<p>If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.</p>



<p>In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. </p>



<p>But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



<p>In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.</p>



<p>The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.</p>



<p>Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.</p>



<p>“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. </p>



<p>“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



<p>The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.</p>



<p>“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. </p>



<p>“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”</p>



<p>When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



<p>This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.</p>



<p>“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. </p>



<p>“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



<p>Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.</p>



<p>That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.</p>



<p>“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



<p>The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. </p>



<p>But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.</p>



<p>That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a></em>.</p>



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

<p>Sea cucumbers, a marine delicacy revered across Asia, could play a surprising role in diabetes prevention, new research from the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a> suggests. This unassuming sea creature may harbor medicinal properties potent enough to reduce the risk of diabetes and its related complications.</p>



<p>The researchers delved into the beneficial properties of the species Holothuria scabra, commonly known as sea cucumbers.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The findings? Dried sea cucumber, when processed with salt extracts, can inhibit the formation of a compound, known as Advanced Glycation End product (AGE), which is closely tied to an increased risk of diabetes.</p>



<p>To date, we lack a commercially available agent that can inhibit the creation of AGEs. This is where the sea cucumber's potential comes into the picture.</p>



<h2 id="h-the-important-role-played-by-ages">The important role played by AGEs</h2>



<p>AGEs are compounds that form when proteins and/or fats meet sugars in our bloodstream. When these compounds accumulate in high amounts, they escalate the complications associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-caffeine-levels-reduce-the-risk-of-diabetes/">diabetes</a>. This includes a spectrum of conditions like heart disease, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, kidney disease, and even cancer.</p>



<p>Dr. Permal Deo, the lead researcher from the University of South Australia, emphasized the importance of understanding the bioactive compounds in sea cucumbers and their ability to inhibit AGEs.</p>



<p>"An accumulation of AGEs is associated with complications of type 2 diabetes, so strategies to prevent this may reduce the risk of developing diabetic complications,” Dr. Deo explains. “Biologically active novel compounds in medicinal plants and foods are potential therapeutic agents to prevent diabetic complications.”</p>



<p>Dr. Deo and his team sought to explore the bioactive compounds in sea cucumbers as AGE inhibitors due to their known therapeutic properties, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.</p>



<h2 id="h-very-encouraging-news-in-the-fight-against-diabetes">Very encouraging news in the fight against diabetes</h2>



<p>The findings were indeed promising. The researchers discovered that processed dried sea cucumber with salt extracts and collagen can significantly inhibit AGEs. This is achieved by lowering a variety of sugar-related metabolites in the body, thereby reducing the risk of diabetes.</p>



<p>Diabetes is a pervasive health problem in Australia, where almost 1.3 million people grapple with type 2 diabetes. Globally, the scale is even more staggering with about 422 million people diagnosed with diabetes and 1.5 million deaths directly attributed to the disease annually.</p>



<p>Importantly, it's been found that almost 60 percent of all cases of type 2 diabetes can be delayed or even prevented with appropriate changes to diet and lifestyle.</p>



<p>"These results provide sound evidence that sea cucumbers could be developed as a functional food product to help battle the onset of diabetes and diabetic-complications," Dr. Deo concludes. In a world increasingly in need of novel dietary interventions against diabetes, sea cucumbers might just offer a potent, yet unassuming, ally.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-sea-cucumbers">More about sea cucumbers</h2>



<p>Sea cucumbers are fascinating marine creatures. They belong to a group of animals called echinoderms, which also includes sea stars and sea urchins. </p>



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical Characteristics</h3>



<p>Sea cucumbers are named for their elongated, cylindrical body shape that is similar to a cucumber. They range in size from less than an inch to several feet long. Most are soft-bodied creatures, although a few species can have a leathery skin. They can be various colors, from sandy shades that blend in with their surroundings to more striking colors.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



<p>They are found in virtually all marine environments throughout the world, from warm coastal waters to deep-sea trenches. Some species live on the sea floor, while others prefer to burrow into the sand or mud.</p>



<h3 id="h-feeding-habit">Feeding Habit</h3>



<p>Sea cucumbers are generally scavengers, feeding on debris in the benthic zone (the lowest level of a body of water). They ingest sand or sediment and extract any organic material for nourishment. This behavior also plays a role in cleaning the ocean floor.</p>



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



<p>Sea cucumbers reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most sea cucumbers reproduce by releasing eggs and sperm into the water, where fertilization takes place. Some species are capable of asexual reproduction through a process called fission, where the animal splits in half and each part regenerates the missing half.</p>



<h3 id="h-defense-mechanisms">Defense Mechanisms</h3>



<p>When threatened, some species of sea cucumbers discharge sticky threads to ensnare their enemies. Others can eject parts of their guts to entangle potential predators. Interestingly, the sea cucumber can regenerate these lost parts over time.</p>



<h3 id="h-ecological-role">Ecological Role</h3>



<p>Sea cucumbers play a crucial role in the marine ecosystem. They help recycle nutrients and break down detritus. Additionally, their feeding process helps aerate the sea floor.</p>



<h3 id="h-human-use">Human Use</h3>



<p>Sea cucumbers are harvested around the world for food, especially in Asian cultures, where they are considered a delicacy. They are also used in traditional medicine in some cultures. More recently, researchers have been investigating their potential therapeutic properties, such as the possible role they could play in preventing diseases like diabetes.</p>



<h3 id="h-conservation">Conservation</h3>



<p>Overfishing and habitat destruction pose a threat to sea cucumber populations in many parts of the world. Regulations have been put in place in some regions to manage sea cucumber fisheries and protect these important creatures.</p>



<h3 id="h-unique-characteristics">Unique Characteristics</h3>



<p>Sea cucumbers have a unique respiratory system. They breathe through a respiratory tree that is connected to their anus. Water flows in and out of the anus to facilitate gas exchange.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Delicious discovery: Eating sea cucumbers can prevent diabetes

Sea cucumbers, a marine delicacy revered across Asia, could play...

<p>Scientists have uncovered a newly discovered plant-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered/">dinosaur</a>, Iani smithi, that appears to be a species' "last gasp." This dramatic event took place during a period when Earth's warming climate was forcing profound shifts in global dinosaur populations.</p>



<p>Unearthed from Utah's Cedar Mountain Formation, the majority of the juvenile dinosaur's skeleton - encompassing its skull, vertebrae, and limbs - was successfully retrieved.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The specimen is named after Janus, the two-faced Roman god of change. It serves as a tribute to its place as an early ornithopod, a group of dinosaurs that would eventually pave the way for well-known duckbill dinosaurs like Parasaurolophus and Edmontosaurus.</p>



<h2 id="h-iani-smithi-lived-during-a-transformative-time-on-earth">Iani smithi lived during a transformative time on Earth</h2>



<p>The striking feature of Iani smithi is its powerful jaw, specially equipped with teeth perfect for chomping through robust plant material. This creature roamed the region now known as Utah approximately 99 million years ago during the mid-Cretaceous period.</p>



<p>This era was one of significant transformation, affecting dinosaur populations considerably. Enhanced levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide caused the Earth's temperature to rise and sea levels to swell, leaving dinosaurs confined to increasingly smaller landmasses.&nbsp;</p>



<p>So intense was the warmth that rainforests flourished at the poles while flowering plant life began to dominate coastal regions, replacing the traditional food sources for herbivores.</p>



<h2 id="h-most-dinosaur-species-were-vanishing-when-iani-smithi-arrived">Most dinosaur species were vanishing when Iani smithi arrived</h2>



<p>As the mid-Cretaceous period unfolded, giant plant-eating sauropods, once the reigning titans of North American landscapes, were vanishing along with their allosaurian predators. Concurrently, smaller plant eaters like early duckbills and horned dinosaurs were arriving from Asia, accompanied by feathered theropods such as tyrannosaurs and enormous oviraptorosaurs.</p>



<p>The discovery of Iani smithi is momentous, not just for its novelty but also due to its infrequent appearance in the North American fossil record and its unique place in dinosaur history.</p>



<p>"We had a stroke of luck finding Iani," says Lindsay Zanno, head of paleontology at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences and associate research professor at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"We knew something like it inhabited this ecosystem because we had come across isolated teeth, but we didn't anticipate finding such an impressive skeleton, particularly from this era. Having a nearly complete skull was crucial for piecing together the story."</p>



<p>Zanno and her team, employing the well-preserved skeleton, have been examining the evolutionary relationships of Iani, expressing surprise and slight doubt at their findings.</p>



<p>"Upon analysis, we identified Iani as an early rhabdodontomorph, an ornithopod lineage primarily known from Europe," explained Professor Zanno. "Lately, paleontologists have suggested that Tenontosaurus, a North American dinosaur as prevalent as cattle in the Early Cretaceous, along with some Australian dinosaurs, belong to this group. If Iani is indeed a rhabdodontomorph, it poses several fascinating questions."</p>



<h2 id="h-iani-smithi-may-have-been-the-last-in-a-successful-dinosaur-lineage">Iani smithi may have been the last in a successful dinosaur lineage</h2>



<p>One of the central questions raised is whether Iani smithi could represent the final gasp, a final witness to the demise of a once successful lineage. Zanno believes that examining this fossil in light of environmental and biodiversity shifts during the mid-Cretaceous will yield further insights into our planet's history.</p>



<p>"Iani might be the last surviving member of a lineage of dinosaurs that once thrived here in North America but were eventually supplanted by duckbill dinosaurs. Iani was alive during this transition - so this dinosaur really does symbolize a changing planet," said Professor Zanno.</p>



<p>"This dinosaur stood on the precipice, able to look back at the way North American ecosystems were in the past, but close enough to see the future coming like a bullet train. I think we can all relate to that."</p>



<p>As this dinosaur signifies a significant transition, it is fittingly named after Janus, the two-faced god symbolizing transitions.</p>



<h2 id="h-glimpse-into-a-critical-period-in-earth-s-history">Glimpse into a critical period in Earth’s history</h2>



