<p>Plants protect themselves. They often produce chemicals that discourage animals from feeding on them. For herbivores, survival means eating enough food while avoiding dangerous toxins. This delicate balance shapes how animals forage and adapt to their environment.</p>



<p>The challenge is not only about survival in the present moment. It is also about long-term adaptation. Animals that fail to strike this balance risk starvation or poisoning, while successful ones pass on their strategies to future generations. </p>



<p>This ongoing evolutionary tug-of-war between plants and herbivores defines much of the natural world.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.usu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utah State University</a> ecologist Sara Weinstein believes these choices reveal much about survival. “Understanding how these animals navigate these choices is fundamental to understanding what these creatures need to survive and how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodrats-duplicated-their-genes-to-survive-eating-poisonous-plants/">species</a> respond to changing conditions."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrats-and-toxic-plants">Woodrats and toxic plants</h2>



<p>Among the many plant eaters, woodrats offer a surprising case study. Native to North America, these rodents consume a wide range of plants.</p>



<p>“Woodrats are remarkable in their ability to eat truly awful, toxic plants,” said Weinstein. “If there are no other options, woodrats can consume plants like creosote bush, mesquite and juniper, which are full of disagreeable compounds like alkaloids and terpenes.”</p>



<p>Weinstein and colleagues from several universities recently published findings from an eight-year survey of woodrat populations across North America.</p>



<p>“Woodrats are a phenomenal model organism for understanding how wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-super-sized-domestic-animals-and-shrunk-wildlife/">animals</a> make choices about what to eat,” Weinstein explains. Their habitats provide varied food choices, allowing researchers to study how animals decide among safer or riskier plants.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-the-diets-of-woodrats">Analyzing the diets of woodrats </h2>



<p>Unlike city-dwelling rats, woodrats avoid people. "Woodrats are very distant cousins of the better known, and omnivorous, New York pizza rat,” Weinstein noted. “You are unlikely to see woodrats, unless you’re in relatively undeveloped habitat.”</p>



<p>Despite their shy nature, woodrats are widespread across the United States. Their abundance makes them excellent research subjects, especially since multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-survivors-dragonflies-face-their-toughest-test/">species</a> often share the same environment.</p>



<p>“Compared to large herbivores like deer, moose or elephants, woodrats are much easier to capture and handle,” said Weinstein. “They also readily provide us with material for diet analyses, because they tend to defecate in traps.”</p>



<p>These droppings become data-rich samples. Weinstein noted that each sample combines about a day of food choices. This allows scientists to capture a snapshot of their diets.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-in-herbivore-diets">Patterns in herbivore diets</h2>



<p>Advancements in DNA metabarcoding, using next-generation sequencing, have transformed diet research. </p>



<p>“It’s a very powerful and accessible technique to characterize the unseen,” Weinstein said. This method has helped reveal important patterns in how herbivores eat.</p>



<p>Despite progress, dietary niche breadth remains poorly understood. The research shows that both specialization and generalization carry costs for herbivores.</p>



<p>“A longstanding notion is that if you’re highly specific in what you eat - you only eat one thing - then, if you lose access to that plant - say, it disappears because the ecosystem changes or an invasive species pushes it out - you’re going to be in trouble,” said Weinstein.</p>



<p>Generalists adapt more easily, shifting diets when needed. Yet the story is more complex. Most woodrat populations are generalists, but at the individual level, these generalists’ diets may not be as broad as we previously assumed, explained Weinstein.</p>



<p>“We tend to think of generalists as being a jack-of-all-trades, master of none. However, it looks like most generalists are more aptly described as jacks-of-all trades, master of some.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-ecosystems">Implications for ecosystems</h2>



<p>Individuals often select consistent subsets of plants, helping them manage risks from toxins. These findings matter beyond woodrats.</p>



<p>“Ultimately, these constraints on animal diets have important implications for our understanding of food webs, species interactions and which populations are more likely to persist in changing ecosystems,” said Weinstein.</p>



<p>The study highlights how much we still have to learn about herbivores. By tracing dietary strategies across individuals, populations, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/not-just-birds-and-beetles-iridescence-found-in-unexpected-animals/">species</a>, scientists gain insight into resilience and vulnerability in a changing climate. </p>



<p>In the end, the secret lives of woodrats remind us that even the smallest animals can unlock big lessons about survival.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2413556122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.</em></p>



<p>Image Credit: Sara Weinstein</p>



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Woodrats reveal how herbivores survive eating toxic plants

Plants protect themselves. They often produce chemicals that discourage animals from feeding on them. For herbivores, survival means eating enough food while avoiding dangerous toxins. This delicate balance shapes how animals forage and adapt to their environment. The challenge is not only about survival in the present moment. It is also about long-term adaptation. Animals that fail to strike this balance risk starvation or poisoning, while successful ones pass on their strategies to future generations. This ongoing evolutionary tug-of-war between plants and herbivores defines much of the...

