<p>If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.</p>



<p>In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. </p>



<p>But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



<p>In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.</p>



<p>The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.</p>



<p>Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.</p>



<p>“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. </p>



<p>“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



<p>The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.</p>



<p>“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. </p>



<p>“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”</p>



<p>When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



<p>This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.</p>



<p>“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. </p>



<p>“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



<p>Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.</p>



<p>That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.</p>



<p>“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



<p>The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. </p>



<p>But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.</p>



<p>That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

<p>The diverse world of bees, a keystone group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-patches-of-land-can-help-support-pollinators/">pollinators</a>, is under threat. Human-induced changes, such as habitat conversion, climate change, and pesticide usage, are reshaping the environment bees navigate. According to a new study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>, these changes have a direct and indirect influence on bee communication, placing additional stress on already beleaguered colonies.</p>



<p>Different species of bees, like honeybees, bumblebees, and stingless bees, employ various communication strategies. These differences, the scientists have discovered, arise from the distinct habitats these bees inhabit and their unique social lifestyles, such as colony size and nesting habits.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The team unveiled their findings in the latest issue of the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a> (PNAS), highlighting that human impacts are taking a toll on the world bees occupy. It's becoming more evident that these changes negatively affect bee communication.</p>



<p>For instance, they can alter the availability of food sources, disrupt social interactions among nestmates, and impair their cognitive functions.</p>



<p>The researchers argue that understanding how bees adapt their foraging and communication strategies to these threats is a burgeoning and urgent field in bee behavioral and conservation studies.</p>



<h2 id="h-bee-communication-is-very-distinct">Bee communication is very distinct</h2>



<p>Different bees employ distinct communication methods to exploit food sources. For example, honeybees are known for their waggle dance, while certain stingless bees use pheromone trails. However, it's still unclear why different bees employ different techniques to address the same challenge - finding food efficiently.</p>



<p>"We have synthesized the recent literature to explain how differences in ecology and sociality explain this variation," said Christoph Grueter from Bristol's School of Biological Sciences.</p>



<p>He further underscored the human-induced threats, noting, "It is known that anthropogenic effects, such as climate change, pesticides and habitat loss negatively affect social bees."</p>



<h2 id="h-remarkable-ingenuity-of-bees-also-noted-by-research-team">Remarkable ingenuity of bees also noted by research team</h2>



<p>Grueter also remarked that the analyzed research indicates the ingenuity of bees. "Different bees have found many different solutions to the problem of finding good food sources in an efficient way. Anthropogenic change has the potential to interfere with bee communication and behaviors that have helped bees be successful for millions of years might suddenly no longer be equally beneficial."</p>



<p>Given that communication behaviors are essential for colonies to exploit resources, it's crucial to understand how these changes affect them.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Grueter and his team aim to conduct more research to determine how habitat loss, climate change, and pesticide usage influence communication behaviors in bees, emphasizing the need to protect these vital pollinators from further human-induced pressures.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-importance-of-bees">More about the importance of bees</h2>



<p>Bees, despite their small size, play an outsize role in maintaining healthy ecosystems. They are vital for pollination, a process that's indispensable for the reproduction of many plants, including a substantial portion of the world's crops.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As bees move from flower to flower in search of nectar, they facilitate the transfer of pollen, thus enabling fertilization. This process contributes to plant genetic diversity and ultimately leads to the production of fruits, vegetables, and nuts that make up a significant part of the human diet.</p>



<p>In addition, bees support the growth of trees, flowers, and other plants, which serve as food and habitat for various wildlife. The intricate web of life is heavily reliant on these buzzing insects. Without bees, we would lose a primary link in our food chain, leading to a cascading effect with severe implications for the biodiversity of our planet.</p>



<h2 id="h-bees-are-in-steep-population-decline-worldwide">Bees are in steep population decline worldwide&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Unfortunately, bees worldwide are experiencing population declines and colony collapses due to various human activities and climate change. The rise in global temperatures due to climate change can disrupt the synchronicity between bees and the blooming of plants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As winters become shorter and warmer, plants may bloom earlier, potentially before bees have started their foraging season. This timing mismatch can have dire consequences for both bees and the plants that depend on their pollination.</p>



<h3 id="h-humans-mostly-to-blame">Humans mostly to blame</h3>



<p>Habitat loss and fragmentation is another significant threat to bees. As natural landscapes are cleared for agriculture or urban development, bees lose the diverse food sources they need for a healthy diet. The remaining habitats are often too fragmented to support large bee populations, leading to declines in their numbers.</p>



<p>Moreover, the widespread use of pesticides, particularly neonicotinoids, in agriculture harms bees. These chemicals can kill bees directly or affect their navigation, foraging, and reproduction abilities, which contributes to colony collapse.</p>



<p>Parasites, diseases, and invasive species also threaten bees. The Varroa mite, for instance, is a significant problem for honeybees worldwide. The mite weakens bees and spreads viral diseases, causing a great deal of damage to colonies.</p>



<p>The detrimental effects of human activities and climate change on bees underline the need for conservation efforts to protect them. Some of these actions could involve creating wildflower-rich habitats, reducing the use of harmful pesticides, and improving agricultural practices to be more bee-friendly.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Bees' role in supporting our ecosystems and food systems is crucial. Safeguarding them is not only an act of preserving biodiversity but also a matter of food security and sustainability.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Bee communication is hindered by human activity

The diverse world of bees, a keystone group of pollinators,...

<p>Earth's climate is indisputably heating up due to greenhouse gas emissions. This rise in temperature is causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-becoming-more-difficult-to-predict/">weather</a> events that we can only classify as extreme and anomalous. But the challenge arises when we try to predict and analyze the impact of these anomalies.</p>



<p>According to researchers from the University of Florida, museum specimens could provide some answers. This unique approach was unveiled in a groundbreaking study, where the scientists used natural history specimens to highlight how unseasonably hot or cold days can extend the active time of moths and butterflies by nearly a month.</p>



<p>Robert Guralnick, the lead author and curator of biodiversity informatics at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, expressed surprise at these findings, saying, “The results are not at all what we expected.”</p>



<h2 id="h-study-produces-unexpected-results">Study produces unexpected results</h2>



<p>Conventionally, climate change studies focus on how average temperature rises impact ecosystems. As the temperature climbs, flora and fauna in a specific area become active earlier in the spring and delay their dormant phase until later in the fall.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Gradually, they adjust their habitats to survive in their most favorable climate conditions. However, erratic weather introduces an intricate layer to these patterns, generating unknown consequences that blur the scientists' vision of the future of global ecosystems.</p>



<p>Guralnick acknowledges the existing hints in scientific literature that weather anomalies may cumulatively affect ecosystems. Yet, he noted, “there wasn’t anything that directly addressed this question at a broad scale.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>This gap largely stems from the lack of sufficient data. While climate data collection has been consistent in many global regions for over a century, organism location and activity records remain elusive.</p>



<h2 id="h-digging-through-the-archives-of-natural-history-museums">Digging through the archives of natural history museums</h2>



<p>Natural history museums could offer a solution. Housing specimens for hundreds of years, these museums have now digitized their collections, making them accessible to the wider scientific community. However, digital museum records also bring their own set of challenges.</p>



<p>In 2022, Michael Belitz, co-author of this study, put together a dataset of moths and butterflies from museum collections. His goal was to provide a blueprint for other researchers who want to use similar data. This undertaking resulted in a comprehensive guide on collecting, organizing, and analyzing information from natural history specimens.</p>



<p>With this valuable tool, Belitz and his colleagues set out to detect anomalies in weather patterns. They focused on the eastern United States, analyzing records of 139 moth and butterfly species collected from the 1940s to the 2010s.</p>



<p>The findings were clear-cut: abnormal hot and cold weather has considerably modified insect activity, more so than the average global temperature increase over the past decades. The researchers noticed that the location and timing of extreme weather events affected insect response. In higher latitudes, warmer winter days prompted earlier spring activity in moths and butterflies. Unusually cold days, on the other hand, kept insects active longer across all latitudes, and the combination of extremely high and low temperatures had the strongest impact.</p>



<p>Elaborating on this, Guralnick explained, “If you have a succession of abnormally cold and warm days, it limits the ability of insects to function at peak performance. If cold doesn’t kill you, it slows you down, and it might force insects into a torpor. Insects can recover from the cold snaps pretty quickly and go on to have longer lifespans as a direct result of sudden temperature declines.”</p>