<p>The discovery of Iani smithi and the ensuing research offers a unique glimpse into a critical period in Earth's history, when rapid climatic changes transformed landscapes, ecosystems, and the organisms that lived in them.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Studying these ancient creatures provides scientists with a powerful tool for understanding how life on Earth has evolved in response to such changes, and perhaps how it may continue to do so in the face of modern-day climate change.</p>



<p>This landmark research has been published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/"><em>PLOS ONE</em></a> and received support from the National Science Foundation.</p>



<p>As scientists continue to unearth and examine fossils like Iani smithi, we are gifted with a deeper understanding of our planet's history. In the face of today's environmental challenges, this knowledge proves invaluable.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-mid-cretaceous-period">More about the mid-Cretaceous period&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The mid-Cretaceous period, dating from around 125 to 90 million years ago, was a time of significant change for life on Earth.</p>



<p>This era, part of the larger Cretaceous period that spanned from about 145 to 66 million years ago, saw significant shifts in global climates, landmasses, and ecosystems, resulting in the evolution of new species and the extinction of others. It's best known for being the last era in which dinosaurs roamed the Earth, culminating in a mass extinction event at the end of the period.</p>



<h3 id="h-much-warmer-climate">Much warmer climate</h3>



<p>From an environmental perspective, the mid-Cretaceous period was marked by a significantly warmer climate than we have today. This climate change was due in large part to high levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, likely resulting from increased volcanic activity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>During this time, there was no polar ice, and even the polar regions enjoyed a tropical or subtropical climate. This warmth led to higher sea levels, with shallow seas covering parts of the continents.</p>



<h3 id="h-plants-began-to-flourish">Plants began to flourish</h3>



<p>The mid-Cretaceous was also a time of flourishing plant life. It witnessed the rise of the angiosperms, or flowering plants, which rapidly diversified and spread across the globe, significantly altering ecosystems and providing new food sources for various herbivorous dinosaurs.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The first bees appeared during this period too, likely evolving alongside these flowering plants in a mutual relationship of pollination.</p>



<h3 id="h-new-types-of-dinosaurs-emerged">New types of dinosaurs emerged</h3>



<p>As for animal life, the mid-Cretaceous was a time of significant shifts. While dinosaur groups like the large, long-necked sauropods were beginning to decline, new kinds of dinosaurs were on the rise.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This period saw the emergence of new types of theropods like tyrannosaurs, which would later give rise to the iconic Tyrannosaurus rex near the end of the Cretaceous. Meanwhile, feathered dinosaurs and early birds continued to evolve and diversify.</p>



<p>In the oceans, the mid-Cretaceous period saw the rise of large marine reptiles like mosasaurs and pliosaurs, along with an increased diversity of ammonites and mollusks. At the same time, the first true birds began to appear, and mammals, although still small and largely nocturnal, started to diversify into a wider array of forms.</p>



<p>Overall, the mid-Cretaceous was a time of considerable global change, with fluctuating climates, shifting landmasses, and evolving ecosystems setting the stage for the world we know today. It provides a fascinating lens through which to study how life on Earth responds to large-scale environmental changes over time.</p>



<p><em>Image Credit: Jorge Gonzalez</em></p>



<p>—-</p>



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Dinosaur named "Iani smithi" lived during a time of major transition

Scientists have uncovered a newly discovered plant-eating dinosaur, Iani smithi,...

Community of stem group eukaryotes

<p>Diving deep into the realm of life's origin, scientists have recently unearthed an enthralling discovery. They have found evidence of an ancient "lost world" - microscopic creatures that inhabited Earth's waterways as far back as 1.6 billion years ago.&nbsp;This discovery is set to redefine our understanding of the earliest known lifeforms on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-surpassed-almost-every-safe-limit-to-keep-earth-habitable/">Earth</a> and their connection to our ancestral lineage.</p>



<p>These ancient organisms, labeled as the "Protosterol Biota," belong to a broad family of life known as eukaryotes. Unlike their simpler bacterial cousins, eukaryotes exhibit a more intricate cell structure. Their cells house vital components such as mitochondria, famously dubbed the "powerhouse" of the cell, and a nucleus serving as the "control and information center."</p>



<p>Eukaryotes of today have adopted various forms - fungi, plants, animals, and single-celled organisms like amoebae are some of the examples. Interestingly, humans, along with all other nucleated beings, trace their ancestry back to the Last Eukaryotic Common Ancestor (LECA), an organism that existed more than 1.2 billion years ago.</p>



<h2 id="h-protosterol-biota-may-have-been-earth-s-first-predators">Protosterol Biota may have been Earth’s first predators</h2>



<p>However, this recent discovery, which was published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06170-w"><em>Nature</em></a>, unveils that the Protosterol Biota thrived even before LECA. Scientists from <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/">Australian National University</a> (ANU), who made this revelation, propose that these organisms might have been the Earth's inaugural predators.</p>



<p>Dr. Benjamin Nettersheim, a former PhD student at ANU now at the University of Bremen in Germany, noted that these ancient beings were quite prolific in marine ecosystems around the world. He stated, "Molecular remains of the Protosterol Biota detected in 1.6-billion-year-old rocks appear to be the oldest remnants of our own lineage – they lived even before LECA."</p>



<p>"Scientists have long searched for fossilised evidence of these early eukaryotes, but their physical remains are extremely scarce," explained Dr. Nettersheim. "Our study flips this theory on its head. We show that the Protosterol Biota were hiding in plain sight and were in fact abundant in the world’s ancient oceans and lakes all along."</p>



<p>Further elucidating on the nature of these ancient organisms, Professor Jochen Brocks from ANU, who collaborated with Dr Nettersheim on this discovery, suggests that the Protosterol Biota were certainly more intricate and probably larger than bacteria. "We believe they may have been the first predators on Earth, hunting and devouring bacteria," said Professor Brocks.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-when-protosterol-biota-ruled-the-earth">When Protosterol Biota ruled the Earth</h2>



<p>According to Professor Brocks, the reign of these creatures began around 1.6 billion years ago and lasted until about 800 million years ago. This was a period in Earth's evolutionary timeline that culminated in the "Tonian Transformation." During this significant juncture, more advanced nucleated organisms such as fungi and algae began to prosper.</p>



<p>"The Tonian Transformation is one of the most profound ecological turning points in our planet’s history," said Professor Brocks. "Just as the dinosaurs had to go extinct so that our mammal ancestors could become large and abundant, perhaps the Protosterol Biota had to disappear a billion years earlier to make space for modern eukaryotes."</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-team-made-this-discovery">How the research team made this discovery</h2>



<p>The scientists made this groundbreaking discovery by studying fossil fat molecules tucked away inside a 1.6-billion-year-old rock that had formed at the bottom of the ocean near present-day Australia’s Northern Territory. These molecules, with a primordial chemical structure, suggested the presence of early complex creatures that evolved before LECA and had since vanished.</p>



<p>"Without these molecules, we would never have known that the Protosterol Biota existed. Early oceans largely appeared to be a bacterial world, but our new discovery shows that this probably wasn’t the case," said Dr. Nettersheim.</p>



<p>These fossil molecules have been overlooked for decades, as they did not fit the typical molecular search parameters used by scientists.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Scientists had overlooked these molecules for four decades because they do not conform to typical molecular search images," said Professor Brocks. "But once we knew what we were looking for, we discovered that dozens of other rocks, taken from billion-year-old waterways across the world, were also oozing with similar fossil molecules."</p>



<p>Dr Nettersheim, who undertook this analysis as a part of his PhD at ANU before moving to the University of Bremen, was not alone in this endeavor. This seminal work involved a multinational collaboration that brought together scientists from Australia, France, Germany, and the United States.</p>



<p>This remarkable discovery of the Protosterol Biota, revealing an unknown chapter of Earth's evolutionary narrative, is a testament to the boundless scope of scientific exploration.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As we delve deeper into the mysteries of the past, we gain valuable insights that help shape our understanding of the present and foresee the trajectory of life's future evolution. The story of our ancient ancestors might be far from complete, but this discovery serves as a fascinating new piece of the puzzle.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-earliest-life-on-earth">More about the earliest life on Earth</h2>



<p>Life on Earth started at least 3.5 billion years ago, as evidenced by the discovery of fossils of microscopic organisms in rocks of that age.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The very first lifeforms were likely simple, single-celled organisms, analogous to bacteria. This era, known as the Archean Eon, was characterized by a lack of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere and high levels of volcanic activity.</p>



<h3 id="h-prokaryotes-were-probably-first">Prokaryotes were probably first</h3>



<p>Among the earliest forms of life were prokaryotes. These are simple, single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles. The prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea, two domains of life that are still present today.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Many prokaryotes are extremophiles, capable of surviving in harsh environments such as hydrothermal vents and acidic springs, which were common during Earth's early history.</p>



<h3 id="h-significant-leap-forward-when-eukaryotes-arrived">Significant leap forward when eukaryotes arrived</h3>



<p>Life remained microscopic and single-celled for billions of years, a time span known as the Precambrian. Then, around 2.1 billion years ago, a significant evolutionary leap occurred: the emergence of eukaryotes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These are organisms with complex cells that have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. The first eukaryotes were likely single-celled, like their prokaryotic predecessors, but they represented a significant increase in biological complexity.</p>



<h3 id="h-photosynthesis-changes-everything">Photosynthesis changes everything</h3>



<p>The invention of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria, a type of prokaryote, transformed the Earth's atmosphere by filling it with oxygen. This event, known as the Great Oxygenation Event, occurred around 2.45 billion years ago. The rise of oxygen levels in the atmosphere allowed for the evolution of more complex, multicellular organisms.</p>



<p>Around 600 million years ago, during the Ediacaran Period, the first multicellular animals appeared. These strange creatures bore little resemblance to modern animals, and many of them belonged to groups that have since gone extinct.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 id="h-cambrian-explosion">Cambrian explosion&nbsp;</h3>



<p>It wasn't until the Cambrian explosion, about 540 million years ago, that the ancestors of most modern animal groups emerged. This event was characterized by a rapid increase in biodiversity and complexity.</p>



<p>So, the journey of life on Earth began with simple, single-celled organisms and, over billions of years, evolved into the complex web of biodiversity we see today. This ongoing process of evolution continues to shape life on our planet.</p>



<p><em>Image Credit: Orchestrated in MidJourney by TA 2023</em></p>



<p>—-</p>



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Organisms called Protosterol Biota lived 1.6 billion years ago

Diving deep into the realm of life's origin, scientists have...

