Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

An international team of scientists has recently found that sea level rise could lead to the flooding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-will-lose-habitats-due-to-climate-change-and-coastal-development/">sea turtle</a> breeding grounds in Australia, the Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, and the United States, contributing to a significant loss of turtle nesting sites, with leatherback turtle nests being the most vulnerable.



The experts estimated the likelihood of flooding in 2,835 sea turtle nest locations across seven breeding grounds from 2010 to 2100, under moderate and high greenhouse gas emission scenarios (the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC) representative concentration pathways known as RCP 4.5 and 8.5).&nbsp;



These breeding grounds are situated in various locations, including the Mondonguillo beach in Costa Rica, the Guanahacabibes peninsula in Cuba, the Saona Island in the Dominican Republic, the coast of Ecuador, the Raine Island in Australia, the St. George Island in Florida, and the Sint Eustatius in the Caribbean Netherlands. The breeding sites serve as habitats for five different sea turtle species - the leatherback, loggerhead, hawksbill, olive ridley, and green turtles.



The analysis revealed that breeding grounds situated on flat beaches are at the highest risk of flooding under a moderate emissions scenario (RCP 4.5). For instance, 100 percent of nests located on Raine Island and Saona Island - which are at low elevations on flat beaches - are projected to be vulnerable to flooding by 2050.&nbsp;



In addition, the scientists estimated that 100 percent of nest locations at St. George Island and Mondonguillo beach may also face the risk of flooding under the same emissions scenario.



In breeding grounds used by multiple species, leatherback turtle nests may be especially vulnerable to flooding due to variations in the nesting locations preferred by each species.



Leatherback turtles tend to nest in open areas near the high tide line, and hawksbill and green turtles prefer higher elevations closer to steep cliffs or dunes. Thus, in Sint Eustatius, 50 percent of leatherback, 18 percent of hawksbill, and 13 percent of green turtle nests may be vulnerable to flooding by 2050 under a moderate emissions scenario.



Since female sea turtles usually return to nest on the same beaches they hatched on, sea level rise could lead many turtles to nest on flooded beaches and thus negatively impact the number of turtles hatching.&nbsp;



Further research is needed to investigate how quickly turtles could adapt to such phenomena in order to clarify the long-term impact of sea level rise on turtle populations. In the meanwhile, strategies to mitigate the impact of sea level rise and increase turtle resilience – including sand refilling on nesting beaches, nest relocation, and the use of turtle hatcheries – are urgently needed.&nbsp;



“If the world maintains current carbon dioxide emission rates, worst-case scenarios might be vastly underestimated by 3-4 times and existing management strategies may then be insufficient to protect the future of many sea turtle populations worldwide," wrote the researchers.



"In summary, our study predicts massive flooding at important rookeries in Australia, Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, and the USA. These critical areas will face the effects of sea level rise in the next few decades, meaning that it is now urgent to reduce anthropogenic emissions to safeguard the future of sea turtle populations against climate change and associated sea level rise."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31467-1">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Sea level rise threatens turtle breeding grounds

An international team of scientists has recently found that sea...

In a groundbreaking study published journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2300545120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, researchers have discovered that humans can perceive a greater range of blue tones than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-monkeys-are-much-smarter-than-we-thought-they-were/">monkeys</a>.&nbsp;



This finding suggests that humans may have developed distinct neural connections in the retina for enhanced color vision, which could be the result of recent evolutionary adaptations.



The international research team was led by Yeon Jin Kim, acting instructor, and Dennis M. Dacey, professor, both from the Department of Biological Structure at the <a href="https://www.uwmedicine.org/school-of-medicine">University of Washington School of Medicine</a> in Seattle.&nbsp;



The collaborative project also involved Orin S. Packer of the Dacey lab; Andreas Pollreisz at the Medical University of Vienna, Austria; Paul R. Martin, professor of experimental ophthalmology, and Ulrike Grünert, associate professor of ophthalmology and visual science, both at the University of Sydney, Australia, and the Save Sight Institute.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



To compare the neural connections responsible for color vision between humans and monkeys, the scientists examined the retinas of humans, Old World macaques, and New World common marmosets. These two monkey species share a common ancestor with modern humans from around 25 million years ago.&nbsp;



The researchers sought to determine whether the neural wiring associated with color vision is conserved across these three species, despite their distinct evolutionary paths.



The team focused on the fovea, a small, cone cell-packed region of the retina responsible for sharp visual acuity and color vision. They studied the cone cells, which come in three sensitivities: short, medium, and long wavelengths. Color information is processed through neural circuits that interpret data from different cone types.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



Using a fine scale microscopic reconstruction method, the researchers discovered that a specific short-wave or blue-sensitive cone circuit found in humans is absent in marmosets and differs from the circuit seen in macaque monkeys.&nbsp;



Additionally, the scientists identified features in the nerve cell connections of human color vision that were unexpected based on earlier nonhuman primate color vision models.



The findings contribute to a better understanding of the complex neural circuitry that codes for color perception in humans, potentially shedding light on the origins of color vision qualities that are unique to our species. The researchers also suggested that differences in visual circuitry among mammals could be partially influenced by their adaptation to specific ecological niches.&nbsp;



For instance, marmosets live in trees, while humans primarily dwell on land. The ability to discern ripe fruit amid shifting forest light could have provided a selective advantage for specific color vision circuitry, although the precise effects of environment and behavior on color vision have yet to be established.



According to the researchers, comparative studies of neural circuits at the level of connections and signaling between nerve cells could help answer many other questions, such as revealing the underlying logic of neural circuit design and offering insights into how evolution has modified the nervous system to shape perception and behavior.



<h2 id="h-more-about-color-vision">More about color vision</h2>



Color vision varies significantly across the animal kingdom, with different species possessing unique visual systems and abilities to perceive colors. Here are some examples of color vision in various animal species:



<h3 id="h-birds">Birds</h3>



Birds have a highly developed color vision system, with some species possessing up to five types of cone cells, compared to three in humans. This enables them to see a broader range of colors, including ultraviolet light. Birds use their advanced color vision for various purposes, such as finding food, recognizing mates, and navigating their environment.



<h3 id="h-reptiles">Reptiles</h3>



Reptiles, like birds, can also see a wide range of colors, including ultraviolet light. Many reptiles, such as turtles and snakes, have four types of cone cells, allowing them to differentiate between various colors and patterns. This capability is essential for activities like foraging, avoiding predators, and identifying potential mates.



<h3 id="h-fish">Fish</h3>



Fish exhibit a diverse range of color vision abilities. Some species, such as salmon and goldfish, have highly developed color vision systems, while others have limited color vision or none at all. Fish living in deep water, where little light penetrates, often have fewer cone cells and rely more on rod cells for low-light vision.