<p>In a new study led by the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>, researchers have discovered that birds across the Americas are becoming smaller and developing longer wings in response to climate change. The most significant changes have been observed in the smallest-bodied species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This groundbreaking research, which analyzed over 86,000 bird specimens from North and South America, is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2206971120"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a>.</p>



<p>The researchers combined data from two previously published studies that investigated body-size and wing-length changes in migratory and nonmigratory birds. The first study focused on birds that were killed after colliding with buildings in Chicago, while the second study examined nonmigratory birds caught in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-animals-will-suffer-as-the-rainforest-turns-into-savanna/">Amazon</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-two-studies-same-results">Two studies, same results</h2>



<p>Despite differences in species composition, geography, and data collection methods, both studies showed a widespread decline in body size and a concurrent increase in wing length.</p>



<p>Upon further analysis of the combined data, the researchers found an even more striking pattern: smaller bird species experienced proportionately faster declines in body size and proportionately faster increases in wing length.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"The relationships between body size and rates of change are remarkably consistent across both datasets," said U-M ornithologist Benjamin Winger, one of the study's senior authors. However, Winger noted that the biological mechanism underlying this link between body size and rates of morphological change still needs to be explored further.</p>



<p>Both the Chicago and Amazonian studies attributed the reductions in species' body size to increasing temperatures over the past 40 years, suggesting that body size may play a crucial role in species' responses to climate change. However, the researchers are still uncertain as to why smaller-bodied species are changing at a faster rate.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-are-the-mechanisms-behind-these-changes">What are the mechanisms behind these changes?</h2>



<p>One possibility is that smaller-bodied birds are adapting more quickly to evolutionary pressures, although the available data did not allow the research team to test whether the observed size shifts represent rapid evolutionary changes in response to natural selection.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Co-senior author Brian Weeks, an evolutionary ecologist at the U-M School for Environment and Sustainability, said, "If natural selection plays a role in the patterns we observed, our results suggest that smaller bird species might be evolving faster because they experience stronger selection, are more responsive to selection, or both."</p>



<p>The implications of this study raise questions about the future of larger-bodied birds as global temperatures continue to rise.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Our results suggest that large body size could further exacerbate extinction risk by limiting the potential to adapt to rapid, ongoing anthropogenic change," said study lead author Marketa Zimova, a former U-M Institute for Global Change Biology postdoctoral researcher now at Appalachian State University.</p>



<p>On the other hand, the effect of body size on evolutionary rates might increase the persistence of smaller species if their rapidly changing morphology reflects a faster adaptive response to changing environmental conditions.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-studies-were-done">How the studies were done</h2>



<p>The experts analyzed data from 129 bird species across North and South America has found that birds are experiencing morphological changes, such as reduced body size and increased wing length, in response to climate change. The research examined 86,131 specimens collected over a similar period using different techniques, and highlights the impact of environmental changes on avian life.</p>



<p>Among the species studied, the smallest bird in the Chicago dataset was the golden-crowned kinglet (Regulus satrapa), averaging 5.47 grams, and the largest was the common grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) at 107.90 grams.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In the Amazonian dataset, the fork-tailed woodnymph (Thalurania furcata) was the smallest at 4.08 grams, while the largest was the Amazonian motmot (Momotus momota) at 131.00 grams.</p>



<p>The North American dataset, derived from birds retrieved after collisions with buildings in Chicago, comprised 70,716 individuals. Field Museum ornithologist David Willard measured bill length, wing length, body mass, and the length of a lower leg bone called the tarsus for each specimen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Willard, collections manager emeritus and a co-author of the study, said, "The birds collected from window collisions in Chicago are providing insights into morphological changes related to the changing climate. It is extremely gratifying to see data from these birds analyzed for a better understanding of the factors driving these changes."</p>