<p>In an unexpected revelation from <a href="https://www.auburn.edu/">Auburn University</a>'s Department of Biological Sciences, honeybee colonies have demonstrated incredible adaptability and resilience in maintaining their nest structures, even amid severe disturbances. This discovery is in stark contrast to prior beliefs and paves the way for new understanding of these complex creatures.</p>



<p>The study at hand, led by an international team of researchers, centered on the honey bee colonies' intricate, three-dimensional nest-building behavior.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>The scientists went beyond typical observation methods, employing photo-based, non-destructive techniques. This involved using moveable wooden bee-frames, which allowed for continuous monitoring and analysis of the nests' growth and organization without causing harm to the colonies.</p>



<p>Interestingly, honeybees rapidly construct a well-connected, spherical nest made up of parallel combs. These combs extend uniformly in all directions from the point of origin. But how essential is this seemingly stereotyped structure to the colony's development and functioning?</p>



<p>In an attempt to find an answer, the researchers shook things up. They randomly rearranged the moveable frames in a group of colonies every week, creating a continuous disruption to the nest structure. The initial hypothesis was that such disturbances would inevitably lead to a decrease in colony-level performance.</p>



<h2 id="h-digging-deeper-for-answers">Digging deeper for answers</h2>



<p>But reality was different. There were no significant disparities in worker population, comb area, hive weight, or nest temperature between colonies with disrupted nest structures and those maintaining their original arrangements. This surprising outcome made the researchers dig deeper into how honeybees can compensate for repeated disruptions.</p>



<p>"Sometimes you just have to do the experiment and see what the bees will do," said study senior author Michael L. Smith.</p>



<p>What they found was fascinating. Upon modeling the colony’s building behavior, they discovered that honeybee colonies prioritize structural connectedness when expanding their nests.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Even after significant disruptions, the bees actively repair connections in the nest structure, highlighting their adaptability to alter the comb shape according to the available space within a cavity. This attribute is crucial for survival in the wild, where cavities are not always regular.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>Why do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-create-mental-maps-to-find-their-way-home/">honeybees</a> emphasize nest connectedness? The researchers postulate several reasons. A well-connected nest minimizes the surface area-to-volume ratio, potentially enhancing thermoregulation efficiency, which could lead to better larvae development and winter survival.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Also, a connected structure could facilitate better information sharing among colony members and optimize travel distances within the nest for essential activities, including foraging, feeding larvae, and laying eggs.</p>



<p>"We were all surprised that the shuffled colonies performed as well as they did," said study first author Peter R. Marting. "We expected some shuffled colonies wouldn't even survive the summer. The bees’ resilience led us to take a closer look at how and where exactly workers were adding new comb to shape their nests and ultimately led us to develop the predictive comb growth models."</p>



<p>This study is a step towards understanding the mechanisms behind the adaptive building strategies of these social insects. The researchers believe that insights into such resilience in complex systems could have implications beyond the realm of entomology.</p>



<p>The findings have been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.2565"><em>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</em></a> and are available for reference.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-honeybees">More about honeybees</h2>



<p>Honeybees play a crucial role in ecosystems as key pollinators. They help fertilize flowers by transferring pollen from the male parts of a flower to the female parts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This fertilization process allows plants to fruit and seed, leading to the production of a vast majority of our fruits, nuts, and vegetables. It's not an exaggeration to say that without honeybees, our food system would be severely compromised.</p>



<p>The role of honeybees isn't just confined to agricultural landscapes. They also contribute significantly to the pollination of wild plants, thereby maintaining biodiversity and the robustness of natural habitats. The services provided by these insects underpin much of the terrestrial ecosystems and their robust functioning.</p>



<h3 id="h-facing-various-threats-from-climate-change">Facing various threats from climate change</h3>



<p>However, honeybees and other pollinators worldwide are facing numerous threats, one of which is climate change. Changes in climate patterns can disrupt the synchronized timing between bees and flowering plants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>If flowers bloom earlier or later due to unusual weather patterns, bees may miss the window for foraging. This could lead to a decrease in the availability of their food sources, subsequently impacting their survival and reproduction rates.</p>



<p>Moreover, extreme weather events linked to climate change, such as excessive heat, cold, drought, or heavy rains, can directly affect bee health and survival. For instance, bees can overheat and die during heatwaves or become inactive during cold snaps, leading to a decline in their populations. Severe weather conditions can also damage or destroy hives.</p>



<p>Increasing temperatures also alter geographical ranges for some species, potentially leading to the loss of suitable habitats for bees. Rising temperatures might enable the spread of pathogens and pests into new areas, posing further threats to bees.</p>



<h3 id="h-pesticides-diseases-and-other-challenges-to-honeybees">Pesticides, diseases and other challenges to honeybees</h3>



<p>In the context of honeybee populations, climate change can exacerbate the challenges they are already facing, such as exposure to pesticides, habitat loss due to agriculture and urbanization, and diseases and pests. All these factors together contribute to the worrying decline in honeybee populations observed in recent years.</p>



<p>Protecting and promoting the health of honeybees is not only important for preserving biodiversity but also crucial for our food security. Hence, there is a pressing need for conservation efforts, sustainable agricultural practices, and proactive measures to mitigate climate change for the survival of these invaluable insects and, in turn, the health of our ecosystems.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Honeybees have surprising abilities to maintain their nest structure

In an unexpected revelation from Auburn University's Department of Biological...

<p>A fascinating breakthrough in animal psychology has revealed that young chimpanzees combine various gestures, vocalizations, and facial expressions in a manner reminiscent of the communication development observed in human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infants-have-surprisingly-strong-immune-systems/">infants</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This research is a product of diligent work carried out by psychologists at <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/">Durham University</a>, who ventured deep into understanding the dynamics of chimpanzee communication.</p>



<p>During their investigation, the research team discovered that young chimps have a unique ability to combine different communication signals, an evolutionary trick that possibly enhances their ability to convey messages across different situations such as play and conflict. Intriguingly, they observed that this talent matures as the chimps transition from infancy to adolescence.</p>



<h2 id="h-why-this-study-is-important">Why this study is important</h2>



<p>Let's delve into the specifics. The combined signals that these young primates utilize include a multitude of expressions and behaviors. For instance, they were seen combining playful open-mouth faces with laughter, or physically touching another chimp while whimpering, and even baring their teeth paired with squeaks.</p>



<p>Understanding these "multimodal" forms of communication has substantial implications for human linguistics and behavioral studies. It sheds significant light on the evolutionary path of communication in humans and our closest ape relatives, contributing to our understanding of the emergence of our own language skills.</p>



<p>The study, a collaboration between Durham University and the University of Portsmouth, gained recognition through its publication in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2023.03.020"><em>Animal Behaviour</em></a>.. The research took place at the Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage Trust sanctuary in northern Zambia, where 28 semi-wild chimpanzees, aged one to 11 years, were observed.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-research-team-learned">What the research team learned</h2>



<p>Contrary to previous studies that focused on isolated forms of communication signals, this research was unique as it examined how chimpanzees combined these signals as they matured and in different contexts. The team found that chimpanzees of all ages consistently used standalone communication signals such as grunting, arm movements, or facial expressions in various situations.</p>



<p>However, it was interesting to note that as the chimpanzees aged, they were more likely to merge different communication signals. This practice was particularly evident during encounters of aggression or play, two scenarios where clear communication is paramount to avoid undesirable consequences. The older adolescent chimpanzees demonstrated a higher tendency to utilize a mix of signals instead of singular gestures or expressions, especially in aggressive contexts.</p>



<p>"When we think about human language, we know that it is a combination of different types of communication such as speech, facial expressions, and gestures. The way we communicate likely has deep evolutionary roots that are shared with some of our closest living relatives such as apes. Our study provides evidence that the way chimpanzees communicate with increased complexity as they get older is consistent with the development of communication we see in human infants," said lead author Emma Doherty.</p>



<h2 id="h-insights-into-human-evolution">Insights into human evolution</h2>



<p>The research team suggests that the development of this multi-layered mode of communication among young chimpanzees could offer valuable insights into our own evolution. However, they added that further studies are needed to observe multimodal signals in wild primates to understand better how different environments impact communication development.</p>



<p>Furthermore, they proposed that studying multimodal communication, as opposed to observing individual signals in isolation, could provide more robust evidence of how communication evolves in apes, and by extension, in humans.</p>



<p>"A lot of the focus of research so far into communication, both in humans and other animals, looks at individual communication signals independently, but we know humans combine these signals all the time from early infancy. As a close relative of humans, apes give us a snapshot into how these signals could have evolved into multimodal communications, ultimately culminating in human language," said study co-author Dr Zanna Clay.</p>



<h2 id="h-learning-more-about-ourselves-by-observing-chimpanzees">Learning more about ourselves by observing chimpanzees</h2>



<p>These discoveries underscore the similarities between human communication and our nearest animal relatives. By studying the development of young chimpanzees' communication and their ability to combine signals, the researchers have not only broadened our understanding of primate communication but have also brought us a step closer to unravelling the complexities of our own language evolution.</p>



<p>As we continue to push the boundaries of our knowledge, research like this reinforces our connection with the animal kingdom and reminds us of the shared evolutionary heritage we possess. Who knows, in the near future, we may even uncover more ways in which our forms of communication mirror those of the animal kingdom.&nbsp;</p>



