><br><strong>Lesser violetear                           8.15</strong><br><br><strong>Violet-capped woodnymph       8.11</strong><br><br><strong>Rainbow bee-eater                     8.10</strong><br><br><strong>Costa’s hummingbird                 8.09</strong><br><br><strong>Black-billed streamertail           8.08</strong><br><br><strong>Malagasy kingfisher                   8.06</strong><br><br><strong>Purple-backed Fairywren          8.04</strong><br><br><strong>Snowy owl                                    8.03</strong>&nbsp;</td></tr></tbody></table><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">   </figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-more-about-birds">More about birds</h2>



<p>Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves, characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweight skeleton. Here's an overview of what we know about birds:</p>



<h3 id="h-evolution-and-classification">Evolution and classification</h3>



<p>Birds evolved from a group of two-legged dinosaurs known as theropods, the members of which include the powerful predator Tyrannosaurus rex and the smaller velociraptors. The first known bird, Archaeopteryx lithographica, lived about 150 million years ago during the Jurassic Period.</p>



<p>Birds are classified into orders, families, genera, and species. There are about 10,000 known bird species distributed among a vast range of habitats, including on all seven continents.</p>



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h3>



<p>Birds are known for their feathers, which are unique to this group of animals. Feathers provide insulation, aid in flight, and often have distinct colors and patterns that play a role in mate selection.</p>



<p>All birds have beaks, or bills, which they use for feeding, grooming, and defense. The shape and size of a bird's beak can often provide insight into its dietary habits.</p>



<p>Birds usually have a lightweight skeleton and hollow bones which assist in flight. They have wings, and most bird species can fly. Some birds, like penguins and ostriches, have adapted to other modes of life and lost the ability to fly, though they still have wings.</p>



<p>Birds lay hard-shelled eggs from which their young hatch. Most bird species are known for their parental care, with either one or both parents helping to feed and protect their young.</p>



<h3 id="h-bird-behavior">Bird behavior&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Bird behavior is incredibly diverse, but some common elements include social structure, communication, migration, and mating practices.</p>



<p>Many bird species form flocks, some comprising thousands or even millions of individuals. These flocks can offer protection from predators and help the birds find food.</p>



<p>Birds communicate in various ways, but vocalizations, like songs and calls, are the most common. Many species also communicate through visual signals, and some birds also use touch and smell for communication.</p>



<p>Migration is a common behavior in many bird species, where birds travel (sometimes over vast distances) from breeding grounds to non-breeding grounds.</p>



<p>Mating practices among birds are diverse. Many species form monogamous pairs, but others may be polygamous or polyandrous. Courtship often involves elaborate displays and songs.</p>



<h3 id="h-conservation">Conservation</h3>



<p>Birds face numerous threats, including habitat destruction, climate change, pollution, hunting, and introduced species. Many conservation organizations work to protect and conserve bird species and their habitats.</p>



<p>Please note, there are numerous scientific subfields dedicated to studying birds, including ornithology (the study of birds), avian ecology (studying birds within their ecosystems), avian ethology (studying bird behavior), and more. It's a vast field with new discoveries and understandings emerging regularly.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

New survey ranks the top 10 most attractive birds in the world. Do you agree with the results?

Imagine looking out of your window and spotting a bird....

<p>On June 16th, <a href="https://www.seaturtleweek.com/world-sea-turtle-day">World Sea Turtle Day</a> is celebrated globally, not only as a way to honor sea turtles but also to mark the birth of a legendary figure in sea turtle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-efforts-are-not-enough-to-save-antarctic-wildlife/">conservation</a>, Dr. Archie Carr. These creatures have graced our shores for millions of years, but honoring sea turtles today holds special significance, as their very existence faces serious threats.</p>



<p>Sea turtles have been known to capture imaginations with their beauty and grace. These majestic marine reptiles are also essential for the health of marine ecosystems.&nbsp;For example, green sea turtles primarily feed on seagrasses. By grazing, they help to keep the seagrass beds healthy.</p>



<h2 id="h-tenacity-and-strength">Tenacity and strength&nbsp;</h2>



<p>One of the most awe-inspiring aspects of sea turtles is their tenacity. They have been known to migrate long distances, cross entire oceans, and return to their nesting grounds with remarkable accuracy. The resilience they have displayed, maintaining their presence on our beaches for millions of years, is an evolutionary success story.</p>



<p>“Their perseverance is what sets them apart,” says Mary Tillman, a marine biologist. “Not only are sea turtles beautiful animals, but they also show incredible perseverance and resiliency – after all, they have been nesting on beaches for millions of years. So of course, they deserve their own day dedicated to their awesomeness!”</p>



<p>Social media is playing a significant role in celebrating World Sea Turtle Day. Hashtags such as #SeaTurtleWeek and #WorldSeaTurtleDay are trending as people share information and inspiration. Several posts invite the public to learn more about how they can contribute to the conservation efforts in their daily lives.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-dr-archie-carr">Dr. Archie Carr&nbsp;</h2>



<p>World Sea Turtle Day also celebrates the legacy of Dr. Archie Carr, who is widely regarded as the “father of sea turtle biology.” Born on June 16, Dr. Carr's contributions to the field of sea turtle conservation are monumental. His extensive research brought much-needed attention to the precarious state of sea turtle populations worldwide.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Through his relentless advocacy, Dr. Carr shed light on the various threats these creatures face, including habitat loss, entanglement in fishing gear, climate change, and illegal trade.</p>



<p>“Dr. Carr will forever be remembered for the enhancement of the sea turtle conservation movement and the legacy he has left behind,” said Jonathan Gonzalez, a spokesperson for the <a href="https://conserveturtles.org/">Sea Turtle Conservancy</a>. “His research and advocacy brought attention to the threatening conditions that continue to impact sea turtles today. His work highlighted the issues and helped create the community that continues to strive for a better life and future for sea turtles around the globe.”</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-sea-turtles">More about sea turtles</h2>



<p>Sea turtles are remarkable creatures with unique characteristics and play a vital role in marine ecosystems. Here’s what makes them special:</p>



<h3 id="h-ancient-lineage">Ancient lineage&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Sea turtles have been around for a very long time, with their ancestors dating back to the time of dinosaurs. The modern sea turtles we see today have been swimming the oceans for over 100 million years.</p>



<h3 id="h-long-distance-migrations">Long-distance migrations&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Some species of sea turtles are known for their astonishing migratory capabilities. Leatherback sea turtles, for instance, can travel more than 10,000 miles between their feeding and nesting grounds.</p>



<h3 id="h-nesting-instincts-and-navigation">Nesting instincts and navigation</h3>



<p>Female sea turtles have a strong nesting instinct and often return to the same beach where they were born to lay their eggs. They use Earth’s magnetic field as a natural GPS to navigate across oceans and find their way back to their natal beaches.</p>



<h3 id="h-unique-anatomy">Unique anatomy</h3>



<p>Sea turtles cannot retract their heads and limbs into their shells like land turtles. Their bodies are streamlined for swimming, with paddle-like flippers that make them agile and efficient swimmers.</p>