<h3 id="h-insects">Insects</h3>



Insects typically have compound eyes that allow them to perceive a range of colors, including ultraviolet light. For example, bees can see ultraviolet patterns on flowers that are invisible to humans. These patterns guide them to nectar sources, facilitating pollination.



<h3 id="h-mammals">Mammals</h3>



Most mammals have relatively limited color vision compared to birds, reptiles, and some fish. Many nocturnal mammals, such as rodents and bats, possess only two types of cone cells, which restricts their color vision to a limited range of hues. However, some mammals, such as primates (including humans), have trichromatic color vision, enabling them to see a broader spectrum of colors.



<h3 id="h-cephalopods">Cephalopods</h3>



Cephalopods, including octopuses, squids, and cuttlefish, have a unique color vision system. Despite having only one type of photoreceptor cell, they can perceive and produce a wide range of colors by detecting the polarization of light and using specialized skin cells called chromatophores.



These examples illustrate the incredible diversity of color vision systems across the animal kingdom. Each species has evolved unique adaptations to suit its specific needs and ecological niche. Further research into these diverse visual systems may offer valuable insights into the evolution and function of color vision in various species.



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Humans and monkeys probably see color differently

In a groundbreaking study published journal Proceedings of the National...

A research team led by the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts at Amherst</a> has recently made a surprising discovery. The experts found that songbirds which migrate over long distances from their breeding to their wintering range fuel their flights by burning not only a massive amount of fat, but also a significant amount of the protein that makes up lean body mass such as muscle.



Scientists previously assumed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-have-new-strategy-to-cope-with-climate-change/">migratory birds</a> only ramp up protein consumption at the end of their journeys, since they would need to use their muscles for wind-flapping. The current study reveals that protein is burned very early on in the migration, which suggests that birds’ metabolism is more complex and surprising than experts thought.



“Birds are amazing animals,” said study lead author&nbsp;Cory Elowe, a postdoctoral fellow in Biology at UMass Amherst. “They are extreme endurance athletes; a bird that weighs half an ounce can fly, non-stop, flapping for 100 hours at a time, from Canada to South America. How is this possible? How do they fuel their flight?”



Since a long time, biologists have assumed that birds fuel such extraordinary feats of endurance by burning fat reserves. Yet, although they do burn fat at a consistent rate throughout their flights, they also burn protein at an extraordinary rate quite early in their flights. Moreover, the rate at which they burned protein appeared to taper off as the duration of the flight increased.



“We knew that birds burned protein, but not at this rate, and not so early in their flights. What’s more, these small songbirds can burn 20 percent of their muscle mass and then build it all back in a matter of days,” said senior author Alexander Gerson, an associate professor of Biology at UMass Amherst.



The experts collaborated with the bird banding operators at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.birdscanada.org/bird-science/long-point-bird-observatory">Long Point Bird Observatory</a> in Ontario, along the northern shore of Lake Erie, where millions of birds gather each fall on their journey to their wintering grounds. Here, the researchers captured 20 blackpolls (small songbirds that travel thousands of miles during their migrations) and 44 yellow-rumpled warblers (a species of shorter distance migratory bird) and took them to the&nbsp;<a href="https://birds.uwo.ca/">Advanced Facility for Avian Research at Western University</a>, which has a wind tunnel constructed specifically for observing birds in flight.



After measuring their fat and lean body mass before flight, the researchers led the birds free in the wind tunnel at sunset (since these birds naturally migrate at night). When the birds decided to rest – sometimes after as long as 28 hours - the scientists measured once more their fat and lean body mass content and compared the results with those obtained before the flight.



“One of the biggest surprises was that every bird still had plenty of fat left when it chose to end its flight. But their muscles were emaciated. Protein, not fat, seems to be a limiting factor in determining how far birds can fly,” Elowe reported.



Further research is needed to better understand why the birds are burning such vast amounts of protein so early in their flight. “How exactly is it possible to burn up your muscles and internal organs, and then rebuild them as quickly as these birds do?” Gerson asked. “What insights into the evolution of metabolism might these birds yield?”



Finally, these findings could also shed more light on another feat of endurance nonmigratory birds which overwinter in cold areas engage in: shivering – a behavior that helps them to keep warm during winter. “Do birds fuel their winter shivering spells the same way? And as the world warms, which method of coping with the cold - shivering or migrating - might be the better option for survival?” said Elowe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2216016120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Migratory birds burn unexpected amounts of protein

A research team led by the University of Massachusetts at...

In the jungles of Costa Rica, a slow and unassuming creature may hold the key to a pressing global health issue. Researchers have discovered that sloth fur is home to an abundance of organisms, including antibiotic-producing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-gut-bacteria-promote-obesity/">bacteria</a> that could offer a novel weapon against drug-resistant "superbugs."



Sloths are a fascinating subject for scientific study due to the bustling ecosystem found within their fur. This ecosystem hosts an array of life forms, including insects, algae, fungi, and bacteria. Despite the potential disease risk posed by such a diverse collection of organisms, sloths seem to possess an extraordinary resistance to infection.



Max Chavarria, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.ucr.ac.cr/">University of Costa Rica</a>, marvels at the complexity of the sloth's fur habitat. "If you look at the sloth's fur, you see movement: you see moths, you see different types of insects... a very extensive habitat," he told AFP.&nbsp;



But, Chavarria notes, the sloth's fur is not a lawless wilderness. "Obviously when there is co-existence of many types of organisms, there must also be systems that control them," he said.



Curious about the sloth's infection-proof characteristics, Chavarria and his team collected fur samples from two- and three-toed Costa Rican sloths. Their goal was to uncover the mechanisms that keep these sloths healthy despite the abundant microbial life in their fur.&nbsp;



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://sfamjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14622920">Environmental Microbiology</a>, revealed the potential presence of antibiotic-producing bacteria that appear to keep pathogenic microbes and other competitors, such as fungi, in check.



Sloths are national symbols in Costa Rica, drawing in tourists with their laid-back lifestyle. They dwell in the hot and humid jungles along the Caribbean coast, living in the canopies of trees. Unfortunately, both the two-toed and three-toed sloth species have seen a decline in their population, according to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature.



Judy Avey, who runs a sanctuary for injured sloths in the heart of the Costa Rican jungle, has firsthand experience with these enigmatic animals. Along with her late husband, Luis Arroyo, Avey has been caring for sloths since 1992, when she received her first one, named "Buttercup." Since then, she has looked after around 1,000 animals, observing a curious pattern in their health.



"We've never received a sloth that has been sick, that has a disease or has an illness," Avey told AFP. "We've received sloths that had been burned by power lines and their entire arm is just destroyed... and there's no infection. I think maybe in the 30 years (we've been open), we've seen five animals that have come in with an infected injury. So that tells us there's something going on in their bodily ecosystem."