<p>After all, understanding the evolution of communication in animals may pave the way for more profound insights into human language development and the intriguing interplay of nature and nurture.</p>



<p>In essence, by peering into the communication patterns of our closest living relatives, we may just be getting a glimpse of our own ancient past and the evolutionary milestones that have shaped the complexity and diversity of human communication.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As we move forward, further exploration of multimodal communication in primates could offer more definitive answers and add exciting chapters to our understanding of the story of human evolution.</p>



<p>This noteworthy research was made possible through funding from various entities, including a Durham University Doctoral Scholarship, the British Association of Biological Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology, and the Lucie Burgers Foundation for Comparative Behavioural Research.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-similarities-between-humans-and-chimpanzees">More about the similarities between humans and chimpanzees&nbsp;</h2>



<p><br>Chimpanzees are our closest living relatives in the animal kingdom, and we share many biological and behavioral similarities with them, given our shared ancestry.</p>



<h3 id="h-genetic-similarity">Genetic similarity</h3>



<p>Chimpanzees and humans share nearly 99% of their DNA. This genetic similarity is one of the primary reasons why scientists study chimpanzees to understand human biology and evolution better.</p>



<h3 id="h-social-behavior">Social behavior&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Like humans, chimpanzees are highly social animals. They live in large communities and exhibit complex social behaviors such as cooperation, competition, alliance formation, and even aggression. They also demonstrate empathy and altruism, engaging in behavior such as grooming each other and sharing food.</p>



<h3 id="h-communication">Communication&nbsp;</h3>



<p>As highlighted in the previous article, chimpanzees use a wide range of gestures, facial expressions, and vocalizations to communicate, much like humans. They use these signals in combination, showing that they have multimodal communication capabilities that could be the precursors to human language.</p>



<h3 id="h-tool-use-and-problem-solving">Tool use and problem-solving</h3>



<p>Chimpanzees are among the few animal species known to use tools. They've been observed using sticks to fish for termites, stones to crack open nuts, and leaves as sponges to absorb drinking water. This tool use displays their problem-solving abilities and cognitive sophistication.</p>



<h3 id="h-emotion-and-intelligence">Emotion and Intelligence&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Chimpanzees exhibit a wide range of emotions, including joy, sadness, fear, and anger, similar to human emotions. They're also very intelligent, capable of learning sign language, playing computer games, and even recognizing themselves in mirrors, a sign of self-awareness.</p>



<h3 id="h-bipedalism">Bipedalism</h3>



<p>While not their primary mode of locomotion, chimpanzees can walk on two legs (bipedalism), especially when carrying food or tools, suggesting that our common ancestor may have also been capable of bipedal locomotion.</p>



<h3 id="h-cultural-transmission">Cultural transmission&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Chimpanzees also show evidence of culture, in that different groups of chimpanzees have different behaviors and traditions, such as unique ways of grooming or using tools, which they pass down through generations.</p>



<p>These similarities provide a window into our own evolutionary past, offering crucial insights into human biology, behavior, culture, and the roots of our language. Understanding our shared traits with chimpanzees, as well as appreciating the differences, helps us understand our place in the natural world.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Young chimpanzees and humans learn to communicate in the same way

A fascinating breakthrough in animal psychology has revealed that young...

<p>An innovative study has revealed the potential of a non-surgical cat sterilization technique for domestic cats. For the first time, a team of researchers at <a href="https://www.massgeneral.org/">Massachusetts General Hospital</a> (MGH), part of the Mass General Brigham (MGB) system, have showcased the ability of a single dose of gene therapy to induce long-lasting contraception in cats. </p>



<p>The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-38721-0"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>, could revolutionize animal welfare and provide a viable alternative to surgical spaying.</p>



<p>Until now, controlling unwanted reproduction in female cats was chiefly carried out by spaying, which involves the surgical removal of the ovaries and uterus. Presently, no contraceptives exist that can offer permanent sterilization in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-owners-are-happier-than-people-who-dont-have-pets/">pets</a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-game-changing-discovery-for-cat-population-control">Game-changing discovery for cat population control</h2>



<p>The discovery of the contraceptive potential of the anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) - a hormone naturally produced by ovaries in females and testes in males - paved the way for this breakthrough. Dr. Patricia K. Donahoe, co-author of the study and the director of Pediatric Surgical Research Laboratories at MGH, noted that AMH is a non-steroidal hormone that occurs naturally.</p>



<p>Dr. David Pépin, a senior researcher at MGH and Harvard Medical School, was the first to realize that a surge in AMH could impede the growth of ovarian follicles, thus preventing ovulation and conception. The realization came about while he was researching the use of AMH to protect ovarian reserve in women undergoing chemotherapy.</p>



<p>Following the initial findings, published in 2017, Dr. Pépin and his team applied the AMH research to cats. By creating an adeno-associated viral (AAV) gene therapy vector, they were able to significantly increase AMH levels in domestic cats. This vector carried a modified version of the feline AMH gene. Notably, similar AAV vectors have been approved by the FDA and successfully used in human therapies to deliver therapeutic genes.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-gene-therapy-works-for-cat-sterilization">How gene therapy works for cat sterilization</h2>



<p>“The cat's muscles start producing AMH following a single injection of the gene therapy vector. This raises the overall AMH level about 100 times higher than usual," said Dr. Pépin.</p>



<p>The research team put the theory to the test, treating six female cats with two different doses of the gene therapy. They kept three cats as controls and observed them all for over two years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>During this time, they exposed the female cats to a male for two mating trials, each lasting four months. Throughout the trial period, the researchers closely monitored the cats' reproductive hormones, ovarian cycles, and fertility.</p>



<h2 id="h-research-team-thrilled-with-the-results">Research team thrilled with the results</h2>



<p>In contrast to the control cats, all of whom produced kittens, none of the cats receiving the gene therapy became pregnant. Remarkably, despite suppressing ovarian follicle development and ovulation, the treatment had no negative impact on essential hormones like estrogen and caused no adverse effects, highlighting its safety and tolerability.</p>



<p>“The treatment maintained high AMH levels for over two years, and we’re confident that those contraceptive levels will be sustained in the animals for much longer," said study co-author Dr. Philippe Godin. He stressed, however, that further research involving a larger number of cats was necessary to confirm these promising results.</p>



<p>The groundbreaking cat sterilization study was made possible by funding from The Michelson Found Animals Foundation. This foundation is offering a $25-million prize to scientists who develop a non-surgical sterilization method for cats and dogs. </p>



<p>Dr. Gary K. Michelson, founder of Michelson Philanthropies and the Michelson Found Animals Foundation, commended the team’s breakthrough discovery: “This is a major milestone in our quest to provide pet owners with an alternative to surgical spay and neuter. A non-surgical sterilant for community and companion animals will transform animal welfare.”</p>



<h2 id="h-the-future-is-now-for-gene-therapy-cat-sterilization">The future is now for gene therapy cat sterilization</h2>



<p>Dr. Pépin acknowledged that the technology might seem ahead of its time. The infrastructure needed to manufacture enough doses of cat sterilization procedures using gene therapy isn't yet in place. </p>



<p>However, the researcher remains optimistic about the possibilities: "Our goal is to show that safe and effective permanent contraception in companion animals can be achieved using gene therapy. And we hope that as the manufacturing capability of producing viral vectors increases with the rise of gene therapy in humans, delivering this contraceptive in the field to control unowned outdoor cat populations will become feasible.”</p>



<p>The innovative research involved a collaborative team of investigators from MGH, the Center for Conservation and Research of Endangered Wildlife at the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden, and the Horae Gene Therapy Center at the University of Massachusetts Medical School.</p>



<p>The study marks a monumental leap in the field of animal welfare, offering a potentially transformative alternative to current cat sterilization practices. However, the findings need further research and the development of adequate manufacturing infrastructure for widespread implementation. Regardless, the research indicates a bright and hopeful future for non-surgical contraceptive methods in animal populations.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-surgical-spaying">More about surgical spaying</h2>



<p>Spaying is a common veterinary procedure performed for cat sterilization and to sterilize other female pets to prevent them from reproducing. The technical term for this procedure is an ovariohysterectomy. This surgical operation involves the removal of the uterus and ovaries in female animals.</p>



<h3 id="h-simplified-overview-of-the-process">Simplified overview of the process:</h3>



<h4 id="h-preparation">Preparation</h4>



<p>The pet is typically put under general anesthesia to ensure it doesn't feel any pain during the surgery. The veterinarian may also conduct a pre-operative examination to check the animal's overall health and readiness for the procedure.</p>



<h4 id="h-the-operation">The operation</h4>



<p>The veterinarian makes a small incision, usually on the animal's abdomen. Through this incision, both ovaries and the uterus are removed.</p>



<h4 id="h-recovery">Recovery</h4>



<p>After the operation, the incision is sutured closed. Post-operative care involves keeping the animal comfortable while the surgical wound heals and watching for any signs of complications. The animal may be prescribed pain medication and/or antibiotics, and it may be necessary to limit its physical activity for a while.</p>



<p>Spaying has several benefits beyond preventing unwanted litters of pets. It eliminates the risk of ovarian and uterine diseases, such as pyometra (a potentially life-threatening uterine infection) and ovarian and uterine cancers. Spaying can also reduce the risk of mammary cancer, especially if performed before the pet's first heat cycle.</p>



<p>Moreover, spaying eliminates the heat cycle, which in some animals can cause behaviors that might be problematic for pet owners, like yowling or trying to escape to find a mate.</p>



<h4 id="h-risks">Risks</h4>



<p>However, as with any surgical procedure, spaying does come with risks, such as complications from anesthesia or the possibility of post-operative infection. Veterinarians usually take precautions to minimize these risks, and for most pets, the benefits of being spayed far outweigh the potential downsides.</p>