<h3 id="h-role-in-the-ecosystem">Role in the ecosystem</h3>



<p>Sea turtles are critical to marine ecosystems. They help maintain the health of seagrass beds and coral reefs. For example, green sea turtles graze on seagrasses, which helps the grass to grow healthier and provide habitats for other marine life.</p>



<h3 id="h-temperature-dependent-sex-determination">Temperature-dependent sex determination</h3>



<p>The sex of sea turtle hatchlings is determined by the temperature of the sand where the eggs are incubated. Warmer temperatures typically produce more female hatchlings, while cooler temperatures produce more males.</p>



<h3 id="h-breathing-underwater">Breathing underwater</h3>



<p>Though sea turtles are reptiles and breathe air, they can hold their breath for several hours at a time when resting or sleeping underwater. This ability varies among species and depends on activity levels.</p>



<h3 id="h-endangered-status">Endangered status</h3>



<p>Unfortunately, nearly all species of sea turtles are listed as threatened or endangered. They face numerous threats including habitat destruction, pollution, climate change, and illegal trade in turtle products.</p>



<h3 id="h-cultural-significance">Cultural significance</h3>



<p>Sea turtles hold significant cultural value in many societies around the world. They are often seen as symbols of longevity, endurance, and navigation, and feature prominently in the mythology and folklore of various cultures.</p>



<h3 id="h-unique-diets-and-adaptations">Unique diets and adaptations</h3>



<p>Different species of sea turtles have adapted to specialized diets. For example, the hawksbill sea turtle has a bird-like beak that is effective for reaching into crevices in coral reefs to find sponges, its primary food source.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

World Sea Turtle Day: A tribute to resilience and conservation

On June 16th, World Sea Turtle Day is celebrated globally,...

Orangutan,Pongo,Pygmaeus,At,Tanjung,Puting,National,Park,Borneo,Indonesia

<p>Borneo's endangered orangutans are altering their behavior and vocal patterns following peatland wildfires, a groundbreaking study has found.</p>



<p>This research, spearheaded by Wendy Erb, a postdoctoral associate at the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>, could pave the way for scientists to assess the health of these wild animals. They would do so without having to confront the hazards associated with studying them amidst wildfires.</p>



<p>These endangered orangutans exhibit significant changes in their movements and calls after the occurrence of fires, a finding that was recently published in the scientific journal, iScience, on June 13.</p>



<p>“The animals move around less to conserve energy,” stated Erb. The orangutans' vocalizations also change, becoming "deeper, more raspy and shakier," akin to the cough of a human smoker.</p>



<p>These vocal features indicate inflammation, stress, and disease, similar to symptoms observed in humans and other animals dealing with illnesses like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-associated-with-lower-covid-19-vaccine-responses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-surge-in-wildfires-further-threaten-endangered-orangutans">Surge in wildfires further threaten endangered orangutans</h2>



<p>Indonesia, much like other parts of the world, has witnessed a surge in wildfires, a scenario closely tied to climate change. Additionally, these fires correlate with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forecasters-warn-of-weather-chaos-as-el-nino-arrives-early/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a> cycles, periods of warming in the Pacific Ocean.</p>



<p>Peatland fires, in particular, pose a unique challenge, as they can burn underground for weeks, releasing remarkably high amounts of harmful gases and particulate matter.</p>



<p>Erb, stationed at the Cornell Lab's K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics, led a research team from the <a href="https://www.aim.uzh.ch/de/orangutannetwork/tuananorangutanresearchproject.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tuanan Orangutan Research Program</a> to investigate the behavior of adult male orangutans in Borneo.</p>



<p>The team discovered that during the fire season, the region recorded its highest levels of particulate matter. The average daily concentrations rose to nearly 12 times the level classified as hazardous to human health by the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a>.</p>



<h2>Endangered orangutans as an "indicator species"</h2>



<p>Critically endangered orangutans are often viewed as "indicator species." Their health and behavior mirror the state of their environments.</p>



<p>The repeated and lengthy exposure to toxic smoke resulting from the fires could potentially wreak havoc on the health of orangutans, and, by extension, other wildlife.</p>



<p>The study underscores the pressing need to examine the indirect and long-term effects of Indonesia's peatland fires. This excludes the obvious issues of the immediate destruction of forests and their inhabitants.</p>



<h2>Using acoustic methods to monitor species</h2>



<p>Erb believes that the findings of this study are instrumental in understanding the health of these endangered species through acoustic methods. She sees tremendous potential in passive acoustic monitoring to gain insight into the wildfire smoke's impact on global wildlife populations.</p>



<p>"By uncovering the linkages between acoustic, behavioral, and energetic shifts in endangered orangutans, this research can help scientists and wildlife managers safely monitor the health of this critically endangered species using acoustic methods," Erb stated.</p>



<h2>More about endangered orangutans</h2>



<p>Orangutans are one of the most interesting species of primates and are native to the islands of Borneo and Sumatra in Southeast Asia. Here's everything I know about them:</p>



<h3>Species</h3>



<p>There are three species of orangutans: the Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), the Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii), and the Tapanuli orangutan (Pongo tapanuliensis). The latter was only recognized as a distinct species in 2017.</p>



<h3>Appearance</h3>



<p>Orangutans have a distinctive appearance. They are known for their reddish-brown fur, unlike other great apes. Adult males are larger than females and have large cheek pads, known as flanges.</p>



<h3>Arboreal Nature</h3>



<p>They are the largest arboreal (tree-living) mammal in the world. Orangutans spend most of their lives in trees and have adapted well to this lifestyle. They have long, strong arms and curved hands and feet, with an opposable thumb and big toe that helps them grasp branches.</p>



<h3>Diet</h3>



<p>Endangered orangutans are omnivores, but their diet mainly consists of fruits (especially durians and lychees), leaves, bark, and insects. They have also been observed using tools to extract seeds from fruit and honey from beehives.</p>



<h3>Behavior</h3>



<p>Orangutans are largely solitary animals. Adult males are usually alone, while females are accompanied by their offspring. They are not territorial but adult males will display aggression towards each other.</p>



<h3>Reproduction</h3>



<p>Endangered orangutans have a long interbirth interval of 7-9 years, which is the longest of any animal on earth. This slow rate of reproduction makes it harder for their populations to recover from declines.</p>



<h3>Communication</h3>



<p>They communicate using a variety of sounds, from roars and growls to "kissing" sounds. The males produce a loud call, known as the "long call", which can be heard up to a kilometer away and is used to attract females or intimidate rival males.</p>



<h3>Intelligence</h3>



<p>Orangutans are very intelligent and exhibit a variety of sophisticated behaviors, such as tool use and construction of elaborate sleeping nests in the trees each night. They are capable of learning and mimicking human behaviors.</p>



<h3>Conservation Status of Endangered Orangutans</h3>



<p>All three species of orangutans are classified as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The main threats to their survival are habitat loss due to deforestation for palm oil plantations, illegal pet trade, and hunting.</p>



<h3>Lifespan of endangered orangutans</h3>



<p>Orangutans can live up to 45 years in the wild and even longer in captivity.</p>



<p>Orangutans are remarkable creatures, and they play a critical role in their ecosystem by dispersing seeds and promoting forest growth. However, they're under severe threat and need urgent conservation efforts to ensure their survival.</p>

Already endangered orangutans now face new threats from wildfires

Borneo's endangered orangutans are altering their behavior and vocal patterns...