<h2 id="h-good-and-bad-of-extended-insect-activity">Good and bad of extended insect activity</h2>



<p>While extended insect activity might seem beneficial initially, co-author Lindsay Campbell, who studies mosquitos, highlights the potential downside. Longer or altered insect lifespans could lead to more opportunities for pathogen transmission.</p>



<p>She cites correlations between El Niño and rift valley fever outbreaks in East Africa. Anecdotal observations also link unusually warm or hot and dry springs, followed by a heavy precipitation event, to increased outbreaks. Campbell, an assistant professor at the University of Florida, warns about these potential repercussions.</p>



<p>Moreover, the stability of long-term ecosystems relies heavily on the synchronized activity of its components. Interestingly, plants may not respond to these extreme weather patterns the same way insects do. For instance, if moths and butterflies begin their activity too early, they might find plants that haven't yet produced leaves or flowers, wasting their energy in a fruitless quest for food.</p>



<p>Adding to this, the constant redefinition of 'extreme' brings another layer of uncertainty. Will insects be able to adapt to these changes quickly enough?</p>



<p>“As average temperature and climate variability increases, an organism’s resilience is going to drop precipitously,” Guralnick warned.&nbsp;</p>



<p>He stressed that the extreme events we witness today could become significantly more extreme in the future. At some point, organisms' capacity to buffer against these rapid changes will reach its limit, raising questions about the long-term impact on global ecosystems.</p>



<p>This intriguing study shines a light on a lesser-explored dimension of climate change impact, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of the intricate relationship between climate change and ecosystem dynamics.&nbsp;</p>



<p>It serves as a wake-up call for us to delve deeper into understanding and mitigating the effects of climate change on the world's ecosystems, making it abundantly clear that every organism, down to the smallest insect, plays a crucial role in the vast web of life on our planet.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-insects-and-climate-change">More about insects and climate change</h2>



<p>Climate change is a growing concern, and its impacts on insects are a crucial area of study due to the essential roles that insects play in the ecosystems, such as pollination, decomposition, and serving as a food source for other organisms.</p>



<p>Temperature is a major factor influencing the life cycles, behaviors, and geographic distributions of insects. A shift in climate could have multiple effects on insect activity and populations:</p>



<p>Changes in Distribution</p>



<p>Climate change can affect the geographic range of insects. As the world becomes warmer, insects that prefer cooler climates could move towards higher altitudes or latitudes, while those that thrive in warmer conditions might expand their range. Some species might even invade new areas where they weren't found before, potentially leading to new ecosystem interactions.</p>



<h3>Altered Life Cycles</h3>



<p>Warmer temperatures could speed up the life cycle of many insect species, leading to more generations each year. This acceleration could increase their population size if resources remain abundant. However, if these changes don't align with the availability of food sources, such as plants for herbivorous insects, the outcome could be detrimental for the insect populations.</p>



<h3 id="h-increased-pest-activity">Increased Pest Activity</h3>



<p>Certain pests, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and crop-damaging insects, could become more active with increasing temperatures. This could lead to higher risks of vector-borne diseases, like malaria or dengue, and increased crop losses, respectively.</p>



<h3 id="h-impacts-on-biodiversity">Impacts on Biodiversity</h3>



<p>Insects with limited geographic ranges or specialized diets could face extinction if they can't adapt to the changing climate or move to new habitats. The loss of these species could disrupt the delicate balance of ecosystems, with repercussions up the food chain.</p>



<h3 id="h-mismatched-phenology">Mismatched Phenology</h3>



<p>Phenology refers to the timing of biological events, such as flowering or insect activity. If climate change causes these events to fall out of sync—for instance, if insects emerge before their food plants have grown—they could face food shortages.</p>



<h3 id="h-increased-stress">Increased Stress</h3>



<p>Extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, or heatwaves, can pose direct threats to insect survival. They can also exacerbate other stresses, such as habitat loss and pollution.</p>



<p>Overall, while some insects might benefit from climate change, many could face significant challenges. Given their essential roles in ecosystems, changes in insect populations can have ripple effects across the food web and biodiversity, affecting the overall health of ecosystems and potentially human societies too. Further research is essential to better understand these impacts and to guide effective strategies for biodiversity conservation in the face of climate change.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Extreme weather has increased seasonal insect activity

Earth's climate is indisputably heating up due to greenhouse gas...

<p>Recently, an increasing number of scientists have argued that animals such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-what-killer-whales-like-to-eat/">whales</a> could actively contribute to the removal of carbon from the atmosphere and thus help mitigate climate change.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, by reviewing the main ways in which baleen whales (such as humpback whales) remove atmospheric carbon at both regional and global scales, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/">Griffith University</a> in Australia has recently found that the amount of potential carbon capture by whales is unfortunately too little to significantly alter the trajectory of climate change.</p>



<h2 id="h-creating-false-hope">Creating false hope</h2>



<p>“Our study supports that whales are important for the marine ecosystem, but their contribution to the global carbon flux is too small to effectively reduce atmospheric carbon. While our research group would very much like to highlight the opposite in order to benefit the conservation of whales and perhaps one day use carbon credits to support research, the debate is misguiding and creates false hope,” said lead author Jan-Olaf Meynecke, a research fellow in Behavioral Ecology at Griffith.</p>



<p>“This is in contrast to media perpetuating whales as climate engineers.&nbsp;Creating false hope in the ability of charismatic species to be climate engineers may act to further delay the urgent behavioral change needed to avert catastrophic climate change impacts, which can in turn have indirect consequences for the recovery of whale populations.”</p>



<p>The ocean carbon cycle is a crucial factor driving global climate, and clarifying how whales and other animals potentially contribute to it is highly important for climate mitigation efforts. According to some scientists, whales can contribute to carbon capture through their biomass in which carbon can be kept for decades (depending on their lifespan), and even after their death, if they sink to the ocean floor and are covered by sediment.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, as the authors of the current study stress, overstating whales’ ability to prevent or counterbalance anthropogenic changes in global carbon budgets could unintentionally redirect attention from well-established – and highly needed – methods for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.</p>



<h2 id="h-whales-have-other-important-values">Whales have other important values&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Previous estimations neglect the scale in which carbon sequestration occurred both temporally and spatially. Some of the pathways suggested for carbon sequestration such as whale falls (when whales die and sink to the ocean floor but retain carbon for decades) also underestimate the breathing of whales,” Meynecke explained.</p>



<p>“We think it is important to acknowledge that there are other values of whales that are more relevant to drive their conservation than carbon capture.&nbsp;Large scale protection of marine environments including the habitats of whales will build resilience and assist with natural carbon capture at a global scale,” he concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1117409"><em>Frontiers in Marine Science</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-carbon-capture">More about carbon capture&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Carbon capture, also known as carbon capture and storage (CCS), is a process designed to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change. This technology aims to capture carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions produced from the use of fossil fuels in electricity generation and industrial processes, preventing the CO2 from entering the atmosphere. The captured CO2 is then stored underground in geological formations.</p>



<h3 id="h-the-process-of-carbon-capture">The process of carbon capture:</h3>



<h4 id="h-capture">Capture</h4>



<p>The capture stage involves the separation of CO2 from other gases produced in electricity generation and industrial processes. There are three primary techniques used for this:</p>



<h4 id="h-post-combustion-capture">Post-combustion capture</h4>



<p>This involves capturing CO2 after fossil fuels have been burned and the resultant gases have been cleaned. This is the most widely used method as it can be retrofitted to existing power and industrial plants.</p>



<h4 id="h-pre-combustion-capture">Pre-combustion capture</h4>



<p>In this process, fossil fuels are partially oxidized to produce a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The carbon monoxide is then reacted with water to produce CO2, which can be captured. The remaining hydrogen can be used as a low-carbon fuel.</p>



<h4 id="h-oxyfuel-combustion-capture">Oxyfuel combustion capture</h4>



<p>Here, fossil fuels are burned in oxygen rather than air. As a result, the flue gas is primarily CO2 and water vapor, which can be easily separated to capture CO2.</p>



<h4 id="h-transport">Transport</h4>



<p>After the CO2 is captured, it must be transported to a storage site. This is usually done through pipelines that have been specifically constructed for this purpose. In certain situations where pipelines are impractical, other methods like shipping might be used.</p>



<h4 id="h-storage">Storage</h4>



<p>The final stage involves storing the captured CO2. This is typically done by injecting the CO2 deep underground into geological formations. These can include depleted oil and gas fields, unminable coal seams, or deep saline aquifers.</p>



<p>While carbon capture is seen as a potential solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, it also faces several challenges. These include high cost, energy required for the process, and the need for safe and long-term storage solutions. The technology also doesn't address the emissions from the extraction and transport of fossil fuels. Furthermore, some argue that investment in CCS might detract from efforts to further renewable energy sources.</p>



<p>However, newer technologies are also being developed, such as Direct Air Capture (DAC), which involves removing CO2 directly from the atmosphere, and Bio-Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS), which combines biomass use with CCS.</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Can whales contribute to carbon capture?