<p>The timing of the procedure can vary but is often performed when the pet is several months old. It's a topic you should discuss with your vet, as the optimal timing can depend on the specific animal and its overall health.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-gene-therapy">More about gene therapy</h2>



<p>Gene therapy is a revolutionary medical approach that uses genes to prevent or treat disease. The concept is based on introducing, removing, or changing genetic material within a person's cells. As of my knowledge cutoff in September 2021, there are mainly four types of gene therapy:</p>



<h3 id="h-replacing-a-mutated-gene">Replacing a mutated gene&nbsp;</h3>



<p>This approach involves replacing a mutated or defective gene with a healthy copy.</p>



<h3 id="h-inactivating-or-knocking-out-a-mutated-gene">Inactivating or knocking out a mutated gene</h3>



<p>If a gene mutation causes a problematic protein to be made, the mutated gene can be turned off so it no longer produces the harmful protein.</p>



<h3 id="h-introducing-a-new-gene">Introducing a new gene</h3>



<p>A new gene could be introduced into the body to help it fight a particular disease. This strategy is often used for diseases that are not caused by gene mutations, such as certain types of cancer.</p>



<h3 id="h-editing-genes">Editing genes&nbsp;</h3>



<p>By using tools like CRISPR/Cas9, scientists can edit the genome in a more precise manner, altering the sequence of a specific gene.</p>



<p>Gene therapy is administered through a carrier, or "vector", often a virus that has been genetically altered to carry human DNA. The most common type of vector used in gene therapy is a virus, because viruses are naturally good at infiltrating cells.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These vectors are usually viruses that have been genetically altered to carry human DNA. Adeno-associated viruses (AAV) are often used because they do not cause disease.</p>



<p>Gene therapies can be conducted ex vivo (outside the body) where cells are taken from the patient, modified in the lab, and then returned to the patient, or in vivo (inside the body) where the genes are delivered directly into the patient's cells.</p>



<h3 id="h-the-promising-future-of-gene-therapy">The promising future of gene therapy</h3>



<p>Gene therapy holds great promise and has potential to treat a number of diseases such as inherited disorders, some types of cancer, and certain viral infections. Several gene therapies have been approved by regulatory authorities like the US FDA for conditions including certain types of leukemia (Kymriah, Yescarta), spinal muscular atrophy (Zolgensma), and a specific type of inherited blindness (Luxturna).</p>



<p>While gene therapy has immense potential, it also comes with challenges and risks. These include immune reactions, issues with the delivery of the genetic material to the right cells, the possibility of causing a harmful mutation, and issues related to the production and regulatory approval of such treatments. Furthermore, gene therapies are often extremely expensive.</p>



<p>Research in the field of gene therapy is ongoing and could expand the treatment options for many conditions in the future. However, a lot of work still needs to be done to ensure that these therapies are safe, effective, and accessible.</p>



<p>Noteworthy financial backing came from the Michelson Prize &amp; Grants, a program of The Michelson Found Animals Foundation, co-chaired by Dr. Gary K. Michelson and Alya Michelson, the Joanie Bernard Foundation, and the department of Surgery of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Co-authors of the study include Lindsey M. Vansandt, Marie-Charlotte Meinsohn, Guangping Gao, Dan Wang, and William F. Swanson.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Cat sterilization using gene therapy could revolutionize animal welfare 

An innovative study has revealed the potential of a non-surgical...

Bats,Flying,On,Green,Background

<p>Leave bats alone! That’s the strong message relayed in a landmark paper featured in the esteemed journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/home"><em>The Lancet Planetary Health</em></a>. The prevention of future pandemics hinges on global cooperation and, perhaps surprisingly, a collective commitment to respect the habitats of bats, allowing these creatures to live undisturbed.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Bats have long been associated with disease outbreaks. Both the SARS coronavirus outbreak in 2003 and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/china-faces-another-massive-covid-19-wave/">COVID-19</a> pandemic can trace their origins back to a bat virus.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The details of how exactly the virus jumped from bats to humans remains unclear; perhaps someone handled or consumed an infected bat, came into contact with bat bodily fluids in a cave, or was exposed to another animal infected by a bat.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A lab accident involving a virus originating from a bat is also a possibility. Despite the uncertainty, the authors of the paper insist that action can and must be taken, regardless of the specifics.</p>



<h2 id="h-bats-are-hosts-for-many-viruses">Bats are hosts for many viruses</h2>



<p>Scientists have known for some time that bats harbor a variety of viruses that pose potential threats to other species, including humans. These include but are not limited to the rabies virus, Marburg filoviruses, Hendra and Nipah paramyxoviruses, MERS (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome) Coronavirus, and even strains of Ebolaviruses, for which fruit bats are believed to be a primary source.</p>



<p>In this fresh analysis, the researchers make a case for a global pact - a sort of "bat taboo" – in which humans worldwide agree to respect bat habitats, avoid interference with these creatures and allow them to live in peace.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Such human activities as hunting, culling, or even simply trying to drive bats away serve only to scatter these creatures, potentially increasing the likelihood of zoonotic spillover – the transmission of viruses from animals to humans.</p>



<h2 id="h-removing-the-interface-that-allows-animal-human-virus-transmission">Removing the interface that allows animal-human virus transmission</h2>



<p>If the old saying that "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure" holds true, then we must commit to these fundamental, commonsense measures that could significantly reduce the risk of future pandemics, say the study's authors. These measures essentially target the interface where dangerous viruses can move from animals into humans.</p>



<p>"In a globalized world with 8 billion people, we can no longer ignore our interconnectedness with the wildlife and ecosystems around us. We must change humanity’s relationship with nature if we want to prevent the next pandemic of zoonotic origin—and that can start with bats,” said Dr. Susan Lieberman of the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society</a>.</p>



<p>In a nutshell, humanity needs to mend its fractured relationship with nature, and bats specifically. The costs of enforcing such behavioral changes are trivial in comparison to the colossal toll another global pandemic could impose.</p>



<h2 id="h-all-of-humanity-must-work-together">All of humanity must work together</h2>



<p>"Getting humanity to work collaboratively at a global scale underpins most of the existential challenges we face, from climate change and environmental pollution to biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse - this at a time when earnest collaboration even at local scales often seems elusive," said study lead author Professor Steven A. Osofsky of Cornell University.</p>



<p>"However, if we can actually stop hunting, eating, and trading bats, stay out of their caves, keep livestock away from areas where bats are concentrated, and if we can stop deforesting, degrading (or even start restoring) their natural habitats, we can indisputably lower the chances of another pandemic."</p>



<p>It’s not just about lowering the risk of future pandemics; letting bats thrive also brings a bounty of ecological benefits. Bats control the population of mosquitos and other harmful insects, pollinate a wide array of essential crops, and provide other invaluable ecosystem services worth billions of dollars.</p>



<p>The researchers conclude that while interactions with all sorts of animals merit close examination, giving bats the space they need is the most straightforward and accessible step towards real upstream pandemic prevention. This insight, albeit a bit late, rings even more true as we mark the third anniversary of the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>



<h2 id="h-where-to-learn-more-about-the-study">Where to learn more about the study</h2>



<p>This recent analysis - titled "An Immediate Way to Lower Pandemic Risk: (Not) Seizing the Low-Hanging Fruit (Bat)" - carries considerable weight as it was conducted by experts from the esteemed institutions of Cornell University and the Wildlife Conservation Society. Their work offers an enlightening perspective on pandemic prevention strategies, demonstrating the need to respect the natural world, particularly the habitats of bats.</p>



<p>Supported by a generous grant from the Cornell Atkinson Center for Sustainability, the study highlights the need for global action and cooperation. Such a comprehensive approach will help us confront not only pandemic risks but also other existential challenges like climate change, environmental pollution, biodiversity loss, and ecosystem collapse.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Only through collective action and the fostering of a healthier relationship with nature, starting with bats, can we hope to prevent future pandemics and protect our shared future on this planet.</p>



<p>Published on June 5th, 2023, this study contributes significantly to the ongoing discourse on the prevention of future pandemics and the importance of ecosystem conservation. It emphasizes humanity's need to reconsider and reshape its relationship with wildlife, reinforcing the importance of respecting and protecting the creatures that share our world.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-bats">More about bats</h2>



<p>Bats are fascinating creatures that play an essential role in our world. They are the only mammals capable of sustained flight, as opposed to gliding or soaring.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Bats belong to the order Chiroptera, which is divided into two suborders: Megachiroptera (large fruit bats or flying foxes) and Microchiroptera (small bats primarily known for their echolocation abilities).</p>



<p>There are over 1,400 species of bats worldwide, making them the second most common group of mammals after rodents. They inhabit every continent except Antarctica and are most abundant in tropical and subtropical regions. Their sizes vary significantly, from the tiny bumblebee bat that weighs less than a penny to the large flying foxes with wingspans of up to 1.7 meters.</p>



<h3 id="h-interesting-biological-facts-about-bats">Interesting biological facts about bats</h3>



<p>Bats exhibit a vast array of feeding habits. Some species, such as the fruit bats, primarily feed on fruits, while others, like the infamous vampire bats, feed on blood. However, the majority of bat species, particularly those found in temperate regions, consume insects—a single bat can eat thousands of insects in one night, acting as a natural pest control.</p>



<p>Bats use a biological sonar system known as echolocation to navigate and find food in the dark. They produce sounds that bounce off objects in their environment, allowing them to understand their surroundings by listening to the echo of these sounds.</p>



<p>Bats are also crucial pollinators. They help to fertilize flowers as they feed on nectar, playing a significant role in the reproduction of various plant species. Furthermore, bats contribute to seed dispersal, as fruit-eating bats often excrete seeds in their droppings.</p>



<h3 id="h-the-downside-of-bats">The downside of bats</h3>



<p>On the downside, bats are known to be reservoirs of several viruses that can infect humans and other animals, including rabies, Ebola, Nipah, Hendra, and coronaviruses, which were responsible for SARS, MERS, and likely COVID-19. Despite this, bats themselves often remain unaffected by these viruses due to their unique immune systems.</p>