<p>Dog bites could be more frequent — even up to eleven percent more — on days that are both hotter and sunnier. This trend is also seen on days when the levels of air pollution are high.</p>



<p>This intriguing connection was suggested by a study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-35115-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>. The authors, however, have advised caution, stating that there's a need for more data and additional research to validate these findings.</p>



<p>Earlier research has already shown that both hot weather and increased air pollution can be linked to heightened aggression in humans and several animal species including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-structure-of-rhesus-macaques-is-shaped-by-social-interactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhesus monkeys</a>, rats, and mice. But, until now, it was uncertain if the same trend applied to dogs being aggressive towards humans.</p>



<h2 id="h-studying-dog-bites-in-major-us-cities">Studying dog bites in major US cities</h2>



<p>To investigate this, a team led by Clas Linnman meticulously studied the data related to dog bites in eight major US cities — Dallas, Houston, Baltimore, Baton Rouge, Chicago, Louisville, Los Angeles, and New York City.</p>



<p>This data, dating from 2009 to 2018, was either acquired from publicly accessible records kept by animal control authorities or sourced from previous compilations of dog bites.</p>



<p>In this decade-long span, there were 69,525 reported incidents of dog bites. This boils down to an average of three dog bites each day.</p>



<p>The team then explored the correlation between these dog bite rates and daily levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), ozone, and temperature. They also looked into the UV and precipitation levels on those days.</p>



<h2>What the researchers learned about dog bites</h2>



<p>From their analysis, the authors found that on days with increased UV levels, the occurrence of dog bites increased by eleven percent. Likewise, days with higher temperatures saw a four percent rise in dog bite incidence. Days with increased levels of ozone saw a three percent increase.</p>



<p>Interestingly, dog bites were one percent less likely on days with more rainfall. However, they found no changes in the dog bite rates on days with higher levels of PM2.5.</p>



<h2>Team expresses need for more research</h2>



<p>The authors did put forth a note of caution, explaining that the data they had on dog bites lacked details about other factors that might influence a dog's likelihood of biting.</p>



<p>They didn't have access to information such as the breed or sex of the dog, whether the dog had been neutered or spayed, or prior interactions between the dog and the individual bitten, such as familiarity.</p>



<p>Wrapping up their report, the authors concluded that their findings seem to extend the known association between higher temperatures, increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-increased-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollution</a>, and aggression across species. This study now adds dogs to the list. However, they stressed the need for further research to not only confirm this finding but also explore this relationship in depth.</p>



<h2>More about hot weather and aggressive behavior</h2>



<p>It's fascinating how the weather can influence human behavior, including levels of aggression. This concept isn't new; in fact, it has been studied extensively. Several factors are believed to contribute to why hot weather might lead to an increase in aggression.</p>



<h3>Discomfort and Irritability</h3>



<p>Heat can cause physical discomfort which can lead to increased irritability. The unpleasant sensation of being hot and sweaty might make people more likely to lose their patience and become angry. This might also be worsened by poor sleep quality, another side effect of hot weather.</p>



<h3>Changes in Brain Chemistry</h3>



<p>There's some evidence to suggest that exposure to heat may lead to changes in brain chemistry. These changes can potentially influence behavior, including making people more prone to aggressive actions. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humidity-increases-urban-heat-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heat stress</a> might stimulate the production of certain hormones, like cortisol, which are associated with stress and aggression.</p>



<h3>Heat Hypothesis</h3>



<p>This is a theory that connects higher temperatures to increases in aggressive behaviors. The premise is that heat influences the levels of arousal, which can make people more reactive and less able to control their aggressive impulses.</p>



<h3>Routine Activities Theory</h3>



<p>This theory posits that during warm weather, people are more likely to be outdoors and interact with each other, which increases the chances for conflict and potentially aggressive encounters.</p>



<p>While it's clear that there's a correlation between hot weather and increased aggression, it's important to note that heat isn't the only factor that can influence aggressive behaviors. Individual personality traits, the situation, and other environmental factors can also play significant roles.</p>



<p>As with all research, these findings have limitations and it's important to remember that correlation does not necessarily imply causation. In other words, while there is a relationship between hot weather and aggression, the heat doesn't directly cause the aggression. It’s likely a contributing factor among many others, and more research is needed to fully understand the connection.</p>

Dog bites occur more frequently in hot weather and when air pollution is high

Dog bites could be more frequent — even up to...

Wild,African,Animals.,The,Springbok,(medium-sized,Antelope),In,Tall,Yellow

<p>As the relentless heat of climate change grips our world, southern Africa and the African antelopes and other African mammals living in that habitat find themselves in the crosshairs of an alarming temperature rise.</p>



<p>The rising thermometer jeopardizes the region's wild inhabitants, like antelopes, particularly those reliant on its already parched and fragile ecosystems. Their struggle for sustenance and water heightens, and their resilience to escalating heat diminishes.</p>



<p>A group of determined scientists has turned its attention to this issue, with a particular focus on how various antelope species, who share territories in <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-extreme-landscapes-of-namibia-south-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Namibia</a>, are grappling with the rising heat. Their aim is to comprehend how creatures of different sizes and habits are developing their defenses against the searing heat.</p>



<p>Paul Berry, a key researcher from the <a href="https://www.uni-potsdam.de/en/university-of-potsdam" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Potsdam</a> and the lead author of this study published in Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, cautioned, “Even the indigenous wildlife, adapted to hot and arid conditions, shows sensitivity to extreme heat. We need to consider the possibility that additional anthropogenic influences such as habitat fragmentation may compound the effect of rising temperatures.”</p>



<h2 id="h-animals-like-antelopes-are-altering-their-behavior-to-survive">Animals like antelopes are altering their behavior to survive</h2>



<p>To survive blistering temperatures, animals have an array of strategies at their disposal. They might genetically evolve, migrate, or even alter their behavior. Of these, behavioral modifications are the most flexible and immediate.</p>



<p>These can include seeking cooler spaces within their territories, adjusting their posture or activities, panting, or decreasing food intake. However, each adaptation carries a physical toll, and understanding this complex balancing act necessitates deeper investigation into how each species employs these adaptations.</p>



<h2>How the antelope study was conducted</h2>



<p>In this study, the team scrutinized the springbok, kudu, and eland antelope species. Springboks, the smallest of the trio, favor open terrains and exhibit high mobility. Kudus, medium-sized creatures, lean towards woodland areas and travel less. Elands, the largest, exhibit mobility like springboks and can live independently of water if their food carries enough moisture.</p>



<p>Equipping adult animals from each species with collar-fitted accelerometers, the team monitored their movements during the hottest periods between 2019 and 2021. They then correlated this data with the local weather station records and heat maps of the different species' habitats.</p>