Max Chavarria has identified 20 "candidate" microorganisms that could potentially have antibiotic properties, though much work remains before they can be considered for human use.



"Before thinking about an application in human health, it's important to first understand what type of molecules are involved," said Chavarria. He cites the example of penicillin, the world's first antibiotic discovered by British scientist Alexander Fleming in 1928, which revolutionized medicine and earned him the 1945 Nobel Prize.&nbsp;



But today, antibiotic resistance has become a growing concern, with some medicines no longer effective in treating the infections they were designed to combat. This natural phenomenon has been exacerbated by the overuse and misuse of antibiotics in humans, animals, and plants.&nbsp;



The World Health Organization estimates that by 2050, resistance to antibiotics could cause 10 million deaths per year. Chavarria believes that projects like his may contribute to discovering new molecules that could help in the fight against antibiotic resistance.



"Projects like ours can contribute to finding new molecules that can, in the medium or long term, be used in this battle against antibiotic resistance," said Chavarria.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-more-about-antibiotic-resistance">More about antibiotic resistance&nbsp;</h2>



Antibiotic resistance is a significant public health concern that occurs when bacteria and other microorganisms develop the ability to defeat the drugs designed to kill them. This resistance makes it harder to treat various infections and increases the risk of disease spread, severe illness, and death.



Microorganisms are naturally adaptable and can evolve to resist the effects of an antibiotic. This is a natural phenomenon known as antimicrobial resistance, and it is accelerated by the misuse and overuse of antibiotics. For instance, when antibiotics are used improperly (such as not completing a prescribed course of treatment) or are overprescribed, bacteria have more opportunities to evolve and develop resistance.



Antibiotic resistance is not confined to any one geographic region or population, and it has the potential to affect anyone, regardless of age or health status. The World Health Organization (WHO) has described antibiotic resistance as one of the biggest threats to global health, food security, and development today.



A particularly concerning aspect of antibiotic resistance is the rise of multidrug-resistant bacteria, sometimes referred to as "superbugs." These bacteria are resistant to several antibiotics, making infections caused by them extremely difficult to treat. As a result, procedures that rely on effective antibiotics to prevent infections - such as surgeries, chemotherapy, and cesarean sections - become riskier.



Across the globe, efforts are being made to improve antibiotic use, develop new antibiotics, and discover alternative treatments. This includes initiatives to better educate the public and healthcare providers about responsible antibiotic use, as well as ongoing research into new drugs and treatments.



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Sloths may hold a secret weapon against antibiotic resistance 

In the jungles of Costa Rica, a slow and unassuming...

Although the majestic American Plains bison is the largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-new-mammal-species-may-be-hidden-in-plain-sight/">mammal</a> on the continent, history has offered ample proof of their vulnerability: in a span of just a few centuries, bison populations had dwindled from tens of million to merely a few hundreds. 



While recent conservation efforts have pushed the number of Plains bison back to about 20,000 - and their status from endangered to near-threatened - a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</a> has now argued that any future conservation initiatives should also take into account the effects of the rapid climate change we are currently experiencing.&nbsp;



To assess the impact of climate on these animals, the experts analyzed the movements of 33 Plains bison from two sites in Oklahoma – the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge, located in the southwestern part of the state, and the Tallgrass Prairie Preserve from Oklahoma’s northern border. Each of the bison wore GPS-equipped collars tracking their location every 12 minutes over several years, yielding a total of 715,344 measurements.&nbsp;



By pairing this data with temperature, rainfall, wind, and drought-revealing moisture soil readings, the researchers found that air temperature impacted bison movement more than any other factor. When the temperature ranged from a few degrees below zero to 83 degrees Fahrenheit, bison movement increased by 92.5 percent for each 18-degree rise. However, above this threshold, an 18-degree increase was correlated to a 48.5 decrease in movement.&nbsp;



These findings suggest that, in moderate heat, the bison were moving in search of grasses that grow better at higher temperatures, while during excessive heat, they most likely rested and cooled themselves in places where standing water and shading trees protected them from heat stress.



Droughts also seemed to substantially influence bison movement. While they did not seem to be affected by moderate drought, probably due to the fact that they are able to take up water through vegetation, in periods of extreme drought – such as the one that struck Oklahoma in the early 2010s – bison moved substantially more to search for better sustenance.



“When we think about reintroducing bison or any large animal to a landscape, the landscape that the animal is inhabiting is potentially a lot smaller than it was historically. In 1491, if there was a drought in northeastern Montana, the bison had the entire Great Plains to escape that drought. They could move as far as they needed to,” said study lead author Nicholas McMillan, an assistant professor of Agronomy and Horticulture at Nebraska.



“In this time when we’re seeing more extremes — more of those extreme air temperatures, more of those extreme droughts — we probably need to rethink how these landscapes are structured, and whether or not they’re actually meeting the fundamental physiological needs of these animals.”



These findings could help inform the management of Plains bison in places such as the Yellowstone National Park, which is currently home to the largest wild herd of bison. Although the size of Yellowstone and other such parks and protected areas may seem to offer everything bison need, the fact that the animals still attempt to leave suggests otherwise. Since extreme heat and drought that are forcing the bison to move are increasing in magnitude and frequency, spaces that were once sufficient may no longer be.&nbsp;



Moreover, as their habitat shrinks, ensuring that bison have access to a diversity of grasslands, trees, and other vegetation, as well as standing water, becomes increasingly important.



“Are we really being ethical if we’re forcing these animals to live in a landscape that may not actually be suited for them into the future? Whether bison were in Yellowstone historically is irrelevant to the likelihood that they can persist there into the future. Because today is completely and fundamentally different than yesterday,” McMillan concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.9586">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Climate change influences the movement of Plains bison

Although the majestic American Plains bison is the largest mammal...

Bird flu outbreaks are quite common, and pose a significant threat to wild birds, poultry, and – if the avian influenza <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-plant-virus-could-help-cure-cancer/">virus</a> acquires sufficient mutations - possibly even humans. Currently, the highly pathogenic H1N1 subtype is spreading at unprecedented rates in both North America and Europe.



To better understand the dynamics of bird flu outbreaks, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zürich</a> has recently investigated the epidemic caused by another subtype of avian influenza (H7N9) in China from 2013 to 2017, which not only decimated a vast number of poultry, but also killed 616 people who had close contact with infected poultry.