Recently, an increasing number of scientists have argued that animals...

<p>The Antillean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-manatee-evolution-over-47-million-years/">manatee</a> (<em>Trichechus manatus</em>) is a currently endangered subspecies of the West Indian manatee, living in the waters off Belize and facing a variety of threats, such as habitat degradation and loss, poaching, pollution, and entanglement in fishing gear.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">University of California, Santa Cruz</a> has found that, with the growth of tourism over the past three decades and subsequent increase in boat traffic, the local manatee population – consisting at the moment of about 1,000 specimens – is also facing a growing threat from boat strikes.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To quantify the impacts of increasing boat traffic on the manatee population, the researchers used 25 years of data on manatee strandings (injured or dead animals), six aerial surveys of the manatee population, and two decades of boat registration data.</p>



<p>The investigation revealed that, with increasingly more boats in the water, the number of manatee strandings has risen from one to four per year in the 1990s and early 2000s to 10 to 17 per year by the late 2100s. Strandings were more frequent in regions with high boat traffic, mangrove habitats, and high human population density.</p>



<p>“We knew that boat strikes were happening, but this study provides strong quantitative evidence of boat strikes as an increasing source of mortality for manatees in Belize, and it shows the areas where the risk is greatest,” said co-author Marm Kilpatrick, a professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at UC Santa Cruz. “These findings provide a basis for conservation measures that can be implemented to reduce the risk.”</p>



<h2 id="h-conservation-efforts-are-needed">Conservation efforts are needed</h2>



<p>According to the researchers, conservation efforts should focus on decreasing the number of boats and their allowed speeds within areas of high manatee use, creating more protected areas with strict restrictions on boat traffic, including regions designated for non-motorized boating or restricted access, and implementing speed restrictions in shallow seagrass habitats.</p>



<p>“This work has been shared with policymakers in Belize and will contribute directly to conservation planning, including protecting key areas for manatees such as the Belize River Mouth and the Placencia Lagoon,” concluded lead author Celeshia Guy Galves, a scientist at the <a href="https://mission.cmaquarium.org/research-institute/">Clearwater Marine Aquarium Research Institute</a> in Belize, who conducted this research as a graduate student in the&nbsp;<a href="https://csp.ucsc.edu/">Coastal Science and Policy Program</a>&nbsp;at UC Santa Cruz. The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/esr01247"><em>Endangered Species Research</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-boat-strikes">More about boat strikes</h2>



<p>Boat strikes refer to the collision of boats with marine life, such as whales, dolphins, manatees, turtles, and various types of fish. These incidents can result in injury or death to the marine animals and can damage boats as well.</p>



<p>Boat strikes are a significant conservation issue, especially for endangered or threatened species. They are a particularly significant problem in areas with heavy boat traffic, such as Florida's waterways where the manatee population is at risk, or busy shipping lanes where large whales might be present. They can be a significant source of mortality for some species.</p>



<p>There are a variety of methods being used to try to reduce the incidence of boat strikes. These include:</p>



<h3 id="h-education">Education</h3>



<p>Boat operators are often not aware of the presence of marine animals in their vicinity or the potential harm they can cause. Educational campaigns can help to raise awareness and change behavior.</p>



<h3 id="h-regulation">Regulation</h3>



<p>Speed limits in certain areas, especially those known to be inhabited by vulnerable species, can reduce the risk of boat strikes. Regulations may also limit the times or seasons when boats can operate in certain areas.</p>



<h3 id="h-technology">Technology</h3>



<p>There are technologies being developed to help boats detect the presence of marine life, such as sonar systems. Other innovations aim to make the animals more aware of approaching boats.</p>



<h3 id="h-design">Design</h3>



<p>Changes to boat design, such as propeller guards or hull shapes that are less likely to harm animals, can also reduce the risk.</p>



<p>Despite these efforts, boat strikes remain a significant conservation concern. As human activities in the marine environment continue to increase, it's likely that the issue of boat strikes will continue to receive attention from researchers, conservationists, and policymakers.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Boat strikes are a growing threat to manatees in Belize

The Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus) is a currently endangered subspecies...

<p>Researchers at Cal State University have discovered that juvenile great white sharks are far more prevalent along the California coastline than previously assumed. This presence has shed new light on the reality of human-shark interactions and possibly on how climate change may be affecting shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dads-lead-young-birds-on-their-first-migration/">migration</a> patterns.</p>



<p>A two-year research project led by Professor Christopher Lowe, director of the Shark Lab and a professor of Marine Biology at <a href="https://www.csulb.edu/">Cal State Long Beach</a>, relied on drone technology to observe more than two dozen beaches along the state's extensive shoreline.</p>



<p>The study's target demographic was juvenile great whites, aged between one and five years. To the researchers' surprise, these young great whites appeared to be particularly concentrated in two locations: southern Santa Barbara County and central San Diego County.</p>



<p>The intriguing aspect of this finding was not just the unexpected frequency of the juvenile sharks in these regions but the nature of their interaction - or lack thereof - with humans. According to the results released last Friday, these aggregation sites often witnessed sharks and humans sharing the oceanic playground simultaneously 97 percent of the time.</p>



<h2 id="h-minding-their-own-business">Minding their own business</h2>



<p>The notion of sharks circling in the same waters as surfers and stand-up paddle boarders might immediately bring to mind scenes from Steven Spielberg's iconic film "Jaws." Yet, the researchers emphasize that their observations provide a clear contrast to these sensationalized Hollywood scenarios.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Rather than menacing predators, the young sharks "tend to mind their own business," says Patrick Rex, a lab technician at the Shark Lab. The researchers frequently observed juvenile whites swimming within 50 yards of where the waves break, even coming within 10 feet of beachgoers - who were often unaware of a shark's presence.</p>



<p>The important question that arises from these observations, Rex points out, is not about fear but about perception: “People think, 'If I see a shark in the lineup (the area where waves begin breaking), I'm going to get bitten or I'm in danger.' And what we've seen is that that's not necessarily the case."</p>



<p>During the entire period of the study, no shark bites were reported at any of the observed beaches. In fact, shark bites in California are quite rare, with the state Department of Fish and Wildlife documenting only 209 incidents from 1950 to November 2022.</p>



<h2 id="h-new-insights">New insights</h2>



<p>This proximity to humans without any significant incident has led the scientists to theorize that these sharks have started to recognize humans as "not food." Although this is not a definitive conclusion, given the complexities of understanding why sharks bite humans in the first place, it does offer a glimmer of insight into the nature of these majestic creatures.</p>



<p>These findings offer invaluable information to lifeguards, particularly those operating in these aggregation sites, to help ensure safe swimming and water recreation. The research also offers a fascinating window into the behaviors of young sharks, who tend to spend their time at these spots feeding on stingrays and small fish at the seafloor.</p>



<p>Interestingly, this research may also be offering insights into broader environmental shifts. The scientists noted that some of the sharks they were observing did not leave the California waters as they traditionally would when the colder seasons set in.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Rex suggests that climate change and the resultant warmer waters might be causing this shift in migratory patterns. "It means that the sharks may not be making that long migration anymore," he explained. However, he was quick to caution that this was an early hypothesis, with more data and time needed before firm conclusions could be drawn.</p>



<p>These intriguing findings emphasize the importance of continued marine research, the results of which not only bring us a deeper understanding of these incredible creatures but also of our role and responsibility in the delicate balance of our shared environment.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-great-whites">More about great whites</h2>