<h2>What the researchers discovered about African antelopes</h2>



<p>The findings revealed that springboks suffered the most from the rising heat. Their activity levels dwindled, with less movement during the day and no compensatory increase in nighttime activity.</p>



<p>Elands, on the other hand, successfully transitioned their activities from daytime to nighttime. Their impact was less, possibly due to their avoidance of the open, sun-exposed areas that springboks tend to inhabit.</p>



<p>Kudus, shade-dwellers and less mobile than the others, exhibited minimal changes in activity. Their larger size, coupled with the decreased predation risk and a greater capacity to withstand heat increases before experiencing thermal stress, likely contributed to their resilience.</p>



<p>"While we showed how antelope differ in their response to extreme heat, it would be insightful to know also how they change their behavior," Berry remarked, revealing plans to use machine learning models to classify behaviors, such as feeding, resting, and movement, based on data gathered through direct observation.</p>



<h2>Scientists are planning more studies</h2>



<p>The research team postulates that other animals' heat response mechanisms might also be influenced by factors like body size and habitat preference. However, more studies are needed to confirm this.</p>



<p>The implications of non-lethal heat stress are not to be underestimated, as they can still negatively impact an animal population's health and reproductive capabilities. This could lead to significant changes within the ecosystem and consequential impacts on the local environment.</p>



<p>Dr. Niels Blaum of the University of Potsdam, the senior author of the study, highlighted the broader importance of this research, saying, “Managing the land both in an economically viable and an ecologically sustainable way is a complex task with far-reaching implications for the social and economic welfare of the region's inhabitants.</p>



<h2>More about the impact of climate change on mammals</h2>



<p>Climate change has far-reaching implications for mammals around the globe, and these impacts extend far beyond just shifts in temperature. From altering food chains to changing habitats, the ripple effects of a warming planet pose a multitude of threats to mammals.</p>



<h3>Shifts in Distribution from Rising Temperatures</h3>



<p>As temperatures rise, many mammal species are forced to move toward the poles or to higher altitudes in search of cooler climates. This shift can disrupt established territories, create competition for resources, and in some cases, drive species into areas where they are not adapted to survive.</p>



<h3>Changes in Food Supply</h3>



<p>Changes in climate can affect the timing and availability of food sources. For instance, warmer temperatures can cause plants to bloom earlier, disrupting the timing of food availability for herbivorous mammals. Similarly, if the insects or smaller mammals that carnivores rely on for food are affected by climate change, it could create a cascading impact up the food chain.</p>



<h3>Alterations in Hibernation and Migration Patterns</h3>



<p>Changes in seasonal patterns can disrupt the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-have-a-biological-switch-that-prepares-them-for-seasonal-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biological rhythms of mammals</a>. Some species may emerge from hibernation before food sources are available, while others might delay migration due to warmer temperatures, putting them at risk when the food supply eventually diminishes.</p>



<h3>Increased Disease and Parasite Threats</h3>



<p>Warmer temperatures can increase the prevalence and spread of diseases and parasites that affect mammals. For example, ticks, which carry Lyme disease, are expanding their range due to milder winters.</p>



<h3>Extreme Weather Events and Habitat Loss</h3>



<p>More frequent and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-animals-are-most-affected-by-extreme-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intense weather events</a>, such as wildfires, hurricanes, and droughts, can destroy habitats and food sources, causing immediate danger and long-term stress on mammal populations. Rising sea levels, a result of melting polar ice, can also lead to the loss of coastal habitats.</p>



<h3>Threat of Extinction from Rising Temperatures</h3>



<p>For species already endangered or with small populations, the added stress of climate change can push them <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-now-or-never-for-madagascars-endangered-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">closer to extinction</a>. A 2020 review published in the journal "Nature Climate Change" suggests that half of the world's terrestrial mammals are at risk from climate change and may not have the ability to adapt quickly enough to survive.</p>



<p>To mitigate these effects, it is crucial to continue efforts aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and preserving and restoring natural habitats. Additionally, more research is needed to understand and anticipate how climate change will affect specific species and ecosystems, so that effective conservation strategies can be implemented.</p>

Case study: How African antelopes are responding to rising temperatures

As the relentless heat of climate change grips our world,...

<p>We've all seen the ant communication system in action. Picture this: You spot a lone ant skittering across your kitchen floor. In a week's time, it feels like the entire colony has set up camp in your home. But even after setting traps, you only manage to catch a handful, and the rest vanish without a trace.</p>



<p>Such mysterious behavior now has a plausible explanation, thanks to a study published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(23)00544-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientific journal, Cell, on June 14</a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-does-ant-communication-work-from-long-distances">How does ant communication work from long distances?</h2>



<p>The research focuses on the role of danger-signaling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modified-plants-produce-pheromones-to-confuse-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pheromones</a>. These are chemical cues ants use to communicate with their fellow nestmates. They then try and determine how these triggers activate a specific section of an ant’s brain, altering the behavior of the whole colony.</p>



<p>Taylor Hart of <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Rockefeller University</a>, the lead author of the study, highlighted the complexity of these tiny creatures' social structures and communication systems.</p>



<p>"Humans aren't the only animals with complex societies and communication systems," Hart says, pointing out that "over the course of evolution, ants have evolved extremely complex olfactory systems compared to other insects, which allows them to communicate using many different types of pheromones that can mean different things."</p>



<h2>Communication hub found in ant brains is similar to humans</h2>



<p>In essence, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-ants-make-a-huge-contribution-to-forest-regeneration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> possess a unique communication hub in their brains that's similar to humans. This nerve center decodes alarm pheromones, or "danger signals", from other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/there-are-2-5-million-ants-for-each-human-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a>.</p>



<p>Interestingly, it appears that this part of the ant's brain may be more specialized than in other insects like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-create-mental-maps-to-find-their-way-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honeybees</a>, which have been previously believed to rely on several brain parts to react to a single pheromone.</p>



<p>Corresponding author Daniel Kronauer also of The Rockefeller University, describes this as a "sensory hub in the ant brain that all the panic-inducing alarm pheromones feed into."</p>



<h2>How the ant communication study was conducted</h2>



<p>The researchers scanned the brain activity of clonal raider ants exposed to danger signals, using an engineered protein named GCaMP. This protein binds to calcium ions, illuminating brain activity. The resulting fluorescent chemical compound is visible on high-resolution microscopes specially adapted for the task.</p>



<p>During the scans, it was observed that the danger signals triggered activity in only a small section of the ants' brains. Despite this, the ants exhibited immediate and intricate responses, leading researchers to term these reactions as the "panic response". Such behaviors included fleeing, evacuating the nest, and transporting their offspring to safer locations.</p>



<h2>Different colony sizes use different pheromones</h2>



<p>Ant species with different colony sizes employ different pheromones to relay diverse messages. "In the wild, clonal raider ants usually have a colony size of just tens to hundreds of individuals, which is pretty small as far as ant colonies go," Hart explains.</p>



<p>This might be why these smaller colonies display 'panic responses' - their primary goal is survival, and they cannot afford to lose many members. In contrast, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/35-million-year-old-army-ant-is-the-oldest-on-record/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">army ants</a>, cousins of the clonal raider ants, boast of much larger colonies, sometimes reaching up to hundreds of thousands or even millions of individuals, making them more aggressive.</p>