<p>The Amazonian dataset, on the other hand, contained measurements of 15,415 nonmigratory birds captured with mist nets in the rainforest, measured, and then released. For these birds, only mass and wing length measurements were consistently recorded throughout the study period.</p>



<h2 id="h-unique-opportunity-for-the-scientists">Unique opportunity for the scientists</h2>



<p>These large and complementary datasets provided researchers with a unique opportunity to test whether body size and generation length - two fundamental organismal traits - shaped birds' responses to rapid environmental change.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Biologists widely assume that a species' generation length, defined as the average age of individuals producing offspring, is an important predictor of its ability to adapt to rapid environmental change.</p>



<p>Shorter-lived organisms that reproduce on relatively short time scales, like mice, are predicted to evolve faster than creatures with longer generation lengths, like elephants, because the former have more frequent opportunities to make use of random genetic mutations generated during reproduction.</p>



<p>The authors of the study used statistical models to test the importance of both generation length and species body size in mediating rates of morphological change in birds. After controlling for body size, they found no relationship between generation length and rates of change in the North American bird species. Generation-length data were not available for the South American birds, so they were not included in that part of the analysis.</p>



<p>At the same time, the new analysis showed that a species' mean body size was significantly associated with the rates of change measured in both the Chicago and Amazonian birds.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The authors wrote, "Body size may be a valuable predictor of adaptive capacity and the extent to which contemporary evolution may reduce risk of extinction among species."</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-climate-change-and-its-impact-on-species">More about climate change and its impact on species</h2>



<p><br>Climate change is having a profound impact on both animal and plant species worldwide. As global temperatures rise, ecosystems are altered, leading to changes in species distribution, abundance, behavior, and physiology. Here are some key ways in which climate change is affecting plants and animals:</p>



<h3 id="h-range-shifts">Range shifts</h3>



<p>Many species are shifting their geographical ranges in response to climate change. Plants and animals are moving towards higher elevations and latitudes to find suitable habitats as temperatures rise. This can lead to changes in community composition, competition, and interactions between species.</p>



<h3 id="h-phenological-changes">Phenological changes</h3>



<p>Phenology refers to the timing of seasonal events in the life cycle of organisms, such as flowering, migration, and reproduction. Climate change is causing shifts in phenology, with many species experiencing earlier springs, later autumns, and altered reproductive cycles. These changes can lead to mismatches between species that rely on one another, such as plants and their pollinators, or predators and their prey.</p>



<h3 id="h-morphological-changes">Morphological changes</h3>



<p>As highlighted in the bird study mentioned earlier, climate change can drive changes in the physical traits of organisms. Examples include birds becoming smaller and developing longer wings, and fish species experiencing reductions in body size due to increased water temperatures.</p>



<h3 id="h-physiological-stress">Physiological stress</h3>



<p>Warmer temperatures and altered precipitation patterns can cause physiological stress in plants and animals. For instance, increased water temperatures can reduce oxygen levels in aquatic habitats, leading to stress for fish and other aquatic organisms. Droughts can also stress plants, making them more susceptible to pests and diseases.</p>



<h3 id="h-ocean-acidification">Ocean acidification</h3>



<p>As the ocean absorbs more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, its chemistry changes, leading to ocean acidification. This poses a significant threat to marine life, particularly species with calcium carbonate shells, such as corals, mollusks, and some plankton. Acidification can lead to reduced calcification rates, making it harder for these organisms to build and maintain their shells or skeletons.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat-loss-and-fragmentation">Habitat loss and fragmentation</h3>



<p>Climate change can exacerbate habitat loss and fragmentation by contributing to extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and altered land use patterns. As habitats become more fragmented, species may struggle to adapt or find suitable new habitats, increasing their vulnerability to extinction.</p>



<h3 id="h-invasive-species">Invasive species</h3>



<p>Climate change can facilitate the spread of invasive species by creating more favorable conditions for their establishment and growth. Invasive species can outcompete native species for resources, disrupt ecosystems, and transmit diseases.</p>



<h3 id="h-extinctions">Extinctions</h3>



<p>The combination of these factors increases the risk of extinction for many plant and animal species. Climate change is expected to become a primary driver of biodiversity loss in the coming decades, with some projections estimating that up to one-third of all species could be at risk of extinction due to climate change by 2050.</p>



<p>These examples demonstrate that climate change has far-reaching impacts on the natural world. As a result, conservation efforts must consider the complex ways in which climate change affects ecosystems and prioritize strategies that enhance the resilience of species and ecosystems to these changes.</p>



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Body sizes and shapes of birds are shrinking as the Earth warms

In a new study led by the University of Michigan,...