<p>Bats are a crucial part of the ecosystem but are under threat worldwide due to habitat loss, hunting, climate change, and diseases like white-nose syndrome in North America. Conservation efforts are in place globally to protect and preserve these unique and vital creatures.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-animal-to-human-disease-transmission">More about animal-to-human disease transmission</h2>



<p>Animal to human disease transmission, also known as zoonotic disease transmission, occurs when diseases are passed from animals, whether wild or domestic, to humans. This process can happen in various ways and is responsible for a significant proportion of infectious diseases in humans.</p>



<p>The transfer can occur through direct contact when humans interact with animals or their waste. This interaction can be through handling, petting, caring for, or slaughtering animals. For instance, rabies is a zoonotic disease that is typically transmitted through bites from infected animals.</p>



<h3 id="h-different-types-of-transmission">Different types of transmission</h3>



<p>Indirect transmission happens when humans come into contact with areas where animals live and roam, or through vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. An example is Lyme disease, transmitted through the bite of an infected tick.</p>



<p>Transmission can also occur via the food chain when people consume uncooked or undercooked contaminated meat or produce contaminated by animal feces. Diseases like salmonellosis and E.coli infections can occur this way.</p>



<p>Airborne transmission is another route where microorganisms can be disseminated to humans through the air. This is suspected to have played a part in the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, the cause of COVID-19.</p>



<h3 id="h-most-common-animals-involved-in-disease-transfer">Most common animals involved in disease transfer</h3>



<p>Bats, rodents, primates, and birds are known to harbor diseases that can spill over into human populations, often due to human activities that disrupt ecosystems and animal habitats. For example, deforestation can lead to increased contact between humans and wildlife, thereby increasing the risk of zoonotic disease transmission.</p>



<p>Understanding and mitigating zoonotic transmission is an essential part of public health, as many serious outbreaks in recent history, such as H1N1 influenza (swine flu), H5N1 influenza (bird flu), Ebola, SARS, MERS, and COVID-19, are believed to have animal origins.&nbsp;</p>



<p>It's also why there's a strong emphasis on a "One Health" approach, which views the health of humans, animals, and the environment as interconnected. By preserving animal habitats and maintaining a respectful distance, we can reduce the risk of future pandemics.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Good advice: Leave bats alone if we want to prevent future pandemics

Leave bats alone! That’s the strong message relayed in a...

<p>Flat-faced dog breeds like French and English Bulldogs continue to captivate pet owners, despite their susceptibility to severe hereditary diseases. </p>



<p>This enduring affection is a paradox that researchers at <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/">Eötvös Loránd University</a> (ELTE) in Hungary have set out to understand by investigating the psychology and attitudes of dog lovers who remain devoted to flat-faced dogs.</p>



<p>These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-dog-breeds-that-are-truly-mans-best-friend/">breeds</a>, including Pugs and Boston Terriers, command an extensive following in both the United States and Europe. Yet, flat-faced dogs are predisposed to a variety of health complications. More than half are plagued by respiratory problems, while eye-related issues are a frequent concern.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Childbirth also presents a daunting hurdle, as over 80 percent require Cesarean-sections. Furthermore, their life expectancy is three to four years less than what would typically be expected among dogs of a similar size.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zsófia Bognár is a PhD student in the ELTE Department of Ethology and the lead author of the study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2023.105948"><em>Applied Animal Behaviour Science</em></a>. </p>



<p>"Previously, we observed that flat-faced breeds are more inclined to form eye contact with humans. We assumed that this trait is appealing to owners. We also considered the possibility that the enthusiasts of these dogs might not be aware of the innate health issues," said Bognár.</p>



<h2 id="h-surprising-results">Surprising results&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The researchers conducted an online survey, where participants were shown 25 pairs of photos featuring dogs looking directly into the camera and dogs looking away. They evaluated not just the respondents' preference for the pictures but also their personality traits, their inclination towards flat-faced dogs, and their awareness of these breeds' health issues. A total of 1,156 individuals participated, and some of the results were surprising.</p>



<p>Contrary to initial expectations, respondents who favored flat-faced breeds showed no discernible pattern in their selection of images, suggesting that the ability of these dogs to make eye contact does not necessarily play a significant role in their popularity. </p>



<p>However, those who opted for photos of dogs gazing directly at the camera were found to be sociable, easily able to make friends, and capable of empathizing with the perspectives of others.</p>



<p>One striking observation was the level of awareness regarding the health issues of these breeds among respondents who expressed an affinity for flat-faced dogs. </p>



<p>Nearly all (99%) associated flat-faced breeds with breathing difficulties, 90% linked them with dystocia, and 61% associated them with corneal ulceration. Very few associated them with fewer than four health problems, suggesting that the public is largely informed about the health problems that afflict these breeds.</p>



<h2 id="h-fans-of-flat-faced-dogs-share-certain-traits">Fans of flat-faced dogs share certain traits</h2>



<p>The study also unearthed certain characteristics of flat-faced dog enthusiasts. Compared to those indifferent or averse to these breeds, fans of flat-faced dogs were found to be younger, less educated, and generally lacking in professional experience with dogs. </p>



<p>Women with children were more likely to be enthusiasts than the neutral group, while those with high emotional empathy, or the ability to deeply sympathize with the suffering of other beings, were more likely to be fans compared to those who disliked flat-faced breeds.</p>



<p>"We expected that one of the main attractiveness of flat-faced dogs lies in their large eyes and that their owners would be delighted when the dogs look at them," said study co-author Eniko Kubinyi. "However, we did not find this to be true, at least not from the photographs. It is also not true that enthusiasts of flat-faced breeds are unaware of the dogs' health problems or are insensitive to their emotions."</p>



<p>"On the other hand, it has been revealed that they are relatively inexperienced dog owners. Thus, it is most likely that they are unaware of the dogs' communication signals, may not necessarily recognize signs of pain, and likely consider health problems as normal breed characteristics.</p>



<p>"For example, a snoring and grunting Bulldog appears cute to them, rather than sick and struggling for breath."</p>



<h2 id="h-health-issues-are-not-a-deterrent">Health issues are not a deterrent&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The study suggests that these enthusiasts' awareness of the health challenges of flat-faced dogs does not serve as a deterrent to their affection. They maintain a strong affinity for these dogs despite understanding the health struggles they could face.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In many countries, there are awareness campaigns about the health issues of flat-faced breeds. However, the growing popularity of flat-faced dogs suggests that these campaigns are not very effective," said Bognár.</p>



<p>"It is clear that simply listing the health problems does not deter people from purchasing these dogs. Instead, the emphasis should be on highlighting that health issues should not be considered normal or acceptable characteristics because they often cause pain and suffering for the dogs. Dog owners need to be made aware that their choices play a significant role in shaping the health of dog breeds."</p>



<p>This raises vital questions about the way we approach pet ownership and the responsibilities that come with it. The research highlights the importance of educating potential dog owners - not just about the potential health issues that certain breeds face - but also about how to recognize and respond to signs of discomfort or distress in their pets.&nbsp;</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Flat-faced dogs remain wildly popular despite severe health risks

Flat-faced dog breeds like French and English Bulldogs continue to...

<p>North America's smallest falcon, the American Kestrel, has been at the center of a perplexing scientific mystery for some time now. Researchers across the continent have confirmed a worrying decline in kestrel populations, but identifying the exact cause of their disappearance has proved to be a challenging task.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A new study published in the <a href="https://meridian.allenpress.com/rapt"><em>Journal of Raptor Research</em></a> provides a detailed report on the current status of the American Kestrel across various regions. The authors of this vital research, David M. Bird and John A. Smallwood, highlight the complexity of the issue by pointing out that not all kestrel populations are encountering the same obstacles. Some populations are dwindling, others are stabilizing, and a few groups are even rebounding.</p>



<h2 id="h-much-more-research-is-needed">Much more research is needed&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The investigation suggests that multiple causes may be contributing to the varying trends in different kestrel populations. Importantly, the researchers emphasize the need for a closer examination of the kestrel's life cycle, particularly periods outside the breeding season, which they believe has been understudied.</p>



<p>In their exploration of potential contributing factors, Bird and Smallwood present a range of crucial research pathways. These include examining the impact of the Cooper’s Hawks on kestrel distribution and survival, investigating the effects of habitat degradation in the kestrel's wintering grounds (which often extend beyond U.S. borders), and assessing changes in habitat quality on their breeding grounds.</p>



<p>The experts also recommend examining the impacts of climate change on the availability of prey species for the kestrels, with an emphasis on the importance of grasshoppers as a prey species. Further, the paper calls for research into the possible impacts of rodenticides and pesticides on the health of kestrel populations.</p>



<h2 id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



<p>While some theories regarding the kestrel's decline are put to rest in this study - for instance, the West Nile virus and competition for nesting cavities from European starlings are no longer seen as significant threats - the research shines a light on the broader implications of the falcon's plight. Raptors, including the American Kestrel, serve as bioindicators, reflecting the overall health of the ecosystems they inhabit.</p>



<p>For their investigation, the researchers largely depended on the contribution of citizen scientists. Four types of data spanning 38 to 55 years were analyzed, including the Breeding Bird Survey, Christmas Bird Count, migration data from two sites located along flyways in the east, and nest box monitoring programs.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to Smallwood, the nest box monitoring programs have "generated an invaluable database that allows us to examine not only population trends but also lots of aspects of kestrel behavior and ecology."</p>