<p>Irrespective of the species, ants within a colony segregate themselves by caste and role, each with slightly different anatomical features. For this study, the researchers selected clonal raider ants due to their ease of control, focusing on one sex within one caste and role (female worker ants) for consistency.</p>



<p>This controlled approach will facilitate the observation of widespread patterns, paving the way for a clearer understanding of neural differences among different castes, sexes, and roles in ant colonies, thereby enabling researchers to decipher how different ant brains process the same signals.</p>



<p>Hart shares that "we can start to look at how these sensory representations are similar or different between ants." Adding to this, Kronauer notes that they're looking into the "division of labor. Why do individuals that are genetically the same assume different tasks in the colony? How does this division of labor work?"</p>



<h2>Reshaping our understanding and appreciation of ants</h2>



<p>This groundbreaking research on ant communication is set to reshape our understanding of these industrious insects. It reveals how the intricate societal structures we observe in human societies might not be unique to us but are mirrored, in their own way, within these minute creatures.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-colonies-behave-like-neural-networks-when-making-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ant colonies</a>, despite their seemingly simple existence, operate on a complex system of communication and organization that closely resembles the way larger, more advanced societies function. By uncovering the complex olfactory systems ants have evolved and the sophisticated "panic responses" they can trigger, this study allows us to delve deeper into the fascinating, unseen world of ants.</p>



<p>In doing so, it emphasizes that there is still so much to learn about these creatures and how they organize their colonies. It's not only about the size or the aggression level of a colony but also about the intricate communication systems that underpin their existence.</p>



<h2>Many unanswered questions remain about ant communication</h2>



<p>Studying how ants interpret and respond to danger signals is a step forward, but it's only the tip of the iceberg. The different caste systems, roles, and even the sex within a colony can influence how they react.</p>



<p>By isolating female worker ants from the clonal raider ants species, the researchers have created a platform that ensures consistency in their observations. This will undoubtedly pave the way for future studies exploring how different factors influence ant behavior.</p>



<p>The authors of the study, Hart and Kronauer, hint at what the future might hold. They envisage a world where we can compare the sensory representations across different ant species and look deeper into the division of labor within the colonies.</p>



<p>"Why do individuals that are genetically the same assume different tasks in the colony? How does this division of labor work?" Kronauer asks, pointing to the tantalizing questions the study raises.</p>



<p>Unraveling the mysteries of ant communication could provide us with valuable insights into ant societies, which are among the most successful on the planet, and could potentially have far-reaching implications on our understanding of animal behavior and societal structures.</p>



<p>Who knew that the unassuming ant skittering across your kitchen floor could be part of such an intricate and complex societal structure?</p>



<h2>More about ants</h2>



<p>Ants are fascinating creatures. They are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae, part of the order Hymenoptera, which also includes bees and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wasps-are-undervalued-as-predators-and-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wasps</a>.</p>



<p>They are notable for their structured colony life, where they form organized societies that are sometimes compared to human ones due to their complexity. Here's an overview of their characteristics, behavior, and more:</p>



<h3>Diversity</h3>



<p>There are over 12,000 identified species of ants worldwide, though estimates suggest that the actual number of species could be much higher, potentially over 20,000. They inhabit a diverse range of habitats, including grasslands, forests, deserts, and even the cold climes of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/arctic-haze/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic Circle</a>.</p>



<h3>Anatomy</h3>



<p>Ants, like all insects, have a hard exoskeleton that protects their bodies. They have three distinct body parts: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. On their head, they have two strong mandibles for carrying food and other items, two antennae for touch and smell, and compound eyes for detecting movement and light levels.</p>



<h3>Colony Structure</h3>



<p>Most ant colonies contain three castes: workers, males, and queens. Worker ants, which are typically sterile females, do the majority of the labor within the colony, such as foraging for food, caring for the young, and defending the nest. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queens-have-a-secret-weapon-to-slow-down-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queens</a> are fertile females responsible for laying all of the eggs in a colony. Males have only one role: to mate with the queens.</p>



<h3>Ant communication</h3>



<p>Ants communicate using pheromones, sound, and touch. They use pheromones to leave trails for other ants to follow, often to food sources, and to signal danger or alert the colony to various situations. Some species also use sounds or physical gestures to communicate.</p>



<h3>Cooperation and Labor Division</h3>



<p>Ant colonies display a remarkable level of cooperation and division of labor, with different ants having specific jobs depending on their age, size, or caste. This division of labor and cooperative behavior allows ant colonies to accomplish tasks that would be impossible for individual ants, such as taking down large prey or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-build-higher-nests-when-there-are-no-visible-landmarks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building intricate nests</a>.</p>



<h3>Diet and Foraging</h3>



<p>Ants have a varied diet, and their food preferences can differ greatly depending on the species. Some are omnivorous, eating a mix of plant and animal material, while others may specialize in seeds, fungi, or other insects. Many species have a foraging strategy where worker ants will search for food and then leave a pheromone trail for other ants to follow once they find a source of food.</p>



<h3>Impact on the Environment</h3>



<p>Ants play a crucial role in the environment. They help with soil aeration and the decomposition of organic material, contribute to pollination, and can impact the populations of other insects through the use of their special ant communication system.</p>



<h3>Relation with Humans</h3>



<p>While ants can be seen as pests, especially when they invade homes in search of food, they can also be beneficial. For example, certain species of ants are used in agriculture to control pests.</p>



<p>Despite their small size, ants are remarkable for their ability to form complex societies, their cooperative behavior, and their impact on ecosystems. They've also been the subject of extensive research, as scientists seek to understand their social structures, ant communication methods, and collective problem-solving abilities.</p>

Ants have a communications system that closely resembles mental telepathy

We've all seen the ant communication system in action. Picture...

<p>Contrary to popular belief, not all kangaroos have always hopped. That's the surprising revelation from a detailed analysis by scientists from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> and the University of Uppsala.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Although we typically think of hopping as the signature move of kangaroos, the researchers assert that extinct kangaroos employed varied locomotion methods, from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sharks-are-walking-to-find-more-favorable-conditions/">walking</a> on two legs to traveling on all fours.</p>



<p>The findings, published in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/talc20/current"><em>Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology</em></a>, challenge our traditional view of kangaroo evolution. We're accustomed to associating kangaroos with their iconic hopping.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the researchers show that being a kangaroo isn't strictly about endurance-hopping. In fact, the large-bodied kangaroos from the not-so-distant past were experts at striding and traversing.</p>



<h2 id="h-results-of-the-kangaroo-hop-study-were-a-great-surprise">Results of the kangaroo hop study were a great surprise</h2>



<p>The study undertakes an extensive examination of kangaroo locomotion throughout history, spanning 25 million years. Focusing on kangaroos and their relatives, including wallabies, tree-kangaroos, and rat-kangaroos, it uncovers new insights about their movement. Newly analyzed limb and ankle bone metric data support previous locomotor hypotheses.</p>