<p>The coqui frog, one of Puerto Rico's most emblematic creatures, is experiencing significant changes in its vocalizations due to climate change, according to recent research by Peter Narins, a scientist at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a>.</p>



<p>The coqui frog is known for its unique two-note call, "co-qui," which resonates across the island each night. Although male coqui frogs use these calls to establish their territory and deter rivals, scientists like Narins are able to analyze them to better understand the impact of climate change on these small amphibians.</p>



<p>In his talk titled "Climate change drives frog call change in Puerto Rico: Predictions and implications," Peter Narins will discuss the alterations he and his team have observed in coqui frog calls over a 23-year period.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The presentation is scheduled for 2:40 p.m. Eastern U.S. time on Monday, May 8, in room Chicago F/G, as part of the 184th <a href="https://acousticalsociety.org/asa-meetings/">Meeting of the Acoustical Society of America</a>, held at the Chicago Marriott Downtown Magnificent Mile Hotel from May 8-12.</p>



<p>Narins' research began more than two decades ago when he recorded coqui frog sounds along the slopes of El Yunque Peak in Puerto Rico. He and his team discovered that the calls of the coqui frog varied depending on elevation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Due to their high sensitivity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bushfires-linked-to-temperature-spikes-in-the-stratosphere/">temperature</a> changes, these frogs exhibit differences in size and call characteristics based on their habitat. Frogs dwelling in colder mountain peaks tend to be larger than their counterparts in warmer valleys, a fact that is reflected in their vocalizations.</p>



<p>"Coqui that produced short, high-pitched calls at high rates lived near the base of the mountain, while the calls of animals living near the mountain's peak were longer, lower-pitched, and repeated less frequently," Narins explained.</p>



<p>Two decades later, Narins, along with his colleague Sebastiaan Meenderink, returned to El Yunque Peak to find that the calls of every frog had become higher in pitch.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Meenderink said, "In order to record a call with certain characteristics we had to move to a slightly higher altitude. It was as if all the animals had moved up the mountain."</p>



<p>This apparent upward shift in the frogs' habitat corresponds to the temperature changes brought about by climate change. As global temperatures continue to rise, coqui frogs may be forced to retreat further up the mountain until they run out of viable living space.</p>



<p>Meenderink commented on the potential consequences of this shift, stating, "For now, the consequences are not dire. A barely perceptible change in frog body size and call has little impact on the environment."</p>



<p>"However, if left unabated, the temperature increase will eventually cause a collapse of the coqui population, which will be catastrophic for the Puerto Rican ecosystem."</p>



<p>This research highlights the importance of understanding and mitigating the effects of climate change on vulnerable species like the coqui frog.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As we continue to witness these changes, it becomes increasingly urgent to address the root causes of global warming and work towards a sustainable future for all living beings.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-coqui-frog">More about the coqui frog</h2>



<p><br>The coqui frog (Eleutherodactylus coqui) is a small tree frog native to Puerto Rico. Named after its distinctive two-note call, which sounds like "co-qui," this amphibian is an iconic symbol of Puerto Rican culture and wildlife. Here's what you need to know about the coqui frog:</p>



<h3 id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



<p>Coqui frogs are small, typically ranging from 1 to 2 inches in length. They vary in color from shades of brown to gray or green, sometimes with patterns on their skin, which helps them blend in with their surroundings.</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



<p>Coqui frogs are primarily found in Puerto Rico, but they have also been introduced to other locations such as the Dominican Republic, Hawaii, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In their natural habitat, they prefer moist environments, such as forests, gardens, and agricultural areas.</p>



<h3 id="h-vocalization">Vocalization</h3>



<p>The male coqui frog's unique two-note call serves several purposes. It is used to establish territory, ward off rivals, and attract females for mating. The first note, "co," alerts other males of their presence, while the second note, "qui," attracts females.</p>