<p>The researchers found that declines in kestrel populations were recorded in 23 of 25 bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-efforts-are-not-enough-to-save-antarctic-wildlife/">conservation</a> regions, with the mid-Atlantic region bearing the brunt of this downward trend. Surveys across Canada reflected similarly high rates of decline. Population increases were observed in only three of these conservation regions, including the Chihuahuan Desert.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-kestrel-decline-is-a-wake-up-call">Kestrel decline is a wake-up call&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The intricate interplay of factors causing the decline of the American Kestrel shines a spotlight on the complex realities of conservation. Smallwood emphasizes the gravity of the findings: "The population's marked decline should be a wake-up call. Something is out of kilter across North American ecosystems, and the problem could be much more widespread than for just this remarkable species."</p>



<p>The factors contributing to the kestrel's decline highlight how our actions are impacting wildlife. While no single issue stands as the unequivocal culprit, the cumulative effect of various human activities is making survival increasingly challenging for the American Kestrel.</p>



<p>Despite the stark picture painted by these findings, the experts argue that the scenario is not all doom and gloom. The magnitude of the kestrel's decline may be lessening, meaning extinction is not the only possible outcome. Instead, we might witness a gradual thinning of the kestrel population across the landscape, resulting in fewer sightings of these falcons.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-american-kestrel">More about the American Kestrel&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The American Kestrel (Falco sparverius) is the smallest and most common falcon in North America. It's a bird of prey known for its striking plumage and agility in flight.</p>



<p>Despite their small size, American kestrels are known for their boldness. They're capable of taking on prey larger than themselves, and are known to fiercely defend their nests against intruders.</p>



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h3>



<p>Kestrels are small compared to other raptors. They typically measure about 9 inches in length, with a wingspan of around 22 inches. They have a slender body and long, narrow wings, and their tail is also long with a notable black band near the end. Males have blue-gray wings, while the wings of females are reddish brown. Both sexes have a distinctive double black stripe on their faces.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and distribution</h3>



<p>The American Kestrel can be found throughout the Americas, from Alaska and Canada all the way down to the southernmost tip of South America. These birds inhabit a wide range of habitats, including meadows, grasslands, deserts, and even urban and suburban areas. They can often be seen perched on telephone wires or fence posts.</p>



<h3 id="h-behavior-and-diet">Behavior and diet</h3>



<p>Kestrels are carnivorous birds that eat a variety of small animals. Their diet consists of insects, lizards, small mammals, and small birds. They have a keen eyesight and often hover in the air before diving to catch prey on the ground.</p>



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



<p>American Kestrels are cavity nesters, often taking over old woodpecker holes or natural tree cavities for their nests, though they'll also use nesting boxes if available. The female lays a clutch of about 4-5 eggs, which both parents help to incubate. The chicks are altricial, meaning they hatch in a helpless state and require parental care.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Vanishing falcons: The mysterious decline of the American Kestrel

North America's smallest falcon, the American Kestrel, has been at...

<p>A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> has recently identified significant differences in the gut <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-have-surprising-gut-microbiome-composition/">microbiome</a> of female southern white rhinos which managed to reproduce successfully in captivity compared to the less successful ones. These findings raise important questions about the role particular types of gut microbes may be playing in limiting captive breeding of this species.</p>



<p>“Our work focuses on the southern white rhinoceros (<em>Ceratotherium simum simum</em>), because while it is not yet endangered, species numbers are declining in the wild due to poaching,” said study lead author Christina Burnham, a former graduate student in Animal Sciences at NC&nbsp;State.</p>



<p>“There is a significant population of southern white rhinos under human care in the United States, but there have been challenges in getting many of these animals to reproduce successfully. It is critical we understand why, as the managed rhinos serve as important assurance populations in case wild rhino numbers continue to fall. We wanted to know how the gut microbiome may influence the reproductive ability of these rhinos.”</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



<p>To clarify these issues, the scientists collected multiple fecal samples from eight female southern white rhinos during a period of six months. The examined population consisted of two juveniles, two “subadults” that are no longer nursing but have not yet reached reproductive age, two adults that have managed to reproduce successfully, and two that have not reproduced successfully.</p>



<p>“We wanted to have a robust sample size that would allow us to assess the gut microbiome of females in this species while accounting for age, the time of year and reproductive status,” Burnham explained.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



<p>By extracting and sequencing DNA from the fecal samples, the experts identified the diversity and abundance of bacteria in the gut of the female rhinos. The analysis revealed important differences between animals in each age group, suggesting that microbial communities in the gut microbiome change predictably as the animals grow, reflecting changes in their diet and behavior.</p>



<p>However, the differences in bacterial populations in the reproductively successful versus unsuccessful adults provided clear evidence of the critical role of the microbiome in reproductive processes. The researchers found that reproductively successful females had less diversity in the types of microbial species in their gut microbiome compared to the unsuccessful ones. Moreover, each group of adults was hosting microbial species which have been previously associated with reproductive health.</p>



<p>“One of the microbial families we found at significant levels in reproductively successful adults was&nbsp;<em>Rikenellaceae</em>,” Burnham reported. “This is of interest because&nbsp;<em>Rikenellaceae&nbsp;</em>has previously been theorized to play a role in helping southern white rhinos break down dietary plant compounds – including phytoestrogens that are associated with limiting reproductive success."</p>



<p>“On the other hand, we only saw significant enrichment of&nbsp;<em>Mobiluncus&nbsp;</em>microbes in reproductively&nbsp;<em>unsuccessful&nbsp;</em>adults. Previous work has found that&nbsp;<em>Mobiluncus&nbsp;</em>is associated with a range of reproductive health problems in a variety of non-rhinoceros species.”</p>



<h2 id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Since in those previous studies, <em>Mobinculus </em>was detected in cervical and vaginal microbiomes, further research is needed to clarify whether this is the case in rhinoceros females too.</p>



<p>“Because this was a longitudinal study, we collected multiple samples from each animal over the course of half a year,” said co-author Erin McKenney, an expert in Applied Ecology at NC State. “And the differences we saw in the gut microbiomes of adult females were consistent over time, which suggests that these differences in microbial communities may be playing an important role in the reproductive health of these animals. That said, we will need to do additional research to determine what that role may be, if any.”</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-southern-white-rhinos">More about Southern white rhinos&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Out of all five rhino species, the Southern white rhino is the only one that is not classified as endangered. Thanks to extensive conservation efforts, the Southern white rhino is now classified as "near threatened."</p>



<h3 id="h-key-points">Key points</h3>



<h4 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h4>



<p>Southern white rhinos are the second largest land mammals after elephants. They can grow to be 12-13 feet long and 6 feet tall at the shoulder, and can weigh up to 2.5 tons. They are known for their square-shaped lip, which differentiates them from black rhinos, which have a hooked lip. They have two horns, with the front one typically larger than the other, that can grow up to 5 feet long.</p>



<h4 id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and distribution</h4>



<p>These rhinos are native to southern Africa. They mainly live in South Africa, but they have also been reintroduced to Botswana, Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Swaziland. They prefer habitats with plenty of grass for grazing and water holes for wallowing.</p>



<h4 id="h-diet">Diet</h4>



<p>Southern white rhinos are herbivores and primarily eat grass, making them grazers. They use their broad, square-shaped lip to help them eat large quantities of grass.</p>



<h4 id="h-behavior">Behavior</h4>



<p>These animals are generally quite social and live in groups known as "crashes," which typically consist of a female and her calves, though larger groups can sometimes be found. Male southern white rhinos are generally solitary unless there's a female in heat nearby.</p>



<h4 id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h4>



<p>In the early 20th century, southern white rhinos were thought to be extinct, but a small population was discovered in South Africa. Since then, rigorous conservation efforts have helped to increase their numbers. However, they are still threatened by poaching for their horns, which are prized in traditional Asian medicine, and by habitat loss.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



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Reproductive success of southern white rhinos linked to gut microbiome

A team of researchers led by the North Carolina State...

<p>The diverse world of bees, a keystone group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-patches-of-land-can-help-support-pollinators/">pollinators</a>, is under threat. Human-induced changes, such as habitat conversion, climate change, and pesticide usage, are reshaping the environment bees navigate. According to a new study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>, these changes have a direct and indirect influence on bee communication, placing additional stress on already beleaguered colonies.</p>



<p>Different species of bees, like honeybees, bumblebees, and stingless bees, employ various communication strategies. These differences, the scientists have discovered, arise from the distinct habitats these bees inhabit and their unique social lifestyles, such as colony size and nesting habits.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The team unveiled their findings in the latest issue of the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a> (PNAS), highlighting that human impacts are taking a toll on the world bees occupy. It's becoming more evident that these changes negatively affect bee communication.</p>



<p>For instance, they can alter the availability of food sources, disrupt social interactions among nestmates, and impair their cognitive functions.</p>



<p>The researchers argue that understanding how bees adapt their foraging and communication strategies to these threats is a burgeoning and urgent field in bee behavioral and conservation studies.</p>



<h2 id="h-bee-communication-is-very-distinct">Bee communication is very distinct</h2>



<p>Different bees employ distinct communication methods to exploit food sources. For example, honeybees are known for their waggle dance, while certain stingless bees use pheromone trails. However, it's still unclear why different bees employ different techniques to address the same challenge - finding food efficiently.</p>



<p>"We have synthesized the recent literature to explain how differences in ecology and sociality explain this variation," said Christoph Grueter from Bristol's School of Biological Sciences.</p>



<p>He further underscored the human-induced threats, noting, "It is known that anthropogenic effects, such as climate change, pesticides and habitat loss negatively affect social bees."</p>



<h2 id="h-remarkable-ingenuity-of-bees-also-noted-by-research-team">Remarkable ingenuity of bees also noted by research team</h2>



<p>Grueter also remarked that the analyzed research indicates the ingenuity of bees. "Different bees have found many different solutions to the problem of finding good food sources in an efficient way. Anthropogenic change has the potential to interfere with bee communication and behaviors that have helped bees be successful for millions of years might suddenly no longer be equally beneficial."</p>



<p>Given that communication behaviors are essential for colonies to exploit resources, it's crucial to understand how these changes affect them.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Grueter and his team aim to conduct more research to determine how habitat loss, climate change, and pesticide usage influence communication behaviors in bees, emphasizing the need to protect these vital pollinators from further human-induced pressures.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-importance-of-bees">More about the importance of bees</h2>