<p>These discoveries suggest that high-speed endurance hopping, a hallmark of today's large-bodied kangaroos, wasn't a common trait among extinct species. It might have been unique to a few large-bodied lineages, like the direct ancestors of today's red and grey kangaroos.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The plethora of kangaroo gaits ceased to exist following the Late Pleistocene extinctions, which wiped out larger animals across various continents.</p>



<h2 id="h-extinct-kangaroos-had-different-ways-of-moving-around">Extinct kangaroos had different ways of moving around</h2>



<p>Yet, the ancient locomotion records speak of a different era. They unveil a period when extinct kangaroos exhibited a broader spectrum of mobility. Early kangaroos, from the late Oligocene to the middle Miocene era (approximately 25 to 15 million years ago), likely used quadrupedal bounding, climbing, and slower hopping.</p>



<p>This contrasts with current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kangaroos-could-help-reduce-methane-emissions-from-cattle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kangaroos</a> that resort to quadrupedal movement at slower speeds. The large species also use their tail as a fifth limb in a pentapedal motion. Interestingly, these primitive kangaroo forms were small-bodied, weighing under 12kg. </p>



<h2 id="h-kangaroo-hopping-is-a-challenge-as-body-size-increases">Kangaroo hopping is a challenge as body size increases</h2>



<p>Kangaroos exceeding 20kg didn't appear until the late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-site-in-australia-indicates-abundant-life-during-the-miocene/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miocene</a> (around 10 million years ago), correlating with increased aridity and the spread of openly vegetated habitats.</p>



<p>As body size increases, hopping becomes a challenge. Consequently, later kangaroo species developed specialized anatomies that enabled efficient high-speed hopping for bodies over 35kg. No modern kangaroo exceeds 100kg, and many extinct forms were much heavier, making hopping physically impossible.</p>



<p>The lead author of the study, Professor Christine Janis from Bristol's School of Earth Sciences, stated, "We want people to appreciate that large kangaroos were much more diverse as recently as 50 thousand years ago, which may also mean that the habitat in Australia then was rather different from today. In fact, modern large hopping kangaroos are the exception in kangaroo evolution.”</p>



<p>As kangaroos grew in size during the late Miocene, they explored different movement strategies. While some kangaroos specialized in large-bodied endurance hopping, others experimented with alternative locomotion forms.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, the protemnodons, dubbed "giant wallabies," primarily relied on quadrupedal movement, rarely hopping. In contrast, the sthenurine short-faced kangaroos, which split from modern kangaroos around 15 million years ago, embraced bipedal striding.</p>



<h2 id="h-new-data-discovered-backs-up-this-kangaroo-hop-theory">New data discovered backs up this kangaroo hop theory</h2>



<p>The team's new data on tibia (shin bone) and calcaneum (ankle bone) lengths bolster these locomotor hypotheses. Adrian O’Driscoll, a former Master's student in the Palaeobiology program at Bristol, and current PhD student at the University of York, supported these findings.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Especially supported by this new data is the notion of bipedal striding rather than hopping in the sthenurines. Their calcanea lack the anatomy - a long calcaneal heel - that would help resist rotational forces at the ankle experienced during hopping, suggesting a more-erect limb posture instead of the crouched posture essential for hopping," said O’Driscoll.</p>



<p>"The assumption that increasing continent-wide aridity after the end of the Miocene selectively favored hopping kangaroos is overly simplistic," explained Professor Janis. "Hopping is only one of many gait modes employed by kangaroos both in the past and today, and the fast endurance hopping of modern kangaroos should not be regarded as some 'evolutionary pinnacle'."</p>



<p>"What makes modern endurance-hopping kangaroos appear so unusual is the geologically recent extinction of similar animals who moved in different ways. We are perhaps then in need of a rival Australian airline that covers shorter distances than QANTAS and boasts a novel motif of a striding sthenurine!"</p>



<p>This breakthrough study underscores the vast diversity of kangaroo locomotion over millions of years. It highlights the richness of kangaroo evolution, which extends beyond hopping. Notably, the research provides a fresh perspective on the remarkable adaptability of kangaroos in response to changing environmental conditions. As such, it rewrites a significant part of Australia's fascinating prehistoric narrative.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-kangaroos">More about kangaroos</h2>



<p>Kangaroos are marsupials from the family Macropodidae, a group that also includes wallabies and pademelons. They are native to Australia and are recognized globally for their unique mode of locomotion: hopping. Here are some key points about kangaroos:</p>



<h3 id="h-species-and-distribution">Species and distribution</h3>



<p>There are four main species of kangaroo: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-red-kangaroos-grow-faster-when-exposed-to-dingoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Red Kangaroo</a>, Eastern Grey Kangaroo, Western Grey Kangaroo, and Antilopine Kangaroo. All are endemic to Australia and each species has its preferred habitat, ranging from forests and woodland areas to savannas and desert-like plains.</p>



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Kangaroos are large marsupials, with the Red Kangaroo being the largest, capable of standing over 6 feet tall. They have powerful hind legs designed for hopping and long, muscular tails for balance. Their short forelimbs, equipped with sharp claws, are used for foraging and grooming.</p>



<h3 id="h-locomotion-and-the-kangaroo-hop">Locomotion and the kangaroo hop</h3>



<p>Kangaroos are famous for their hopping, which is an efficient way of travelling great distances in search of food and water. The hopping motion is powered by their strong hind legs and supported by their tail, which acts as a counterbalance. At slow speeds, they use a unique form of locomotion called "pentapedal locomotion," where they push forward on their tail and forelimbs while bringing their hind legs forward.</p>



<h3 id="h-reproduction-and-life-cycle">Reproduction and life cycle&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Kangaroos are marsupials, meaning they give birth to underdeveloped young, called joeys, which continue developing outside the womb, usually in the mother's pouch. A newborn joey is tiny, about 1 inch long, and crawls into the pouch to latch onto a teat for nourishment. It will remain in the pouch for about nine months (red kangaroo) before starting to venture out for short periods.</p>



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Kangaroos are herbivores, eating a variety of vegetation, with a preference for grasses. They have a chambered stomach, similar to cattle and sheep, where bacteria break down the cellulose in the plant matter they eat.</p>



<h3 id="h-behavior-and-social-structure">Behavior and social structure&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Kangaroos are social animals, typically found in groups called "mobs," "troops," or "courts." These are usually made up of 10 or more individuals, including males, females, and joeys. Males, known as boomers, will often fight with each other over potential mates by boxing with their forepaws or kicking with their hind legs.</p>



<h3 id="h-cultural-significance">Cultural significance</h3>



<p>The kangaroo is a symbol of <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/simultaneous-atmospheric-rivers-over-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australia</a> and appears on the country's coat of arms, currency, and is used by some of its major organizations, including the national airline, Qantas.</p>



<p>Research continues into the life and history of kangaroos, as highlighted by your earlier enquiry about kangaroo locomotion through history. While this is a general overview of kangaroos, there is a lot more detail to each of these points.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Not all kangaroo ancestors hopped as a means of locomotion

Contrary to popular belief, not all kangaroos have always hopped....