The experts analyzed published genetic sequences of H7N9 viruses isolated from infected poultry and humans from the metropolitan regions of Shanghai and Guangdong to build phylogenetic trees that could reveal how the disease spread at Chinese poultry markets, which play a key role in transmission between animals, as well as from animals to humans.&nbsp;



The analyses provided evidence that the H7N9 virus was likely circulating in poultry for several months before it was first detected in poultry markets and humans, suggesting that, between 2013 and 2016 – when the virus caused relatively few symptoms in poultry – it actually affected more markets than previously thought. As the virus mutated and started to cause more severe symptoms in poultry from 2016, the affected animals were easier to identify.&nbsp;



“Our findings highlight the importance of not waiting until bird flu cases are discovered, because then the virus has probably already been circulating for quite some time,” said study senior author Tanja Stadler, a professor of Biostatistics and Computational Evolution at ETH Zürich.&nbsp; “Instead, it would be wise to continuously monitor the health of the animals in their stalls and at the live poultry markets.”&nbsp;



Although some scientists hypothesized that the virus was introduced repeatedly between regions by transporting infected birds, the phylogenetic trees the researchers reconstructed indicate no such pattern, suggesting that it rather circulated silently in various poultry markets in urban regions before it was first detected.



Despite the fact that the H7N9 epidemic was restricted to China due to improved hygiene measures in poultry markets, along with a poultry mass vaccination campaign that started in 2017 – initiatives able to significantly mitigate the epidemic in animals and greatly decrease rates of transmission to humans – isolated outbreaks still occur (with the last human fatality recorded in 2019), highlighting the insidious nature of bird flu epidemics.&nbsp;



Moreover, since virus genomes mutate constantly, the risk of H7N9 and other influenza strains becoming once more a threat to both birds and mammals (including humans) remains. These findings stress the need for more efficient and coordinated efforts of early detection of flu infections, in order to avoid massive outbreaks that could potentially lead to a new pandemic.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2215610120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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What can we learn from previous bird flu outbreaks?

Bird flu outbreaks are quite common, and pose a significant...

As the western North American forests, particularly those adapted to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/repeated-fires-reduce-the-ability-of-forests-to-store-carbon/">fires</a>, experience a drastic shift in their fire regimes, the effects on the various species that call these forests home are starting to emerge. This shift, characterized by a deviation from historic norms, has seen an increase in large, high-severity fires.&nbsp;



The impacts of wildfire on some species have been devastating, while the responses of others remain largely unknown, particularly over longer time scales. The mountain quail, a widely distributed species in California's Sierra Nevada, is one such creature whose response to wildfires has been ambiguous, until now.



The mountain quail is not just a unique presence in the Sierra Nevada, but also a recreationally-valued management indicator species. These birds have an elusive nature, largely attributed to their preference for dense habitats, high elevations and steep slopes, which makes them notoriously difficult to study.&nbsp;



A recent study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s42408-023-00180-9">Fire Ecology</a>, has investigated the relationship between mountain quail habitats and fire ecology. The research was a collective effort of scientists from the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>, the University of Minnesota, University of Wisconsin-Madison, and the University of Montana.



In an effort to map the distribution and habitat preferences of the mountain quail, the experts deployed 1,636 autonomous recording units across approximately 22,000 square kilometers of the Sierra Nevada.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that mountain quail are more common than previously assumed, with their mean occupancy hovering around 50 percent across the study sites. The researchers were surprised to find positive associations between areas that had been subjected to high-severity fires and mountain quail occupancy.



Interestingly, mountain quail seemed most positively associated with areas that had experienced high-severity fire in the last six to ten years. However, positive associations were also found in areas with high-severity fires that had occurred anywhere between one and 35 years prior.



These results come at a time when future fire regimes in the Sierra Nevada are expected to see more frequent and larger high-severity fires. While this has been projected to adversely affect many iconic Sierra Nevada species, it appears the mountain quail may prove to be an exception.



"Our work demonstrates that high-severity fire is strongly and positively related to mountain quail occupancy, which is a markedly different response than previously studied species that are also of management concern in the Sierra Nevada. Taken together, our results suggest that mountain quail may actually be 'winners' in the face of altered fire regimes in the Sierra Nevada," wrote the researchers.



"Given the forecasted intensification of large, severe wildfires in many fire-adapted forests, understanding the ecology and nuanced fire responses of species beyond those that have been historically considered is an important and time-sensitive effort. The relationship between mountain quail and high-severity fire is a reminder that there will be both winners and losers as the dynamics of wildfire change in the era of climate change."



<h2 id="h-more-about-fires-in-the-western-united-states">More about fires in the Western United States</h2>



The Western United States has a long-standing relationship with wildfires, largely due to its climate and vegetation types. Over the last few decades, however, the severity and frequency of these fires have been on the rise, largely attributed to climate change and human activities.



The region's Mediterranean climate, characterized by warm, dry summers and cool, wet winters, provides the perfect conditions for fires to ignite and spread. This is especially true in areas dominated by fire-prone vegetation such as chaparral and conifer forests.



In recent years, the region has been grappling with prolonged periods of drought, which have been exacerbated by rising global temperatures. These harsh conditions cause vegetation to dry out, making it easier for fires to ignite and spread rapidly.



Human activities have also played a role in the escalating wildfire crisis. Urban expansion into wildland areas, known as the wildland-urban interface, has increased the risk of fire ignitions. Simultaneously, decades of fire suppression policies have resulted in an accumulation of vegetation in many forests, effectively providing more fuel for fires when they do occur.



The impact of these wildfires can be devastating, leading to loss of life, property, and extensive damage to ecosystems. They also contribute to air pollution, which can have far-reaching effects on human health.



However, it's important to note that fire, in its natural state, plays a crucial role in many western ecosystems. It helps recycle nutrients, encourages the growth of certain plant species, and can help control pests and diseases. Some species, such as the lodgepole pine, even require fire for their seeds to germinate.



Going forward, experts suggest that managing this escalating wildfire crisis will require a combination of strategies. These could include forest management practices that reduce the accumulation of vegetation, designing and planning communities to be more fire-resistant, and adapting firefighting strategies to deal with the realities of a changing climate.



The situation underscores the delicate balance that exists between human activities, natural ecosystems, and the changing climate. As we continue to see the effects of climate change, understanding and managing wildfires in the Western United States will remain a significant challenge.



<h2 id="h-the-future-of-wildfires">The future of wildfires</h2>



The future of wildfires, particularly in the context of the Western United States, is a topic that's increasingly gaining attention from scientists, policymakers, and communities alike. As climate change continues to intensify, it's likely that the patterns of wildfire we're seeing today will change, potentially becoming more frequent and severe.



One of the most significant factors influencing the future of wildfires is climate change. Rising global temperatures have already been linked to more prolonged periods of drought and higher rates of evaporation, causing vegetation to dry out and become more susceptible to burning. This trend is expected to continue, making fire seasons longer and potentially more destructive.



Additionally, climate change is influencing weather patterns, leading to more extreme weather events, including high winds and lightning storms, which can quickly ignite and spread wildfires. It's predicted that such weather events will become more frequent and intense in the future, further escalating the risk of wildfires.