<p>Bees, despite their small size, play an outsize role in maintaining healthy ecosystems. They are vital for pollination, a process that's indispensable for the reproduction of many plants, including a substantial portion of the world's crops.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As bees move from flower to flower in search of nectar, they facilitate the transfer of pollen, thus enabling fertilization. This process contributes to plant genetic diversity and ultimately leads to the production of fruits, vegetables, and nuts that make up a significant part of the human diet.</p>



<p>In addition, bees support the growth of trees, flowers, and other plants, which serve as food and habitat for various wildlife. The intricate web of life is heavily reliant on these buzzing insects. Without bees, we would lose a primary link in our food chain, leading to a cascading effect with severe implications for the biodiversity of our planet.</p>



<h2 id="h-bees-are-in-steep-population-decline-worldwide">Bees are in steep population decline worldwide&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Unfortunately, bees worldwide are experiencing population declines and colony collapses due to various human activities and climate change. The rise in global temperatures due to climate change can disrupt the synchronicity between bees and the blooming of plants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As winters become shorter and warmer, plants may bloom earlier, potentially before bees have started their foraging season. This timing mismatch can have dire consequences for both bees and the plants that depend on their pollination.</p>



<h3 id="h-humans-mostly-to-blame">Humans mostly to blame</h3>



<p>Habitat loss and fragmentation is another significant threat to bees. As natural landscapes are cleared for agriculture or urban development, bees lose the diverse food sources they need for a healthy diet. The remaining habitats are often too fragmented to support large bee populations, leading to declines in their numbers.</p>



<p>Moreover, the widespread use of pesticides, particularly neonicotinoids, in agriculture harms bees. These chemicals can kill bees directly or affect their navigation, foraging, and reproduction abilities, which contributes to colony collapse.</p>



<p>Parasites, diseases, and invasive species also threaten bees. The Varroa mite, for instance, is a significant problem for honeybees worldwide. The mite weakens bees and spreads viral diseases, causing a great deal of damage to colonies.</p>



<p>The detrimental effects of human activities and climate change on bees underline the need for conservation efforts to protect them. Some of these actions could involve creating wildflower-rich habitats, reducing the use of harmful pesticides, and improving agricultural practices to be more bee-friendly.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Bees' role in supporting our ecosystems and food systems is crucial. Safeguarding them is not only an act of preserving biodiversity but also a matter of food security and sustainability.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Bee communication is hindered by human activity

The diverse world of bees, a keystone group of pollinators,...

<p>Earth's climate is indisputably heating up due to greenhouse gas emissions. This rise in temperature is causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-becoming-more-difficult-to-predict/">weather</a> events that we can only classify as extreme and anomalous. But the challenge arises when we try to predict and analyze the impact of these anomalies.</p>



<p>According to researchers from the University of Florida, museum specimens could provide some answers. This unique approach was unveiled in a groundbreaking study, where the scientists used natural history specimens to highlight how unseasonably hot or cold days can extend the active time of moths and butterflies by nearly a month.</p>



<p>Robert Guralnick, the lead author and curator of biodiversity informatics at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, expressed surprise at these findings, saying, “The results are not at all what we expected.”</p>



<h2 id="h-study-produces-unexpected-results">Study produces unexpected results</h2>



<p>Conventionally, climate change studies focus on how average temperature rises impact ecosystems. As the temperature climbs, flora and fauna in a specific area become active earlier in the spring and delay their dormant phase until later in the fall.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Gradually, they adjust their habitats to survive in their most favorable climate conditions. However, erratic weather introduces an intricate layer to these patterns, generating unknown consequences that blur the scientists' vision of the future of global ecosystems.</p>



<p>Guralnick acknowledges the existing hints in scientific literature that weather anomalies may cumulatively affect ecosystems. Yet, he noted, “there wasn’t anything that directly addressed this question at a broad scale.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>This gap largely stems from the lack of sufficient data. While climate data collection has been consistent in many global regions for over a century, organism location and activity records remain elusive.</p>



<h2 id="h-digging-through-the-archives-of-natural-history-museums">Digging through the archives of natural history museums</h2>



<p>Natural history museums could offer a solution. Housing specimens for hundreds of years, these museums have now digitized their collections, making them accessible to the wider scientific community. However, digital museum records also bring their own set of challenges.</p>



<p>In 2022, Michael Belitz, co-author of this study, put together a dataset of moths and butterflies from museum collections. His goal was to provide a blueprint for other researchers who want to use similar data. This undertaking resulted in a comprehensive guide on collecting, organizing, and analyzing information from natural history specimens.</p>



<p>With this valuable tool, Belitz and his colleagues set out to detect anomalies in weather patterns. They focused on the eastern United States, analyzing records of 139 moth and butterfly species collected from the 1940s to the 2010s.</p>



<p>The findings were clear-cut: abnormal hot and cold weather has considerably modified insect activity, more so than the average global temperature increase over the past decades. The researchers noticed that the location and timing of extreme weather events affected insect response. In higher latitudes, warmer winter days prompted earlier spring activity in moths and butterflies. Unusually cold days, on the other hand, kept insects active longer across all latitudes, and the combination of extremely high and low temperatures had the strongest impact.</p>



<p>Elaborating on this, Guralnick explained, “If you have a succession of abnormally cold and warm days, it limits the ability of insects to function at peak performance. If cold doesn’t kill you, it slows you down, and it might force insects into a torpor. Insects can recover from the cold snaps pretty quickly and go on to have longer lifespans as a direct result of sudden temperature declines.”</p>



<h2 id="h-good-and-bad-of-extended-insect-activity">Good and bad of extended insect activity</h2>



<p>While extended insect activity might seem beneficial initially, co-author Lindsay Campbell, who studies mosquitos, highlights the potential downside. Longer or altered insect lifespans could lead to more opportunities for pathogen transmission.</p>



<p>She cites correlations between El Niño and rift valley fever outbreaks in East Africa. Anecdotal observations also link unusually warm or hot and dry springs, followed by a heavy precipitation event, to increased outbreaks. Campbell, an assistant professor at the University of Florida, warns about these potential repercussions.</p>



<p>Moreover, the stability of long-term ecosystems relies heavily on the synchronized activity of its components. Interestingly, plants may not respond to these extreme weather patterns the same way insects do. For instance, if moths and butterflies begin their activity too early, they might find plants that haven't yet produced leaves or flowers, wasting their energy in a fruitless quest for food.</p>



<p>Adding to this, the constant redefinition of 'extreme' brings another layer of uncertainty. Will insects be able to adapt to these changes quickly enough?</p>



<p>“As average temperature and climate variability increases, an organism’s resilience is going to drop precipitously,” Guralnick warned.&nbsp;</p>



<p>He stressed that the extreme events we witness today could become significantly more extreme in the future. At some point, organisms' capacity to buffer against these rapid changes will reach its limit, raising questions about the long-term impact on global ecosystems.</p>



<p>This intriguing study shines a light on a lesser-explored dimension of climate change impact, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of the intricate relationship between climate change and ecosystem dynamics.&nbsp;</p>



<p>It serves as a wake-up call for us to delve deeper into understanding and mitigating the effects of climate change on the world's ecosystems, making it abundantly clear that every organism, down to the smallest insect, plays a crucial role in the vast web of life on our planet.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-insects-and-climate-change">More about insects and climate change</h2>



<p>Climate change is a growing concern, and its impacts on insects are a crucial area of study due to the essential roles that insects play in the ecosystems, such as pollination, decomposition, and serving as a food source for other organisms.</p>



<p>Temperature is a major factor influencing the life cycles, behaviors, and geographic distributions of insects. A shift in climate could have multiple effects on insect activity and populations:</p>



<p>Changes in Distribution</p>



<p>Climate change can affect the geographic range of insects. As the world becomes warmer, insects that prefer cooler climates could move towards higher altitudes or latitudes, while those that thrive in warmer conditions might expand their range. Some species might even invade new areas where they weren't found before, potentially leading to new ecosystem interactions.</p>



<h3>Altered Life Cycles</h3>



<p>Warmer temperatures could speed up the life cycle of many insect species, leading to more generations each year. This acceleration could increase their population size if resources remain abundant. However, if these changes don't align with the availability of food sources, such as plants for herbivorous insects, the outcome could be detrimental for the insect populations.</p>



<h3 id="h-increased-pest-activity">Increased Pest Activity</h3>



<p>Certain pests, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and crop-damaging insects, could become more active with increasing temperatures. This could lead to higher risks of vector-borne diseases, like malaria or dengue, and increased crop losses, respectively.</p>



<h3 id="h-impacts-on-biodiversity">Impacts on Biodiversity</h3>



<p>Insects with limited geographic ranges or specialized diets could face extinction if they can't adapt to the changing climate or move to new habitats. The loss of these species could disrupt the delicate balance of ecosystems, with repercussions up the food chain.</p>



<h3 id="h-mismatched-phenology">Mismatched Phenology</h3>



<p>Phenology refers to the timing of biological events, such as flowering or insect activity. If climate change causes these events to fall out of sync—for instance, if insects emerge before their food plants have grown—they could face food shortages.</p>



<h3 id="h-increased-stress">Increased Stress</h3>



<p>Extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, or heatwaves, can pose direct threats to insect survival. They can also exacerbate other stresses, such as habitat loss and pollution.</p>



<p>Overall, while some insects might benefit from climate change, many could face significant challenges. Given their essential roles in ecosystems, changes in insect populations can have ripple effects across the food web and biodiversity, affecting the overall health of ecosystems and potentially human societies too. Further research is essential to better understand these impacts and to guide effective strategies for biodiversity conservation in the face of climate change.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Extreme weather has increased seasonal insect activity

Earth's climate is indisputably heating up due to greenhouse gas...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



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<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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