<p>Imagine being a bumblebee. Your existence is a vibrant interplay of colors and fragrances, each guiding you as you forage for nectar and pollen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>It's a world of excellent vision, where the intricate structure of compound eyes distinguishes UV and a majority of colors, save red. Beyond this, there are three additional eyes specially designed to discern polarized light.</p>



<p>Yet, the bumblebee's sense of smell steals the show. It's about a hundred times more sensitive than ours, capable of detecting illegal drugs or explosives at airports. It can even recognize early signs of pregnancies, cancers, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hibernating-bears-could-help-treat-human-diabetes/">diabetes</a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-scientists-learned-about-bumblebee-smell">What the scientists learned about bumblebee smell</h2>



<p>Now, scientists have revealed another extraordinary capability in these buzzing creatures - bumblebees use their exceptional sense of smell to locate their nests, particularly when the landscape suddenly changes. This latest revelation is reported in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1155223"><em>Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience</em></a>.</p>



<p>Sonja Eckel, a PhD student at the Department of Neurobiology of <a href="https://www.uni-bielefeld.de/(en)/">Bielefeld University</a> in Germany, who is the first author of this research, explained, "Here we show that bumblebees rely on their own scent marks, which they deposit at their nest entrance while leaving for a foraging trip, to find back home when the visual cues are not sufficiently reliable."</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-bumblebee-smell-study-was-conducted">How the bumblebee smell study was conducted</h2>



<p>In order to learn more about bumblebee smell, Eckel and her team observed the homing behavior of buff-tailed bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) in the laboratory. In the wild, these bumblebees nest in vacant mouseholes, concealed beneath grass or leaves. In the lab, the bees were trained to identify their nest entrance using two sets of visual cues inside a circular, enclosed flight arena.</p>



<p>The first set of cues included three black vertical stripes, each measuring 12cm wide and 85cm long, contrasted against the white walls of the arena. The second set comprised three cylinders, each 2.5cm wide and 15cm high, arranged in a triangle around the entrance hole.</p>



<p>The arena floor offered no visual cues. It featured a chaotic red-and-white pattern that appeared as black and white to the bumblebees. Following some training, the worker bees navigated directly to the entrance after trips to an outer chamber where they had been provided with nectar and pollen.</p>



<h2 id="h-focusing-on-bumblebees-scent-glands">Focusing on bumblebees’ scent glands</h2>



<p>Bumblebees are covered in several scent glands, which leave a chemical trace whenever they touch any surface, including their nest entrance. The researchers captured these scent marks by placing a glass ring around the entrance, which the foragers inevitably crossed when entering or exiting the nest.</p>



<p>The scientists then deceived the bees, shifting both sets of visual landmarks suddenly and independently. The landmarks now indicated false locations of the entrance. The real entrance was concealed, and none of the returning foragers could locate it.</p>



<p>Based on the conflicting landmarks, the researchers measured the time and distance at which the returning foragers hovered around either false location for the entrance. If a forager lingered around a spot for a longer duration and flew at a shorter average distance from it, she was considered more focused on that spot as the likely location of the entrance.</p>



<p>Typically, foragers seemed equally focused on either false location, indicating they relied on both sets of visual landmarks to fruitlessly try and locate their nest. However, when the researchers placed the glass ring with bumblebee scent marks around either location, foragers overwhelmingly concentrated on the false location suggested by the scent marks, hinting that bumblebee smell was guiding them.</p>



<h2 id="h-bumblebees-have-a-backup-plan-if-they-get-lost">Bumblebees have a backup plan if they get lost</h2>



<p>The researchers concluded that bumblebee foragers utilize both their sense of smell and vision to find their way back home, particularly when visual information is conflicting.</p>



<p>"While visual information is perceived over larger distances and leads a bumblebee towards the approximate location of the nest, scent marks are used to pinpoint the exact location of the nest entrance in the near range. Most likely, physical contact is necessary to identify the scent," explained Eckel.</p>



<p>"Our chemical analysis showed that this scent is a bouquet of hydrocarbons, fatty acids, and other substances, such as esters and alcohols. Many of these substances are known to be used by bumblebees in other behavioral contexts, also by other insect species.”</p>



<h2 id="h-next-step-learning-how-bumblebees-combine-their-senses">Next step: learning how bumblebees combine their senses</h2>



<p>Eckel and her team are eager to carry forward this research. They aim to study how bumblebees learn and combine different sensory cues. The objective is to understand how these creatures distinguish between various behaviorally relevant targets, such as the nest hole and food sources.</p>



<p>Eckel's research breaks new ground in our understanding of bumblebees, providing exciting insights into their navigational strategies. More than just charming garden visitors, bumblebees prove to be complex creatures, masterfully navigating their world using a combination of visual cues and scent marks.</p>



<p>This deep dive into the fascinating world of bumblebees and the way that bumblebees smell offers not only a greater appreciation for these humble insects but also potential inspiration for new technological applications.&nbsp;</p>



<p>From drug detection to aiding in medical diagnoses, understanding the bumblebee's sense of smell could hold significant implications for many fields of study. And who knows what further secrets these buzzing navigators of the insect world might yet reveal?</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-bumblebees">More about bumblebees</h2>



<p>Bumblebees, belonging to the genus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/multiple-habitats-must-be-protected-to-save-bumblebees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bombus</a> within the bee family Apidae, are robust and large-bodied insects known for their distinctive buzzing sound and important role in the environment. Here are some key aspects about bumblebees:</p>



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h3>



<p>Bumblebees are larger and rounder than many other bee species. They're generally characterized by their black and yellow body hairs, often in bands, although some species have orange or red on their bodies, or may be entirely black.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat-and-range">Habitat and range&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Bumblebees are native to almost every continent on Earth, but they are most common in temperate climates. They are versatile and can be found in a wide range of habitats, including forests, meadows, gardens, and even in the high arctic tundra.</p>



<h3 id="h-social-structure">Social structure&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Bumblebees live in colonies typically consisting of a single queen and worker bees. The queen is the mother of all bees in the colony. The workers, which are all female, perform various tasks such as foraging for food (pollen and nectar), feeding the young, and defending the hive.</p>



<h3 id="h-life-cycle">Life cycle&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The life cycle of a bumblebee colony begins in the spring when a queen, who has overwintered and survived in a safe place, emerges and finds a suitable location for her nest. She starts the colony by laying eggs that were fertilized the previous year.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The larvae that hatch are fed by the queen and eventually develop into worker bees. The workers then take over the task of foraging and caring for the new larvae, allowing the queen to focus on laying more eggs. As summer ends, the queen lays some eggs that develop into males and new queens. These leave the nest to mate, and the cycle continues.</p>



<h3 id="h-role-in-the-ecosystem">Role in the ecosystem&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Bumblebees are vital <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-existed-long-before-flowers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>, meaning they help plants reproduce. When a bumblebee lands on a flower to gather nectar, pollen from the flower sticks to the hairs on the bee's body. When the bee lands on the next flower, some of this pollen rubs off, pollinating the flower. Many plants, including several crops, depend on this process for fertilization.</p>