<p>Great white sharks are the largest predatory fish in the world, with adults typically measuring 13 to 15 feet in length, although specimens exceeding 20 feet have been recorded. These sharks are known for their torpedo-shaped bodies, which allow for speed and agility in the water, and their iconic white underbellies, which gives them their common name. Their back and sides are typically a slate-gray color, providing an effective camouflage in the water.</p>



<p>Great whites have a global distribution, and are primarily found in cool, coastal waters. They have been observed in waters with temperatures ranging from 54-75°F (12-24°C), which means they can be found in seas off the coasts of the United States, South Africa, Japan, Oceania, Chile, and the Mediterranean, among others.</p>



<p>Great white sharks are apex predators, meaning they have no natural predators aside from the occasional killer whale. Their diet mainly consists of fish, seals, small cetaceans (like dolphins), sea turtles, sea birds, and even other sharks. They are known for their "breaching" behavior when hunting seals, propelling themselves out of the water in an impressive display of power and agility.</p>



<p>Despite their reputation, attacks on humans are relatively rare and are usually a case of mistaken identity, such as a shark confusing a surfer for a seal. Contrary to popular belief, humans are not a preferred food source for these sharks.</p>



<p>Great whites are ovoviviparous, which means eggs develop and hatch within the body of the female and are born live. Little is known about their breeding habits, but pups are generally around 5 feet long at birth and are immediately self-sufficient.</p>



<p>These sharks are migratory and can travel thousands of miles. A famous shark named Nicole traveled from South Africa to Australia and back in nine months, a journey of over 12,000 miles.</p>



<p>Unfortunately, great white sharks are currently listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). They face threats from hunting (for their fins, teeth, and as trophies), accidental catch (bycatch) in fishing gear, and pollution. Efforts are being made to protect these majestic creatures and ensure their survival for future generations.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Great whites are far more prevalent than expected on the California coast

Researchers at Cal State University have discovered that juvenile great...

<p>Blacklegged ticks (<em>Ixodes scapularis</em>) are well-known carriers of pathogens that are responsible for a variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-food-diets-linked-to-rise-in-autoimmune-diseases/">diseases</a>, including Lyme disease, the most common vector-borne illness in North America.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Over the past years, these ticks have significantly expanded their range across the Eastern United States and Midwest, challenging previous assumptions regarding their preferred habitats. While climate change has often been hailed responsible for these range shifts, it is not yet clear why ticks are abundant in some areas and rare in others.&nbsp;</p>



<p>To better understand how changes in temperature affect ticks, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> (WSU) has set up a large field study at three military bases across the U.S. East Coast. The results are published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1572"><em>Ecological Monographs</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>By placing over 9,000 ticks in soil core enclosures and closely monitoring their survival and development during a period of three years, the experts found that these parasites are much more resilient to extreme temperatures than previously thought.</p>



<p>Although prior laboratory research suggested that even short periods of particularly warm or cold conditions should easily kill ticks, the new study found that this is only the case for their larvae. By contrast, nymph and adult ticks appeared to survive extreme temperatures with relative ease, dying only when they ran out of energy.</p>



<p>“We thought we would see some evidence that if there was like a very dry period, all the ticks might be at a greater risk of dying,” said lead author Jesse Brunner, an associate professor of Biological Sciences at WSU. “However, just the larvae were impacted by heat and dry conditions. Cold weather had even less of an impact. Somehow, they hunker down and survive great.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-experts-discovered">What the experts discovered&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The investigation revealed that, although extreme weather conditions do not significantly affect tick mortality, it does make them burn through their food faster, suggesting that hotter weather could shorten the window of time for ticks to locate a potential host walking by. This finding was particularly true for tick larvae, whose median survival times were halved when exposed to frequent periods of hot and dry weather.</p>



<p>Moreover, the scientists were surprised to find that soil core enclosures located just a few meters apart from each other frequently exhibited highly different rates of tick mortality. For instance, while in one container 80 percent of ticks survived, in another located right next to it none of them did. Although the cause of these extreme variations is unclear, environmental factors such as arthropods or fungi could possibly play a major role.</p>



<p>Considering the massive impact of tick-borne diseases on public health, the implications of this study could be far-reaching. For instance, the findings highlight the importance of targeting interventions during the larval stage, when ticks are most vulnerable. Focusing on this stage of development, scientists hope to develop effective strategies, such as vaccinating host species, which can significantly reduce tick populations and mitigate the rates of disease transmission.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-research-is-needed">More research is needed&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Further research is needed to clarify the factors leading to localized tick mortality and the role host species such as mice, deer, and humans play in tick survival.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The ultimate goal is to develop a comprehensive framework that can predict and effectively manage tick populations. This could in turn lead to improved public health outcomes,” Brunner concluded.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-black-legged-ticks">More about black-legged ticks</h2>



<p>Black-legged ticks, scientifically known as Ixodes scapularis, are primarily found in the northeastern and midwestern regions of the United States, as well as parts of southeastern Canada. They are also commonly referred to as deer ticks.</p>



<h3 id="h-key-points-about-black-legged-ticks">Key points about black-legged ticks:</h3>



<h4 id="h-appearance">Appearance</h4>



<p>Black-legged ticks are small arachnids, with adult females measuring about 3 to 5 millimeters in length, while adult males are slightly smaller. They have a dark brown to black colored body and are characterized by their eight legs.</p>



<h4 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h4>



<p>These insects thrive in wooded areas, particularly in forests with a dense understory and abundant leaf litter. They prefer a humid environment and are often found in areas with tall grasses and shrubs.</p>



<h4 id="h-life-cycle">Life Cycle</h4>



<p>Black-legged ticks have a complex life cycle that involves four stages: egg, larva, nymph, and adult. They require a blood meal at each stage to progress to the next. Small mammals, birds, and reptiles typically serve as hosts for the larval and nymphal stages, while larger mammals, including humans, are preferred hosts for adults.</p>



<h4 id="h-feeding-habits">Feeding Habits</h4>



<p>Black-legged ticks are parasitic and feed on the blood of animals, including humans. They attach themselves to their hosts by biting into the skin, and their feeding process can last several days. During feeding, ticks can transmit disease-causing pathogens, such as the bacterium responsible for Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi).</p>



<h4 id="h-disease-transmission">Disease Transmission</h4>



<p>Black-legged ticks are the primary vectors of Lyme disease in North America. Lyme disease is a bacterial infection that can cause a range of symptoms, including fever, fatigue, headache, muscle and joint aches, and a characteristic skin rash. If left untreated, Lyme disease can lead to more serious complications affecting the joints, heart, and nervous system.</p>



<h4 id="h-prevention">Prevention</h4>



<p>To protect yourself from black-legged ticks and reduce the risk of tick-borne diseases, it's important to take preventive measures. These include wearing long-sleeved shirts, long pants, and closed-toe shoes when venturing into tick-prone areas.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Ticks are highly resilient to extreme temperatures

Blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapularis) are well-known carriers of pathogens that...

<p>The bountiful region of central Texas, already renowned for its diverse biological landscape, has just revealed an even more astonishing secret.&nbsp;The diligent efforts of Dr. JoVonn Hill, Director of the Mississippi Entomological Museum (MEM) at <a href="https://www.msstate.edu/">Mississippi State University</a>, and his team have led to the discovery of this incredible revelation after conducting scientific expeditions in the area for the past five years.</p>



<p>Unveiling an extraordinary treasure trove, the team successfully discovered seven distinct species of flightless grasshoppers that had not been previously identified. Six out of these seven species are endemic to the Edwards Plateau, a stark testimony to the exceptional biodiversity this region holds.</p>



<h2 id="h-honoring-legendary-texas-musicians">Honoring legendary Texas musicians</h2>



<p>In homage to the rich musical heritage of Texas, Dr. Hill chose to name two of these newfound grasshopper species after the legendary musicians Willie Nelson and Jerry Jeff Walker. His intent, he explains, was to honor their "immense contributions" and eternalize the lasting legacy of these musicians within the biodiversity of Texas.</p>



<p>"Melanoplus nelsoni and Melanoplus walkeri, the newly named species, symbolize the enduring impact of these musicians and their intrinsic connection to Texas," said Dr. Hill.</p>