Human activities will also continue to shape the future of wildfires. Urban development is encroaching further into wildland areas, creating what's known as the wildland-urban interface, where the risk of wildfires is significantly higher. This interface is expected to expand as population growth and housing demand continue, resulting in more human-started fires.



However, the future of wildfires is not entirely bleak. There's growing recognition of the need to adapt our practices and policies to the new wildfire reality. For instance, forest management practices are evolving to incorporate controlled or "prescribed" burns that reduce the buildup of vegetation and mitigate the risk of larger, uncontrolled fires. These practices are inspired by Indigenous land management techniques that have been used for thousands of years.



Fire-resistant construction and landscaping are also becoming more prevalent, particularly in high-risk areas. Community planning and development regulations are starting to reflect the need to live more safely with fire.



Finally, advancements in technology are providing us with better tools for predicting, detecting, and responding to wildfires. For example, improved climate modeling can help anticipate future fire seasons, satellite technology can quickly detect new fires, and machine learning algorithms can help predict a fire's path.



While the future of wildfires is a significant concern, it's a challenge that we're not facing blindly. By combining our growing understanding of fire behavior, climate change, and forest ecology with advancements in technology and evolving policy, we can hope to mitigate the worst effects of future wildfires.



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Severe wildfires could prove beneficial for mountain quail

As the western North American forests, particularly those adapted to...

Over the past few decades, a large number of Germany’s animal populations in agricultural landscapes have experienced sharp declines, both in the number of individuals and species. According to a recent study published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.14400">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>, fallow land – arable land left without sowing for one or more vegetative cycles – appears to be an effective method for slowing this decline and promoting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-diversity-suffers-in-urban-environments/">bird diversity</a>.



The experts investigated the correlation between the proportion of fallow land and the number and abundance of farmland birds during a period of nine years. They discovered that areas of fallow land have contributed to a significant increase in these birds’ populations.&nbsp;



Nevertheless, the benefits of fallow land were found to depend on the complexity of the surrounding landscape, measured by the density of boundary lines between fields, as well as between fields and adjacent woody structures such as hedges or forest edges.



The analysis revealed that establishing areas of fallow land is most effective in agricultural landscapes with a medium level of structural complexity, with an average density of around 65 meters per hectare of agricultural land.&nbsp;



“Our research enabled us to identify regions where fallow land should preferably be established in order to have the greatest effect,” said study co-author Sebastian Klimek, an expert in the conservation of biodiversity in agricultural landscapes at the <a href="https://www.thuenen.de/en/">Thünen Institute of Biodiversity</a>.



“In order to stop declining populations of farmland birds nationwide, it is necessary to maintain a minimum proportion of fallow land in the agricultural landscape,” added senior author Johannes Kamp, a landscape ecologist and conservation scientist at the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html">University of Göttingen</a>.



The total area of fallow land in Germany is largely determined by EU’s <a href="https://agriculture.ec.europa.eu/common-agricultural-policy/cap-overview/cap-glance_en">Common Agricultural Policy</a> (CAP). Due to changes in this policy, the amount of fallow land in Germany has decreased substantially since the early 2000s, leading to a lack of suitable breeding sites and food for a variety of bird species. 



Although the “greening” of the last CAP funding period has slightly increased the area of fallow land from 2015, the current amount of such land remains far below the levels observed before 2007.



Fortunately, in the new CAP support period starting this year, farms will be obliged to set aside four percent of their arable land, which could contribute to increases in farmland bird populations. However, in order to restore their pre-2007 levels and thus enhance biodiversity in agricultural landscapes, a further increase would be required.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Fallow land can help save farmland birds

Over the past few decades, a large number of Germany’s...

A recent study from the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/en/web/ub/">University of Barcelona</a> has revealed new details about the cognitive skills of ungulates, a group of mammals that includes dromedaries, horses, and goats. These creatures are known for walking on the tips of their toes or hooves, and their innovative ability has been largely unexplored compared to more common study subjects like primates.



The researchers, led by Álvaro López Caicoya, found that ungulates who were less integrated into their social groups and exhibited a greater fear of new objects were more adept at solving the challenge of opening a food container.&nbsp;



"These findings are in line with recent scientific literature about wild and captive primates, and they show that less socially integrated individuals are less likely to obtain resources such as food, but they are more likely to overcome neophobia - aversion to new things - to improve their situation," explained Caicoya. "Also, this confirms that ungulates are a promising taxon to test evolutionary theories with a comparative approach."



Caicoya explained that most comparative studies on the evolution of cognitive abilities have focused on birds and primates. However, the evolutionary pressures faced by animals are not always the same. Exploring the cognitive abilities of other species like ungulates is "essential for understanding the limits and the generalization of specific evolutionary hypotheses."



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.2384">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, also involved Montserrat Colell of <a href="http://www.neurociencies.ub.edu/">UBneuro</a>, as well as experts from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and the University of Leipzig in Germany.



The investigation was focused on 111 animals from 13 different species of ungulates, including goats, dromedaries, Przewalki horses, giraffes, llamas, sheep, and deer, which lived in captivity in zoos. Each group of animals was tasked with opening a container filled with their favorite food, a challenge designed to test their problem-solving abilities.



In the experiment, the researchers found that dromedaries and goats were the most skilled at opening the container, with 86 and 69 percent of individuals succeeding, respectively.&nbsp;



“Most of them opened the containers using their nose, muzzle or lips; only nine out of these forty animals used more than one strategy to solve the challenge, such as lifting the cover gently with their lips or throwing the cup to the floor," explained the researchers.



This groundbreaking study is one of the first of its kind to investigate the cognitive abilities of ungulates, and Caicoya emphasizes the importance of conducting more research that includes a wider variety of species, both captive and wild, as well as more complex challenges. "The ungulates are an exceptional model for comparative research, and this study is only a first approach to the cognition of these species," said Caicoya.



As our understanding of animal cognition expands, it is crucial to consider the unique characteristics and cognitive abilities of various species to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the evolutionary pressures and adaptations that shape animal behavior. This research serves as an important step in broadening the scope of comparative cognitive research and shedding light on the fascinating world of ungulates.



<h2 id="h-more-about-ungulates">More about ungulates&nbsp;</h2>



Ungulates are a diverse group of large mammals that are most distinguished by their hooves, which are essentially the tips of their toes. The term "ungulate" comes from the Latin word "ungula", which means "hoof". They are spread across several orders and are found all around the world. The group includes several well-known and diverse species such as horses, cattle, pigs, giraffes, camels, deer, and hippopotamuses.



Historically, ungulates were divided into two groups: the odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla), which include horses, rhinoceroses, and tapirs, and the even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla), which include cattle, pigs, giraffes, camels, deer, and hippopotamuses.&nbsp;



However, modern taxonomic understandings based on genetics rather than physical characteristics have reorganized these groups. For instance, whales and dolphins are now classified as even-toed ungulates due to genetic similarities with this group.