<h3 id="h-unique-characteristics">Unique characteristics&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Bumblebees are capable of a process known as buzz pollination, in which the bee grabs onto a flower's stamen and vibrates its flight muscles rapidly. This vibration dislodges pollen that would otherwise have remained trapped.</p>



<h3 id="h-sensory-abilities-and-bumblebee-smell">Sensory abilities and bumblebee smell</h3>



<p>Bumblebees have an excellent sense of smell and vision. They can distinguish UV light and most colors except red. They also rely on their sense of smell to locate their nest and even recognize early signs of pregnancies, cancers, or diabetes, as research shows.</p>



<h3 id="h-threats">Threats</h3>



<p>Bumblebee populations are facing significant decline worldwide due to factors like habitat loss, climate change, pesticide exposure, and diseases. This is a concern not only because of their ecological importance as pollinators but also because of their role in supporting wild flora and agricultural systems.</p>



<h3 id="h-conservation">Conservation&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Conservation efforts for bumblebees focus on preserving their natural habitats, reducing the use of harmful pesticides, and promoting practices that support their populations, like planting native flowering plants.</p>



<p>These are some of the key aspects about bumblebees. They are truly fascinating creatures, playing a crucial role in our natural world.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Bumblebees have an incredible sense of smell to find their way home

Imagine being a bumblebee. Your existence is a vibrant interplay...

French,Bulldog,Sleeping,On,The,Coach,With,Teddy,Bear

<p>In an interesting new study, researchers at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a> have put to test a novel technique for diagnosing sleep-disordered breathing in dogs, leveraging a neckband specifically engineered for human sleep apnea diagnostics.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jvim.16783"><em>Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine</em></a>, showed that sleep-disordered breathing is considerably more widespread in short-snouted dogs compared to those with longer snouts.</p>



<h2 id="h-brachycephalic-dogs-are-most-susceptible">Brachycephalic dogs are most susceptible</h2>



<p>Among the roster of favorite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-owners-are-happier-than-people-who-dont-have-pets/">pets</a>, we commonly find breeds like French bulldogs, pugs, and other brachycephalic dogs. Owing to selective breeding, these dogs have distinctively shorter noses and flat faces. However, these unique features also make them more prone to heat, overexertion, and a gamut of respiratory issues.</p>



<p>Moreover, it is found that brachycephalic dogs are frequently afflicted by episodes of sleep-disordered breathing, echoing symptoms of human obstructive sleep apnea due to the blockage of the upper airway.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Such episodes induce irregular breathing patterns due to the relaxation of upper airway muscles, thereby causing sleep disruptions and yielding daytime fatigue. The impact of sleep apnea can significantly degrade both human and canine wellbeing.</p>



<p>“Sleep apnea places people at considerable risk of conditions such as hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Sleep affects the body’s immune system, hormone secretion, and metabolism. Sufficient, sound sleep is vital for quality of life. For these reasons and others, we are interested in canine sleep too," said Iida Niinikoski, a doctoral researcher at the University of Helsinki's Faculty of Veterinary Medicine</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>“Previous methods for investigating sleep apnea have required dogs to sleep either while connected to all sorts of equipment or within a certain type of box in a lab. This has made research challenging and limited our knowledge of dog sleep apnea," said Niinikoski.</p>



<p>The solution to this predicament arrived in the form of the University of Helsinki Lung Insight research group's investigation. The group studied canine sleep patterns using a neckband system initially crafted to diagnose human sleep apnea.</p>



<p>Measurements were conducted in the comfort of the dogs' homes, using the screening device. The findings were striking - brachycephalic dogs exhibited a significantly higher count of sleep-disordered breathing events compared to their long-snouted counterparts. Moreover, the short-nosed dogs were found to snore more often.</p>



<p>The neckband system has proven to be a user-friendly tool for assessing sleep-disordered breathing in dogs. Though its usage is currently confined to research participants, the future may see it being widely employed for diagnosing sleep apnea in dogs in diverse contexts.</p>



<p>The next phase of the research focuses on identifying factors that predispose dogs to sleep apnea. “Good sleep is vital for the health of both humans and our animal friends," said Niinikoski.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-brachycephalic-dogs">More about brachycephalic dogs</h2>



<p>Brachycephalic dogs are breeds that have a uniquely short, broad skull shape, giving them a distinctive flat-faced or short-nosed appearance. This characteristic is the result of specific breeding practices.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Some popular examples of brachycephalic breeds include the English Bulldog, French Bulldog, Boston Terrier, Pug, Pekingese, Shih Tzu, and Boxer.</p>



<p>While many people find the pushed-in face and large, round eyes of these dogs endearing, the anatomical alterations required to create this appearance can lead to a host of health problems, collectively known as Brachycephalic Syndrome. This syndrome is characterized by a combination of upper airway abnormalities that can cause respiratory distress, among other health issues.</p>



<p>Some of the specific issues related to the brachycephalic anatomy include:</p>



<h3 id="h-stenotic-nares">Stenotic nares&nbsp;</h3>



<p>This is a congenital condition in which the dog's nostrils are too narrow or small, making it difficult for the dog to breathe through its nose.</p>



<h3 id="h-elongated-soft-palate">Elongated soft palate&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The soft part of the roof of the mouth is too long and can obstruct the airway during breathing.</p>



<h3 id="h-tracheal-stenosis">Tracheal stenosis&nbsp;</h3>



<p>A condition where the trachea (or windpipe) is narrower than normal, making it hard for the dog to breathe.</p>



<h3 id="h-hypoplastic-trachea">Hypoplastic trachea&nbsp;</h3>



<p>A developmental disorder where the trachea is narrower than it should be.</p>



<h3 id="h-distichiasis">Distichiasis</h3>



<p>This condition occurs when an extra row of eyelashes grow on the inside of the eyelid, which can irritate and harm the eye.</p>



<h3 id="h-skin-disorders">Skin disorders</h3>



<p>Brachycephalic dogs often have deep skin folds that can lead to dermatitis and other skin conditions if not kept clean and dry.</p>



<p>Apart from these physical challenges, brachycephalic breeds are also more susceptible to heatstroke due to their difficulty in panting effectively, which is a primary canine cooling behavior.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, their facial structure can cause dental and eye problems, as their shortened jaw can lead to crowded teeth and their prominent eyes are more susceptible to injury and disease.</p>



<h2 id="h-brachycephalic-breeds-remain-very-popular">Brachycephalic breeds remain very popular&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Despite these health challenges, brachycephalic breeds are generally known for their friendly, gentle nature, and they often make excellent companions. They typically require less exercise than more athletic breeds, but owners should still ensure that these dogs get regular, moderate activity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The healthcare needs of brachycephalic dogs can be demanding, so potential owners should be prepared for possible high veterinary costs and the need for specialized care.</p>



<p>There has been increasing awareness and discussion in the veterinary and breeding communities about the ethical implications of breeding brachycephalic dogs due to the health problems associated with their physical characteristics. Some countries and kennel clubs have also started to implement guidelines and rules to promote the breeding of healthier, less extreme versions of these breeds.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Dogs can have sleep apnea, too

In an interesting new study, researchers at the University of...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>



<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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