<p>Akin to the sentiments expressed by Willie Nelson himself, Dr. Hill admits that after these extensive years of field studies, he too carries "a little Texas in [his] soul." His personal connection to Texas, as well as his scientific journey, was documented in his study recently published in the academic journal, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1165.104047"><em>ZooKeys</em></a>.</p>



<p>In regards to Melanoplus walkeri, Dr. Hill recalls the significant influence of Walker's music on his team during their field explorations. According to him, Walker's songs such as Hill Country Rain, Leavin' Texas, and Sangria Wine have been the source of joy and positivity while journeying between field sites and have greatly contributed to the overall experience of the Edwards Plateau.</p>



<p>With the study additionally revealing the close proximity of the newly discovered species to the location of one of Walker's most influential albums, the bond between art, science, and nature seems to become even more apparent.</p>



<h2 id="h-paying-tribute-to-comanche-and-tonkawa-tribes">Paying tribute to Comanche and Tonkawa tribes</h2>



<p>In another heartening gesture, the team pays tribute to the rich cultural heritage of the Comanche and Tonkawa tribes, the original inhabitants of the region, by naming two species, Melanoplus commanche and Melanoplus tonkawa.</p>



<p>"These designations are an acknowledgement of the tribes' significant historical and cultural contribution to the region," said Dr. Hill.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"These seven newly described species, along with two preexisting ones, form a cohesive species group, which spotlights their shared characteristics and evolutionary relationships."</p>



<p>According to Dr. Hill, the discovery of this new species group adds substantial value to our understanding of the diverse ecosystems prevalent in central Texas. He further asserts that these findings accentuate the ecological distinctiveness of the region.</p>



<p>Dr. Hill and his colleagues at the Mississippi Entomological Museum continue to reaffirm their commitment to the exploration and understanding of science, the conservation of biodiversity, and inspiring a sense of wonder and appreciation for the intricacies of the natural world. The unearthing of these seven flightless grasshopper species is just another testament to their dedication.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-grasshoppers">More about grasshoppers</h2>



<p>Grasshoppers are insects that belong to the order Orthoptera, which also includes crickets and katydids. They are typically characterized by their powerful hind legs adapted for jumping, wings for flying, and a body structure featuring a head, thorax, and abdomen. Grasshoppers are most commonly recognized for their ability to produce sounds by rubbing their hind legs against their wings, a process known as stridulation.</p>



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical Characteristics</h3>



<p>Grasshoppers are usually green, brown, or grey, which aids in camouflage within their environment, although some tropical species can be brightly colored. They have a pair of large compound eyes for good vision, two antennae that are typically shorter than their body, and a mouth adapted for biting and chewing vegetation.</p>



<p>Adult grasshoppers have two sets of wings. The front pair is narrow and hard, serving to protect the broader and more flexible hind wings. The hind legs are large and muscular, enabling them to leap distances many times their body length.</p>



<h3 id="h-life-cycle">Life Cycle</h3>



<p>Grasshoppers undergo incomplete metamorphosis in their life cycle. This cycle begins with eggs, which are laid in the ground or on vegetation. When these hatch, they produce nymphs - smaller, wingless versions of the adult grasshoppers. These nymphs will then shed their exoskeletons multiple times in a process known as molting, growing larger each time until they become adults. Unlike complete metamorphosis seen in insects like butterflies, there is no pupal stage in a grasshopper's life cycle.</p>



<h3 id="h-diet-and-habitat">Diet and Habitat</h3>



<p>Grasshoppers are primarily herbivores, feeding on a wide range of plants. Some species are known to be more selective, feeding on single plant types, while others have a more varied diet. However, under extreme conditions, some grasshoppers may resort to cannibalism.</p>



<p>These insects are found in a variety of habitats, including meadows, forests, grasslands, and agricultural fields, basically anywhere with ample vegetation for food. They are found worldwide except for extremely cold regions like the poles.</p>



<h3 id="h-ecological-role-and-human-impact">Ecological Role and Human Impact</h3>



<p>Grasshoppers play a significant role in ecosystems. They serve as a food source for various animals, including birds, reptiles, rodents, and other insects. Through their feeding habits, they also contribute to the cycling of nutrients in ecosystems.</p>



<p>On the downside, they can become agricultural pests, especially in the form of locust swarms. Locusts are a type of grasshopper known for their swarming behavior, which can lead to significant crop damage and contribute to famine.</p>



<h3 id="h-cultural-significance">Cultural Significance</h3>



<p>Grasshoppers have cultural importance in many societies. They have been symbols of good luck, abundance, and freedom in various cultures. In some regions, they are also utilized as a food source, contributing to the practice of entomophagy (the consumption of insects).</p>



<p>Overall, while they may seem like simple creatures, grasshoppers are fascinating insects with complex behaviors and significant roles in their ecosystems.</p>



<p><em>Image Credit: JoVonn Hill</em></p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

New grasshopper species named after Willie Nelson

The bountiful region of central Texas, already renowned for its...

<p>A team of researchers led by <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> (OSU) has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-birds-handle-heat-stress-much-better-than-expected/">tropical birds</a>, which usually have shorter and rounder wings compared to their body length and shape, are less able to adapt to habitat fragmentation than the long-, slender-winged birds inhabiting temperate forests. To draw this conclusion, the experts analyzed the wings of over 1,000 bird species worldwide.</p>



<p>The research builds on a previous study from 2019 published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax9387"><em>Science</em></a> which revealed that the nearer a species lives to the equator, the less efficient they are in adapting to current anthropogenic habitat fragmentation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Near the equator, animals evolved in environments that were not subject to massive habitat-altering events such as wildfires or storms. However, the reason behind tropical birds’ comparative lack of dispersal abilities has not been well understood.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The current study provides strong evidence that forest birds in the lower altitudes – including the bare-faced ibis, the blue and gold macaw, the Malaysian rail babbler, and the green honeycreeper – are not good at relocating when their habitats are disrupted, since they were not required to evolve in ways that would make it easy to move to new areas.</p>



<p>“The new paper shows a strong latitudinal gradient in birds’ ability to disperse – i.e., move around to find a new place to live,” said co-author Matthew Betts, a professor of Landscape Ecology at OSU. “Birds toward the poles [such as woodpeckers, robins, jays, cardinals, owls, turkeys, hawks, and eagles] tend to be better movers, with longer, narrower wings that are better suited to long-distance flight.”</p>



<p>“It had been&nbsp;<a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2022.0909">argued</a>&nbsp;that species that don’t move much maybe tend to stay put just because they don’t care about losing pieces of their habitat or seeing it fragmented,” added Christopher Wolf, a postdoctoral researcher in Ecology and Conservation at OSU.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“But we used a massive dataset that encompassed more than 1,000 birds globally to test whether birds with shorter, stubbier wings are more likely to be fragmentation sensitive, and whether this alone explains the latitudinal gradient we observed. In the end, there was strong support for the idea that birds that are good dispersers are less fragmentation sensitive,” he concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02077-x"><em>Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</em></a>.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-bird-wings">More about bird wings</h2>



<p>Bird wings are fascinating structures that allow birds to fly and perform a variety of other activities. They are complex adaptations that evolved over millions of years, providing birds with the ability to navigate through the air in ways that other creatures cannot. Here are some interesting details about bird wings:</p>



<h3 id="h-anatomy">Anatomy</h3>



<p>Bird wings are composed of feathers, bones, muscles, and connective tissues. The wing's bone structure is similar to that of a human arm and hand, consisting of the humerus, radius, ulna, and a series of smaller bones analogous to fingers called the carpometacarpus and phalanges. These bones are very light and hollow, with a honeycomb-like internal structure that provides both strength and lightness.</p>



<h3 id="h-feathers">Feathers</h3>



<p>The feathers on a bird's wing have a range of functions. The primary feathers at the end of the wing provide lift and are responsible for most of the propulsion during flight. The secondary feathers, which are closer to the body, help to provide lift and stability. Covering these are the smaller coverts which streamline the wing.</p>



<h3 id="h-types-of-wings">Types of Wings</h3>



<p>Different bird species have different types of wings, which are adapted for their specific lifestyles. For instance, birds of prey like eagles and hawks have broad, long wings suitable for soaring and gliding. Swifts and swallows have long, slender wings for fast, agile flight. Penguins, although flightless in air, have strong, paddle-like wings adapted for efficient swimming underwater.</p>



<h3 id="h-flight-mechanics">Flight Mechanics</h3>



<p>During flight, a bird's wing produces lift through its curved shape (airfoil), which causes air pressure to be lower on the top surface than on the bottom surface. By flapping their wings, birds create thrust that propels them forward. They control their direction, speed, and lift by changing the shape and orientation of their wings.</p>



<h3 id="h-non-flight-functions">Non-flight Functions</h3>



<p>Besides enabling flight, bird wings serve a variety of other functions. They can be used for display during courtship rituals, for balance while navigating on the ground, and for thermoregulation by adjusting the spread of their wings to control heat loss.</p>



<h3 id="h-molting">Molting</h3>



<p>Birds periodically shed and regrow their feathers, a process known as molting. This keeps their feathers in good condition for flight. Molting occurs in a specific pattern so the bird can still fly and function normally while the process is underway.</p>



<p>Not all bird wings are designed for flight. Some species, like the ostrich or kiwi, have wings but are flightless. Their wings have evolved for different purposes, such as balance, display, or, in the case of the penguin, efficient swimming.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Birds with short, stubby wings are less capable of relocating

A team of researchers led by Oregon State University (OSU)...