Ungulates play vital roles in their ecosystems. Many are herbivores and are key in controlling vegetation and shaping landscapes. Some are prey for large predators, and their movements and population dynamics can influence predator populations. Many ungulates are also significant to humans economically and culturally, as sources of meat, milk, leather, and as beasts of burden.



Despite the diversity within this group, there are some common traits that many ungulates share. They tend to be large-bodied and have barrel-shaped bodies adapted to processing large amounts of food, particularly plant matter. They often have long legs, which allow them to outrun predators, and they have well-developed senses to detect threats. Many ungulates also have complex social structures and can exhibit a wide range of behaviors.



<h2 id="h-animals-and-innovation">Animals and innovation&nbsp;</h2>



Innovation is often associated with human endeavors, particularly in technology and business. However, animals also display innovative behaviors, primarily as adaptations for survival, foraging, and social interactions. These innovations are often triggered by changes in the environment, competition for resources, or changes in social structure.



<h3 id="h-animal-innovation-can-take-many-forms">Animal innovation can take many forms:</h3>



<h4 id="h-tool-use">Tool Use</h4>



Certain animals use tools innovatively to acquire food and other resources. The most famous example is probably the New Caledonian crow, which can shape plant matter into hooks to extract insects from tree bark. Similarly, chimpanzees use sticks to extract termites from mounds and rocks to crack open nuts. Dolphins have been observed using sponges to protect their noses while foraging on the sea floor.



<h4 id="h-foraging-strategies">Foraging Strategies</h4>



Animals often develop new foraging strategies in response to changes in their environment or the availability of food. For example, urban foxes and raccoons have adapted to life in human cities, developing new strategies to find and exploit food resources. Another example is humpback whales, who use a technique known as bubble-net feeding, which involves blowing a ring of bubbles around a school of fish to trap them.



<h4 id="h-social-interactions">Social Interactions</h4>



In social species, innovative behaviors can also occur in the context of social interactions. For example, in meerkat societies, older siblings have been observed teaching younger ones how to handle dangerous prey like scorpions. This teaching behavior is not innate but learned, showing a kind of cultural innovation.



<h4 id="h-problem-solving">Problem Solving</h4>



Many animals are capable of innovative problem-solving. A famous example is Alex, the African Grey Parrot, who was trained by animal psychologist Irene Pepperberg. Alex could understand and use human language to an extent, and he was capable of solving relatively complex problems. Cephalopods like octopuses also show significant problem-solving abilities, such as escaping from closed containers or manipulating objects to obtain food.



<h4 id="h-adaptation-to-human-environments">Adaptation to Human Environments</h4>



Many animals have shown the ability to adapt to human-made environments, often in innovative ways. For example, pigeons in urban areas often use human traffic to help them crack open nuts, while some birds have been known to use cigarette butts in their nests as a form of pest control.



Studying animal innovation can provide insights into animal cognition, the evolution of intelligence, and the adaptability of species to changing environments. It also raises interesting questions about the nature of culture and invention beyond the human species.



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Animals that are the least social may be the most innovative 

A recent study from the University of Barcelona has revealed...

The global decline of insect populations has become increasingly evident in recent years, with not just a decrease in individual insect numbers but also a collapse in insect diversity. A special issue of the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2023.0007">Biology Letters</a> has been published to provide a comprehensive understanding of the causes and consequences of this alarming trend.



The special issue was edited by Dr. Florian Menzel from the Institute of Organismic and Molecular Evolution at Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (JGU), Professor Martin Gossner of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL), and Dr. Nadja Simons of TU Darmstadt.



The experts concluded that the primary drivers of the worldwide insect decline are land-use intensification, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-affects-ground-squirrels-in-unexpected-ways/">climate change</a>, and the spread of invasive animal species due to human trade.&nbsp;



"Our aim was not to document insect population declines but to better understand their causes and consequences," said Dr. Menzel. The researchers also aimed to prompt new studies on the subject by collaborating with international researchers to gather information on insect declines.



The results suggest that not only do land-use intensification, global warming, and the dispersal of invasive species contribute individually to the disappearance of insects, but they also interact with one another.&nbsp;



"Ecosystems deteriorated by humans are more susceptible to climate change and so are their insect communities," explained Dr. Menzel.



Additionally, invasive species can more easily establish themselves in habitats damaged by human activity, displacing native species. As a result, while many insect species decline or become extinct, a few others, including invasive species, thrive and increase. This decreases diversity among insect communities across habitats.&nbsp;



Specialized insect species suffer the most from these changes, while more generalized species tend to survive. "This is why we are now finding more insects capable of living nearly anywhere while those species that need specific habitats are on the wane," said Dr. Menzel.



The consequences of this development are far-reaching and generally detrimental for ecosystems. A decline in insect diversity threatens the stability of ecosystems, as fewer species are available to pollinate plants and control pests. This, in turn, means there is less food available for insect-eating birds and other animals, placing their continued existence at risk due to the decline in insect numbers.



To address this issue, Menzel, Gossner, and Simons propose standardized techniques to monitor insect diversity across multiple habitats and countries, particularly in regions where little is known about insect populations.&nbsp;



The experts also advocate for the creation of a network of interconnected nature reserves to allow species to move from one habitat to another. This would enable less heat-tolerant insects to migrate from areas affected by global warming to higher elevations or cooler regions in the north.



Moreover, the researchers emphasize the importance of implementing measures to reduce the dispersal of invasive animal and plant species through globalized trade and tourism.&nbsp;



"This is another problem that has become extremely serious in the last decades," concluded Dr. Menzel. The special issue highlights the invasion of non-native insectivorous fishes in Brazil as an example, which has led to a significant decline in freshwater insects.



<h2 id="h-which-insects-are-disappearing">Which insects are disappearing?</h2>



As of September 2021, the most rapidly declining insects include bees, butterflies, and moths, largely due to habitat loss, pesticide exposure, and climate change.



<h3 id="h-bees">Bees</h3>



Bees, particularly honeybees and bumblebees, are facing significant declines across the globe. These pollinators are essential for many ecosystems and for agricultural production. Reasons for their decline include loss of flower-rich habitats, exposure to harmful pesticides (neonicotinoids, in particular), diseases, parasites, and climate change.



<h3 id="h-butterflies-and-moths">Butterflies and Moths</h3>



These are also experiencing rapid declines, with many species becoming increasingly rare. Habitat loss, intensive agriculture, pesticides, light pollution, and climate change all contribute to their dwindling numbers.