<p>The dingo barrier fence in Australia – the world’s longest environmental barrier (5,614 km) – was built as an exclusionary measure to control predation of sheep by dingoes. Surprisingly though, a new study led by <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> has found that young red <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kangaroos-live-home/">kangaroos</a> protected from dingoes by this fence take more time to develop than their counterparts on the other side, who quickly outgrow the risks of becoming a prey for the dingoes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts also discovered that there are more young and female kangaroos inside the dingo-protected fence, suggesting that this fence has significant impacts on different aspects of the red kangaroo’s life cycle.</p>



<p>“Red kangaroos are one of the dingo’s favorite prey species, so we were not surprised to find fewer of the smaller females and younger animals when there are more dingoes around,” said study senior author Vera Weisbecker, an associate professor of Morphological Evolution at Flinders. “However, we did not expect to see that, on average, young animals inside the fence were lighter and smaller than those outside the fence.”</p>



<h2 id="h-differences-in-growth-rates">Differences in growth rates</h2>



<p>According to the researchers, the faster growth rate of red kangaroos outside of the fence could be a defensive adaptation for survival against dingoes which usually prefer to prey upon smaller red kangaroos. “They certainly appear to escape the dangerous weight range more quickly than their protected cousins inside the fence,” said lead author Rex Mitchell, a research associate in Vertebrate Feeding Biomechanics at Flinders.</p>



<p>To ensure that the difference in growth rate was not simply related to higher food availability outside the fence, the scientists used satellite-based analyses to assess the impact of vegetation cover on these surprising differences.</p>



<p>“Counter-intuitively, we found less vegetation inside than outside the fence in the year of sampling,” reported co-author Frédérik Saltré, a research fellow in Ecology at Flinders. “There might, in fact, have been more food available to the slower-growing kangaroos inside the fence, meaning they were&nbsp;<em>really</em>&nbsp;taking their time to grow up.”</p>



<p>“Slower growth inside the fence could have some advantages for the animals,” added co-author Corey Bradshaw, an expert in Global Ecology at the same university. “Having to put the whole body’s resources into growth, particularly when food is scarce, can mean that other areas of the body are compromised—an animal might be in poorer health or have fewer offspring, for example.”</p>



<h2 id="h-more-research-is-needed">More research is needed</h2>



<p>According to Mitchell, another surprising finding was that the dingo-proof fence could affect kangaroo growth patterns in such a short period of time (about 17 kangaroo generations). Thus, further research is needed to clarify to what extent the dingo-proof fence affects kangaroos and other species that dingoes prey upon.</p>



<p>“We need to know if this pattern is repeated over more years, and whether it is heritable or just a short-term reaction to exposure to dingoes. We also need to fine-tune our understanding of the vegetation, because vegetation cover might not mean that all the vegetation could be eaten by kangaroos,” Weisbecker said.</p>



<p>“The fence is a unique Australian megastructure, and a huge predator-prey experiment. Examining how the fence modifies our native wildlife is important in the continuing debate over the efficiency and merits of the dingo-proof fence, not only relative to the dingo itself, but also to the invasive species such as rabbits that the dingo eats,” she concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyad053"><em>Journal of Mammalogy</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-red-kangaroos">More about red kangaroos&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) is the largest of all kangaroo species and the largest terrestrial mammal native to Australia. It is known for its iconic hopping locomotion, large size, powerful hind legs, large feet, and distinctive red fur, from which it gets its name.</p>



<h3 id="h-key-characteristics-and-facts">Key characteristics and facts</h3>



<h4 id="h-physical-description">Physical Description</h4>



<p>Adult red kangaroos can stand approximately 5-6 feet tall, with a length of 7-10 feet including the tail. Males can weigh as much as 200 pounds, while females are generally smaller. They are characterized by their reddish-brown fur, with the males having more pronounced red coloring compared to the often bluish-grey females.</p>



<h4 id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and Distribution</h4>



<p>Red kangaroos inhabit most of the dry and arid regions of Australia. Their range extends across most of the continent, excluding the coastal areas and northern rainforests.</p>



<h4 id="h-diet">Diet</h4>



<p>They are primarily herbivores, with a diet that consists mainly of grasses and other vegetation. They can survive long periods without water by obtaining moisture from the plants they eat.</p>



<h4 id="h-social-behavior">Social Behavior</h4>



<p>Red kangaroos are generally social animals. They often live and travel in groups known as mobs, which can consist of anywhere from two to 100 individuals. Males often engage in boxing matches to establish dominance and for mating rights.</p>



<h4 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h4>



<p>The reproductive cycle of the red kangaroo is fascinating. Females have the ability to delay the development of their embryo in a process known as embryonic diapause. This allows them to time the birth of their offspring to favorable environmental conditions.</p>



<h4 id="h-locomotion">Locomotion</h4>



<p>The hopping movement of kangaroos is unique and highly efficient, especially for traveling at high speed over large distances in their arid habitat. They use their muscular tail for balance when hopping, and as a fifth limb when moving slowly.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Young red kangaroos grow faster when exposed to dingoes

The dingo barrier fence in Australia – the world’s longest...

<p>A groundbreaking study published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/"><em>Science</em></a> presents a significant leap in our understanding of how environment shapes social behaviors. By studying colobine monkeys, the researchers discovered that adaptations to cold climates have a profound influence on the social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-evolution-was-influenced-by-environmental-factors/">evolution</a> of species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Adaptations to cold climates seem to have been critical in facilitating enhanced motherly care, improved infant survival, and fostering the development of large, intricate multi level societies.</p>



<p>The study was conducted by a global team of researchers representing Northwest University in China, the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> in the UK, and the University of Western Australia.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>The researchers set out to explore how langurs and odd-nosed monkeys from the Asian colobine family have evolved and adapted over time. These particular primates have found ways to thrive in environments ranging from tropical rainforests to snow-laden mountainous terrains.</p>



<p>According to the researchers, colobine monkeys have distinct types of social organizations. This presents an opportunity to analyze the various mechanisms which drive their social evolution. The experts wanted trace the evolutionary journey from a common ancestral state to the diverse social systems that these primates now exhibit.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



<p>By combining ecological, geological, fossil, behavioral, and genomic analyses, the scientists found that colobine primates dwelling in colder climates tend to form larger and more complex groups. The experts also determined that glacial periods over the last six million years have favored the selection of genes critical for cold-related energy metabolism and neuro-hormonal regulation.</p>



<p>Among the most remarkable discoveries was the adaptation exhibited by odd-nosed monkeys living in severely cold regions. These primates had developed hormonal pathways, specifically dopamine and oxytocin, which were not just more efficient but may also extend the duration of maternal care. This led to longer breastfeeding periods, and a significant increase in the survival rates of infants.</p>



<p>Such adaptive changes, researchers suggest, appear to have bolstered relationships among individuals, amplified male tolerance and ultimately precipitated the evolution from independent one-male, multi-female groups to large, complex, multilevel societies.</p>



<h2 id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



<p>“Our study identified, for the first time, a genetically regulated adaptation linked to the evolution of social systems in primates," said Dr. Kit Opie from the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology at the University of Bristol.</p>



<p>“This finding offers new insights into the mechanisms that underpin behavioral evolution in primates and could be used to address social evolutionary changes across a wide range of species including humans."</p>



<p>“In addition we would like to examine how changes in social and mating behavior in many primate species may be the result of genetic changes due to past environments as well as other social and environmental factors.”</p>



<h2 id="h-future-implications">Future implications</h2>



<p>Dr. Cyril Grueter from the University of Western Australia emphasized the pressing urgency of climate change and its potential impact on animals. “With climate change becoming a hugely important environmental pressure on animals, it is hoped that this study will raise awareness for the need to investigate what course social evolution will take as the prevailing climate changes.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Our finding that complex multilevel societies have roots stretching back to climatic events in the distant evolutionary past also has implications for a reconstruction of the human social system which is decidedly multilevel."</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-asian-colobine-monkeys">More about Asian colobine monkeys&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Asian colobine monkeys are a group of Old World monkeys belonging to the subfamily Colobinae, which is part of the family Cercopithecidae. The colobine monkeys are distinct from other Old World monkeys in a variety of ways, most notably their adaptation for a folivorous (leaf-eating) diet.</p>



<p>The monkeys are found throughout Africa and Asia, but the Asian colobines are a distinct group with several characteristic features. They are distinguished by their elongated bodies, long tails, and slender limbs. Most species are arboreal (tree-dwelling), and their physical features are adapted for a life in the trees. Their hands are elongated and dexterous, allowing them to adeptly handle leaves, their primary food source.</p>



<p>Asian colobine monkeys are known for their complex, multi-chambered stomachs, similar to those of cows. This adaptation allows them to ferment tough plant material, breaking down cellulose to extract nutrients. This is a critical adaptation for their leaf-eating diet, as leaves are generally low in energy and high in hard-to-digest fibers.</p>



<h3 id="h-well-known-examples-of-asian-colobine-monkeys">Well-known examples of Asian colobine monkeys</h3>



<h4 id="h-langurs">Langurs</h4>



<p>These monkeys are often gray or black and live in social groups. One of the most famous is the Hanuman langur of India, named after the Hindu god Hanuman.</p>



<h4 id="h-leaf-monkeys">Leaf Monkeys&nbsp;</h4>



<p>These monkeys are known for their diverse coloration, ranging from golden to dark brown or black. The lutung, or dusky leaf monkey, is an example of this genus.</p>



<h4 id="h-snub-nosed-monkeys">Snub-nosed monkeys&nbsp;</h4>



<p>These monkeys are characterized by their short noses with upward-facing nostrils. They are found in China, Vietnam, and parts of the Himalayas.</p>



<h4 id="h-proboscis-monkeys">Proboscis monkeys&nbsp;</h4>



<p>Native to Borneo, these monkeys are best known for their large, pendulous noses, particularly pronounced in males.</p>



<p>Asian colobines are generally quite social, living in groups that can range from a few individuals to several dozen. They have complex social structures and behaviors, with both male and female hierarchies. Like many primate species, they use a variety of vocalizations and physical gestures to communicate with each other.</p>



<p>Many species of Asian colobines are under threat due to habitat loss, hunting, and the pet trade. They are often a focus of conservation efforts, as their loss can have significant impacts on the ecosystems they inhabit.</p>



<p><em>Image Credit: Guanlai Ouyang</em></p>



<p>—-</p>



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Cold climates led to longer maternal care among colobine monkeys

A groundbreaking study published in the journal Science presents a...

<p>In a groundbreaking investigation, scientists have delved deep into the genomes of 233 nonhuman primate species, casting new light on primate evolution, human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-disease-transmission-between-wildlife-and-humans/">disease</a>, and biodiversity conservation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The multinational research endeavor, led by the Human Genome Sequencing Center at <a href="https://www.bcm.edu/">Baylor College of Medicine</a>, the Institute of Evolutionary Biology, Pompeu Fabra University in Barcelona, Spain, and Illumina, Inc., generated a trove of new information. The experts have now published their findings in a series of studies in a special issue of the scientific journal <a href="https://www.science.org/"><em>Science</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-nearly-half-of-all-primates-represented">Nearly half of all primates represented</h2>



<p>This initiative, known as the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8920853/">Primate Genome Project</a>, resulted in the most comprehensive collection of primate genomic information to date. Nearly half of all primate species on Earth are represented within this catalog. Over 800 individual primates from these 233 species were studied by researchers hailing from 24 countries. A staggering 4.3 million common missense mutations were identified in this process.</p>



<p>These studies uncovered previously unknown DNA sequence variants and created phylogenies - essentially family trees - for primate species. This wealth of data enriches our understanding of primate and human evolution and expands our knowledge of primate biodiversity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, the research team mined the primate genomic data to uncover new insights into the genetic roots of human disease. A novel algorithm was also developed to predict pathogenic variants in humans.</p>



<p>Dr. Jeffrey Rogers, lead investigator and associate professor at the Human Genome Sequencing Center at Baylor, emphasized the significance of these findings. "The simultaneous publication of this broad array of papers on primate genomics demonstrates the value and the power of comparative genetics. When we investigate the genomics of nonhuman primates, we not only learn about these species, which is important and timely, but we can also place human genetics into its proper comparative context, which provides new insights into human health and human evolution."</p>



<h2 id="h-varying-genetic-diversity">Varying genetic diversity</h2>



<p>Genetic diversity among primates varies significantly across geographical regions and taxonomies, as noted by Dr. Tomàs Marquès-Bonet, lead investigator from Pompeu Fabra. "The study of this diversity is crucial for human evolutionary studies, human disease and for their future conservation."</p>



<p>The urgency of conservation efforts is underscored by the findings, which highlight which primate species are in the most desperate need. Dr. Lukas Kuderna, lead investigator from the Institute of Evolutionary Biology, commented, “Our studies show which species are in most dire need of conservation efforts and can help identify the most effective strategies for preserving these species."</p>



<p>One particular study in the consortium turned the spotlight onto baboons. Utilizing whole genome sequence data from 225 baboons, researchers discovered new geographic sites of gene flow between different populations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research revealed that yellow baboons from western Tanzania are the first nonhuman primates known to have received genetic input from three distinct lineages. This discovery prompts us to reconsider the evolutionary dynamics of early hominins, which may be far more complex than previously assumed.</p>



<p>"These results suggest that the population genetic structure and history of introgression among baboon lineages is more complex than was previously thought, and that shows that the baboons are a good model for the evolution of humans, Neanderthals and Denisovans," Rogers said.</p>



<h2 id="h-predicting-human-disease-through-primate-mutations">Predicting human disease through primate mutations</h2>



<p>The team also looked at how primate mutations can be used to predict the risk of human disease. Out of the 4.3 million missense mutations identified in the primates studied, researchers found 6% to be likely benign in human disease, as their high frequency in primate populations seems to be benign.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In the other 94% of cases, the PrimateAI-3D deep learning algorithm was deployed to predict pathogenicity in human disease. This artificial intelligence algorithm was developed by the team at Illumina.</p>



<p>Dr. Kyle Farh, lead investigator from Illumina, shed light on the findings, saying, “We discovered that if a ‘rare’ mutation cannot be found in the primate genome, it is very likely to cause a human disease. In addition, some of these rare mutations can cause, by themselves, some diseases considered polygenic.”</p>



<h2 id="h-significant-contribution-to-science-and-the-world">Significant contribution to science and the world</h2>



<p>The newfound genomic catalog significantly impacts our understanding of genetic evolution (see image <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Primate-genome-project_credit-Dong-Dong-Wu.png">here</a>). The number of genomic innovations previously thought to be exclusively human has been cut in half by the findings from these studies. This enables easier identification of mutations not shared with primates, which may be unique to human evolution and the characteristics that set us apart as a species.</p>



<p>Dr. Richard Gibbs, founding director of the Human Genome Sequencing Center and Wofford Cain Chair and Professor of Molecular and Human Genetics at Baylor, praised the series of studies. “These studies bring comparative genomics to new heights, and we can predict the impact on both understanding of human biology and on practical clinical diagnostic issues," said Dr. Gibbs.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-genome-sequencing">More about genome sequencing</h2>



<p>Genome sequencing is a laboratory process that determines the complete DNA sequence of an organism's genome at a single time. This complex task involves sequencing all of an organism's chromosomal DNA as well as DNA contained in the mitochondria and, for plants, in the chloroplast.</p>