<h3 id="h-beetles">Beetles</h3>



Some species of beetles, such as certain types of dung beetles, are also facing significant declines. These insects play a crucial role in decomposition and nutrient recycling, and their loss can have profound effects on ecosystem functioning.



<h3 id="h-aquatic-insects">Aquatic insects</h3>



Freshwater ecosystems are under great pressure from pollution, habitat destruction, invasive species, and climate change. This has led to declines in many species of aquatic insects, such as dragonflies and mayflies.



<h3 id="h-insectivorous-insects">Insectivorous insects</h3>



Certain species that rely on other insects for food, like certain types of ants and ladybugs, are also seeing their numbers decline as their food sources become less abundant.



It's important to note that while some insect species are declining, others may be increasing, potentially leading to a shift in community composition and ecosystem function. Also, data on insect declines is much stronger for some regions (like Europe and North America) compared to others, so global patterns may vary.



<h2 id="h-climate-change-and-global-insect-decline">Climate change and global insect decline </h2>



Climate change affects insects in several ways, primarily through alterations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and the timing of seasonal events. Here are some key impacts:



<h3 id="h-temperature-changes">Temperature Changes</h3>



Many insects are ectotherms, meaning their body temperature and metabolic rates are directly influenced by the environment. Warmer temperatures can accelerate their life cycles, but extreme heat can also be lethal. Conversely, some insects may expand their range into previously cooler regions as those areas warm up.



<h3 id="h-altered-seasonal-timing">Altered Seasonal Timing</h3>



Many insects synchronize their life cycles with specific seasonal events, like the blooming of certain plants or the availability of prey. Changes in the timing of these events due to climate change, a phenomenon known as phenological mismatch, can have detrimental effects. For example, if insects hatch after their primary food sources are available, it can lead to high mortality rates.



<h3 id="h-habitat-loss">Habitat Loss</h3>



Climate change can lead to habitat loss for certain insects. For example, insects adapted to cold mountain environments may "run out of mountain" as their habitable zones shift upward with warming temperatures. Similarly, insects living in coastal areas may lose habitat due to sea-level rise.



<h3 id="h-drought-and-precipitation-changes">Drought and Precipitation Changes</h3>



Changes in rainfall patterns can affect insect populations. Drought can reduce food availability and breeding sites, while increased rainfall can drown insects or lead to disease outbreaks.



<h3 id="h-changes-in-plant-communities">Changes in Plant Communities</h3>



Climate change can lead to shifts in plant communities, which can affect plant-dependent insects. For example, changes in plant nutritional quality due to elevated CO2 levels can impact herbivorous insects.



<h3 id="h-increased-extreme-events">Increased Extreme Events</h3>



More frequent and intense extreme weather events, such as storms, floods, and heatwaves, can directly kill insects or destroy their habitats.



<h3 id="h-interactions-with-other-stressors">Interactions with Other Stressors</h3>



Climate change can exacerbate the impacts of other stressors like habitat loss, pollution, and invasive species, leading to additive or multiplicative effects on insect populations.



The specific impacts of climate change on insects can vary widely depending on the species and its particular ecology, life history, and geographical location.



—-



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Global insect decline: What are the causes and consequences?

The global decline of insect populations has become increasingly evident...

A new mammalian tree of life has been created by a pioneering new study led by scientists from the <a href="https://vetmed.tamu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences</a>. It provides a definitive answer to the long-standing question of the evolutionary timeline of mammals throughout the last 100 million years.



The research, published in Science, was conducted as part of the <a href="https://zoonomiaproject.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoonomia Project</a>. This is a global consortium of scientists working to understand the evolutionary history of the human genome within the context of mammalian evolutionary history by analyzing the largest mammalian genomic dataset ever assembled.



The team, led by Dr. William J. Murphy, a professor in the Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, and Dr. Nicole Foley, an associate research scientist in Murphy’s lab, focused on the field of phylogeny, which examines the evolutionary relationships and diversification of living and extinct organisms.



“The central argument is about whether placental mammals (mammals that develop within placentas) diverged before or after the Cretaceous-Paleogene (or K-Pg) extinction event that wiped out the non-avian dinosaurs,” said Foley.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



To create the new mammalian tree of life, the researchers performed new types of analyses made possible by the massive scope of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genomes-from-240-mammals-show-what-makes-humans-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoonomia Project</a>, which allowed them to determine when and where mammals diversified and evolved in relation to the K-Pg mass extinction.



Collaborating with researchers at the University of California, Davis; University of California, Riverside; and the American Museum of Natural History, the team concluded that mammals began diversifying before the K-Pg extinction due to continental drifting. This caused the Earth's land masses to drift apart and come back together over millions of years.



Another pulse of diversification occurred immediately after the extinction event, when mammals had more room, resources, and stability, leading to the rich diversity of mammal lineages we see today.



The research conducted by Murphy and Foley, which was funded by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>, is part of the larger Zoonomia Project led by Elinor Karlsson and Kerstin Lindblad-Toh, of the Broad Institute.



The project also compares mammal genomes to understand the basis of remarkable phenotypes – the expression of certain genes such as brown vs. blue eyes – and the origins of disease.



Foley elaborated on the diversity among placental mammals, stating, “Mammals today represent enormous evolutionary diversity — from the whizzing flight of the tiny bumblebee bat to the languid glide of the enormous Blue Whale as it swims through Earth’s vast oceans. Multiple species have evolved to echolocate, some produce venom, while others have evolved cancer resistance and viral tolerance.”



<h2>Shared differences across species</h2>



She went on to explain that examining shared differences and similarities across mammalian species at a genetic level can help researchers determine the parts of the genome that are critical to regulating the expression of genes.



Murphy emphasized the significance of Foley’s resolved phylogeny of mammals for the goals of the Zoonomia Project. It seeks to harness the power of comparative genomics as a tool for human medicine and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-land-conservation-stop-the-biodiversity-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity conservation</a>.



“The Zoonomia Project is really impactful because it's the first analysis to align 241 diverse mammalian genomes at one time and use that information to better understand the human genome,” he said. “The major impetus for putting together this big data set was to be able to compare all of these genomes to the human genome and then determine which parts of the human genome have changed over the course of mammalian evolutionary history.”



<h2>How the mammalian tree of life helps human health</h2>



The ability to determine which parts of genes can be manipulated without causing harm to their function is crucial for human medicine. This is another big benefit of the new mammalian tree of life.



A recent study published in Science Translational Medicine, led by Texas A&amp;M geneticist Dr. Scott Dindot, utilized the comparative genomics approach to develop a molecular therapy for Angelman syndrome, a rare and devastating neurogenetic disorder caused by the loss of function of the maternal UBE3A gene in the brain.



This breakthrough was made possible by the groundwork laid by Dr. William J. Murphy and Dr. Nicole Foley's research on mammalian genomes as part of the Zoonomia Project.