<p>The Human Genome Project, completed in 2003, marked the successful execution of the first full sequencing of the human genome. This ambitious international research effort began in 1990, aiming to map and understand all the genes of human beings. All our genes together are known as our "genome."</p>



<p>In genome sequencing, the precise order of the four chemical building blocks - adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine - that make up the DNA molecule is determined. The human genome, for instance, contains about 3 billion of these base pairs, which reside in the 23 pairs of chromosomes within the nucleus of all our cells.</p>



<p>Modern sequencing technology, known as next-generation sequencing (NGS), allows for sequencing multiple DNA strands in parallel, resulting in huge amounts of data generated quickly and at a lower cost than traditional methods. These technological advancements have allowed genomics to become a significant tool in biological research, medical diagnostics, evolutionary studies, and many other fields.</p>



<p>There are a few different methods for sequencing genomes. Sequencing by synthesis, for example, involves synthesizing a complementary strand of DNA based on the sequence of the original strand. Another common method, called nanopore sequencing, pushes a DNA strand through a tiny pore and reads the sequence based on changes in electrical conductivity.</p>



<p>Genome sequencing can have numerous applications. It can be used to study genetic diseases, trace ancestry, understand and combat hereditary disorders, guide personalized medicine, and even in fields like forensic science. It has helped to uncover numerous genetic variants responsible for certain diseases, track the evolution of different species, and has been a cornerstone in understanding our own human biology and health.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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The Primate Genome Project reveals hidden evolutionary secrets

In a groundbreaking investigation, scientists have delved deep into the...

<p>Codfish have been telling a story of rapid fish evolution, reshaped by human activity more swiftly than previously assumed, reveals a cutting-edge study led by <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>.</p>



<p>This evolutionary tale, illuminated during the latter half of the twentieth century, signifies the impact of human-driven overfishing. The findings suggest that evolutionary changes, once thought to span millions of years, can be catalyzed within mere decades.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The report, sharing the first genomic evidence of such accelerated evolution in Atlantic cod, has recently been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2022.0190"><em>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-breaking-new-ground-with-modern-technology">Breaking new ground with modern technology</h2>



<p>"We broke new ground," explained study senior author Malin Pinsky. Leveraging modern technology, the researchers unearthed the genetic code of codfish caught over a century ago, unveiling subtle genetic shifts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Pinsky, an associate professor in the Department of Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources at Rutgers School of Environmental and Biological Sciences (SEBS), emphasizes that these new techniques played a pivotal role in the discovery.</p>



<p>By the turn of the 20th century, many overfished cod seemed to have cultivated a survival edge. They matured at a younger age, and their smaller size made them less noticeable to fishing efforts, thus increasing their chances of reproducing before capture. The researchers, in their quest to understand this apparent new fish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-evolution-was-influenced-by-environmental-factors/">evolution</a>, searched for key gene mutations, but this proved fruitless.</p>



<h2 id="h-small-setback-spawned-a-new-approach">Small setback spawned a new approach</h2>



<p>Undaunted by initial setbacks, the team adopted a different approach. They theorized that if changes were spread across a multitude of genes, rather than confined to a select few, their analysis might yield different results. Driven by this hypothesis, and empowered by novel technology, the team discovered the intricate genetic dance of the codfish.</p>



<p>"We have now been able to demonstrate that many genes throughout the genome did shift in the same way in cod from both sides of the Atlantic Ocean over the past 100 years," said study first author Brendan Reid.</p>



<p>This indicates that, rather than an isolated genetic aberration, small changes in many of the cod genes triggered the fish evolution. Reid, a postdoctoral associate at SEBS, considers this finding a first of its kind for any overfished species.</p>



<p>Renowned for their mild flavor and flaky flesh, Atlantic cod inhabit the deep-sea regions of the North Atlantic. They have been a staple ingredient in traditional dishes like fish and chips, and their livers are used to produce vitamin-rich cod liver oil. However, during the 1990s, decades of unrelenting overfishing pushed their population down to just 1% of historical levels.</p>



<h2 id="h-a-new-hope-in-the-fight-against-overfishing">A new hope in the fight against overfishing</h2>



<p>Commercial fishing practices underwent a radical transformation in the 1970s, with powerful trawlers equipped with sophisticated radar and sonar systems. These technologies expanded fishing reach, both in terms of depth and duration.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Unfortunately, this resulted in accelerated depletion of cod stocks, culminating in the fishery's collapse and, as the Rutgers research suggests, the cod's swift evolution.</p>



<p>This research brings not just fascinating insights into fish evolution, but also glimmers of hope for the beleaguered codfish. Their population, which has been slowly recovering since fishing pressure lessened, could potentially regain its former glory.</p>



<p>"Since evolution in response to fishing happened through lots of small changes in many genes rather than large changes in one or two genes, and cod have maintained most of their genetic diversity, it will be easier for cod to evolve back towards their previous pattern of slower growth at large sizes,” said Reid.</p>



<p>The scientist also notes encouraging signs in the cod population, suggesting the possibility of a return to previous growth patterns and, with proper management, the restoration of a sustainable fishery.</p>



<p>This research, a testament to international collaboration, also included contributions from Bastiaan Star of the University of Oslo in Norway.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-overfishing">More about overfishing</h2>



<p>Overfishing, or the practice of depleting a fish population to below its natural ability to reproduce and replenish, has far-reaching implications for both the environment and humanity. Its impacts are numerous and interconnected, affecting ecosystems, economies, and global food security.</p>



<h3 id="h-ecosystem-disruption">Ecosystem Disruption</h3>



<p>Overfishing is one of the primary threats to ocean biodiversity. The removal of a significant number of a particular fish species can unbalance the marine ecosystem and fish evolution.</p>



<p>Predatory fish like sharks, tuna, and cod, which are often targeted by commercial fishing, play crucial roles in maintaining the balance of marine life. Their decline can trigger a cascading effect through the food chain, allowing other species to become overly abundant and destabilizing the marine ecosystem.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, the decline in large predator fish can lead to an overabundance of smaller fish or invertebrates, which can then over-consume vegetation and other smaller organisms, disrupting the balance of the ecosystem.</p>



<h3 id="h-loss-of-livelihood">Loss of Livelihood</h3>



<p>Overfishing not only affects the health of our oceans but also the livelihood of millions of people. According to the United Nations, over 3 billion people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity for their livelihoods.&nbsp;</p>



<p>When fish stocks collapse, the fishing industry - including all those involved in the supply chain, such as boat operators, processors, sellers, and other associated jobs - can be severely impacted. In many developing countries, where alternatives for income are limited, the effects can be particularly devastating.</p>



<h3 id="h-threat-to-food-security">Threat to Food Security</h3>



<p>Fish is a crucial source of protein and nutrition for billions of people around the world. Overfishing threatens this vital food source, particularly in poorer countries where people are more dependent on fish for dietary needs.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As per the Food and Agriculture Organization, fish provide more than 20 percent of animal protein for about 3.2 billion people. Depleting fish stocks can thus pose a serious risk to global food security.</p>



<h3 id="h-harm-to-coral-reefs">Harm to Coral Reefs</h3>



<p>Overfishing can also harm coral reefs, which are critical habitats for many fish species. Certain types of fishing, such as blast or cyanide fishing, directly destroy coral habitats. Also, the removal of herbivorous fish can lead to the unchecked growth of algae, which can smother coral reefs and disrupt the ecosystem's balance.</p>



<h3 id="h-economic-implications">Economic Implications</h3>



<p>Overfishing can have significant economic repercussions. The World Bank estimates that the mismanagement of fisheries results in an annual loss of $83 billion globally. Ensuring sustainable fishing practices can thus lead to economic benefits as well as ecological ones.</p>



<p>In summary, overfishing is a pressing global issue that extends beyond just the depletion of fish stocks. It has wide-reaching impacts on the marine ecosystem, global economies, and human livelihoods and food security.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Addressing overfishing requires coordinated global efforts to implement sustainable fishing practices, enforce regulatory measures, and raise awareness about the importance of preserving marine biodiversity. Hopefully, this new discovery about rapid fish evolution will lead to further scientific breakthroughs.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Fish evolution takes place in decades - not millions of years

Codfish have been telling a story of rapid fish evolution,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>



<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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