Dindot's team harnessed the measures of evolutionary constraint identified by the Zoonomia Project to pinpoint a crucial but previously unknown genetic target. This can be used to restore the expression of UBE3A in human neurons.



Murphy explained that expanding the ability to compare mammalian genomes using the largest dataset in history will help develop more cures and treatments for ailments rooted in genetics, not just for humans but also for other species such as cats and dogs.



“For example, cats have physiological adaptations rooted in unique mutations that allow them to consume an exclusively high-fat, high-protein diet that is extremely unhealthy for humans,” Murphy said.



“One of the beautiful aspects of Zoonomia’s 241-species alignment is that we can pick any species (not just human) as the reference and determine which parts of that species’ genome are free to change and which ones cannot tolerate change. In the case of cats, for example, we may be able to help identify genetic adaptations in those species that could lead to therapeutic targets for cardiovascular disease in people.”



<h2>Incredible Contribution of the Zoonomia Project</h2>



Murphy and Foley's phylogeny has played an instrumental role in several subsequent papers that are part of the Zoonomia Project. “It’s trickle-down genomics,” Foley explained.



“One of the most gratifying things for me in working as part of the wider project was seeing how many different research projects were enhanced by including our phylogeny in their analyses. This includes studies on conservation genomics of endangered species to those that looked at the evolution of different complex human traits.”



Foley expressed the significance of definitively answering the heavily debated question about the timing of mammal origins. Producing an expanded phylogeny through the mammalian tree of life lays the foundation for future generations of researchers.



“Going forward, this massive genome alignment and its historical record of mammalian genome evolution will be the basis of everything that everyone's going to do when they're asking comparative questions in mammals,” she said. “That is pretty cool.”



<h2>More about the the Zoonomia Project</h2>



The Zoonomia Project is a groundbreaking international collaborative effort that brings together scientists from around the globe to study the evolutionary history of the human genome within the context of mammalian evolutionary history. By utilizing the largest mammalian genomic dataset ever assembled, the project aims to better understand the genetic basis for traits and diseases in humans and other species.



The project's name, "Zoonomia," is derived from the term "zoonomy," which refers to the scientific arrangement or classification of animals. The Zoonomia Project has two main objectives:



<h3>Comparative Cenomics in the mammalian tree of life</h3>



The project compares the genomes of various mammalian species to identify shared differences and similarities. By analyzing these genomic patterns, scientists can gain insights into the parts of the genome that are critical to regulating gene expression. This knowledge can then be applied to understand the genetic basis of remarkable phenotypes. These include specific physical traits or the origins of diseases.



<h3>Human medicine and biodiversity conservation</h3>



The Zoonomia Project aims to harness the power of comparative genomics as a tool for human medicine and biodiversity conservation. By understanding the evolutionary history of different mammalian genomes, researchers can develop targeted therapies and treatments for various genetic ailments in humans and other species.



Furthermore, the project contributes to conservation efforts by studying the genomics of endangered species and identifying potential genetic factors contributing to their decline. The new mammalian tree of life is a key contributor.



The Zoonomia Project has already made significant advancements, with researchers like Dr. William J. Murphy and Dr. Nicole Foley resolving long-standing debates about the evolutionary timeline of mammals in relation to the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs.



Moreover, the project has played a crucial role in various research studies, including those focused on conservation genomics of endangered species and the evolution of complex human traits.



The Zoonomia Project's expansive dataset, which includes alignments of 241 diverse mammalian genomes, is expected to serve as the foundation for countless future studies in the field of comparative genomics and mammalian evolution.

Mammalian tree of life traces evolution of mammals back 100 million years

A new mammalian tree of life has been created by...

Using hydrophones to “eavesdrop” on a reef off the coast of Goa, India, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.nio.org/">National Institute of Oceanography</a> (NIO) in Goa has recently recorded the duration and timing of mating and feeding sounds produced by 21 marine species. The recordings revealed that, while some species were early risers, making sounds from 3am onwards, others were more active later in the day, starting to create a ruckus from around 2pm.&nbsp;



Better understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-warming-is-transforming-the-underwater-soundscape/">underwater soundscapes</a> could shed new light on the behaviors of a variety of marine creatures, as well as on the impact human activities have on ocean life, including the effects of anthropogenic climate change on aquatic ecosystems.



“Acoustic monitoring of underwater environments will enable us to know more about the climate and its related long-term changes in the physical and biological condition of the underwater environment,” said co-author Bishwajit Chakraborty, a former chief scientist at NIO. “For example, as coral reefs are the hub of underwater biodiversity, conducting acoustic studies here is extremely essential to know the state and health of the reef and its inhabitants.”



This study – published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0017248">Journal of the Acoustical Society of America</a> - will contribute to a larger project aiming to create a <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2022.810156/full">Global Library of Underwater Biological Sounds</a> (GLUBS). This project represents a major legacy of the decade-long <a href="https://www.iqoe.org/">International Quiet Ocean Experiment</a> (IQOE), a scientific program running until 2025 and promoting research, observations, and modelling to improve our understanding of ocean soundscapes and the effects of sound on marine species.



GLUBS will be designed as an open-access online platform aiming to collect global information about underwater soundscapes in order to broaden and standardize scientific and community knowledge of these phenomena. Among its many applications, this platform will help improve scientists’ ability to detect in hard-to-access underwater environment how the distribution and behavior of marine life responds to various pressures, such as climate change, fishing, resource development, plastic pollution, or anthropogenic noise.



“Passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) is an effective technique for sampling aquatic systems that is particularly useful in deep, dark, turbid, and rapidly changing or remote locations,” explained GLUBS leader Miles Parsons.



According to Parsons and his colleagues, GLUBS will not only create and maintain a database of all aquatic species confirmed or anticipated to produce sounds, but also help reveal currently unknown species and contribute to their eventual identification and classification.



“Unidentified sounds can provide valuable information on the richness of the soundscape, the acoustic communities that contribute to it, and behavioral interactions among acoustic groups. However, unknown, cryptic, and rare sounds are rarely target signals for research and monitoring projects and are, therefore, largely unreported,” Parsons said.



In addition, GLUBS will also help delineate essential fish habitats, estimate the biomass of spawning aggregations of commercially or recreationally important soniferous species, help evaluate the degradation and recovery of coral reefs, and identify the possible impact of oil and gas, wind power, and other offshore industries on marine ecosystems.



“We need to listen more in the blue symphony halls.&nbsp;Animal sounds are behavior, and we need to record and understand the sounds, if we want to know the status of ocean life,”&nbsp;concluded Jesse Ausubel, an environmental scientist at the Rockefeller University and one of IQOE’s originators.



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Monitoring ocean life through underwater soundscapes

Using hydrophones to “eavesdrop” on a reef off the coast...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

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[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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