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



<p>Unlike most frogs, the coqui frog does not have a tadpole stage. Instead, females lay eggs on moist surfaces, such as leaves or in crevices, and the male guards them until they hatch into small, fully-formed frogs. This direct development helps them bypass the vulnerability of a tadpole stage in their life cycle.</p>



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



<p>Coqui frogs are nocturnal and primarily insectivorous, feeding on a variety of insects and other small invertebrates, such as ants, spiders, and mites.</p>



<h3 id="h-predators-and-threats">Predators and threats</h3>



<p>The coqui frog's natural predators include birds, snakes, and larger frogs. In addition to predation, the coqui frog faces threats from habitat loss, pollution, and climate change. Climate change, in particular, has been shown to affect their vocalizations and potentially their distribution, as they are sensitive to changes in temperature.</p>



<h3 id="h-invasive-species">Invasive species</h3>



<p>In areas where the coqui frog has been introduced, such as Hawaii, it has become an invasive species, causing ecological problems due to its rapid reproduction and predation on native insects. Their loud calls have also been a nuisance for some residents in these areas.</p>



<p>Overall, the coqui frog is an important part of Puerto Rican culture and a fascinating subject of scientific study. The species offers insights into the effects of climate change on wildlife and serves as a reminder of the importance of protecting and preserving delicate ecosystems.</p>



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Climate change is altering the calls and voices of frogs around the world

The coqui frog, one of Puerto Rico's most emblematic creatures,...

Couple,Of,Brachiosaurus,Altithorax,And,A,Flock,Of,Pterosaurs,In

<p>Sauropods, a group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-self-regulated-their-body-temperature/">dinosaurs</a> that includes the iconic long-necked species such as Brachiosaurus and Apatosaurus, have long been known as the largest animals to walk the earth. Their massive size has been an enigma for scientists, and a new study now provides new insights into the remarkable evolution of these colossal creatures.</p>



<p>Paleontologist Michael D'Emic, an assistant professor of biology at <a href="https://www.adelphi.edu/">Adelphi University</a> in New York, is the author of the study titled "The Evolution of Maximum Body Size in Sauropod Dinosaurs."&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



<p>The research, published in the May 8 edition of <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home"><em>Current Biology</em></a>, challenges previous theories regarding the evolution of sauropods.</p>



<p>"It was previously thought that sauropods evolved their exceptional sizes independently a few times in their evolutionary history, but through a new analysis, we now know that this number is much higher, with around three dozen instances over the course of 100 million years around the globe," D'Emic explained.</p>



<p>To study the evolution of sauropod body size, D'Emic compiled measurements of the circumferences of hundreds of weight-bearing bones and correlated them with the weight of the animal they belonged to.&nbsp;</p>



<p>He then employed a technique called ancestral state reconstruction to map the reconstructed body masses of nearly 200 sauropod species onto their evolutionary tree.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>D'Emic's research revealed that sauropods achieved their enormous sizes early in their evolution, with each new sauropod family giving rise to one or more lineages that independently reached immense proportions (see image <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Sauropod-dinosaur-evolution-infographic_Adelphi-University_1big.png">here</a>).</p>



<p>He further explained, "Before going extinct with the other dinosaurs (besides birds) at the end of the Cretaceous Period, sauropods evolved their unrivaled sizes a total of three dozen times."</p>



<p>These super-sized sauropods were found to be ecologically distinct, exhibiting variations in the shapes of their teeth, heads, and body proportions, suggesting that they occupied different niches within the "large-bodied" category.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A microscopic study of their bones also indicated that these sauropods had different growth rates, implying that the record-setting dinosaurs were metabolically distinct.</p>



<p>D'Emic's findings contradict the popular 19th-century theory known as "Cope's Rule," which proposed that animals' size evolved over time. Instead, the new study suggests that animals achieve different body sizes depending on their ecological context and the available niches, a pattern that can appear random when examined on a larger scale.</p>



<p>"While other researchers have explained sauropods' immense size in general based on their unique combination of features, there is no one feature or set of features that characterize the sauropods that did surpass terrestrial mammal size from the ones that didn't," D'Emic said.</p>



<p>As the research continues, the next step will be to untangle why certain lineages of sauropods evolved into super-giants while others did not, further unraveling the fascinating history of these awe-inspiring prehistoric creatures.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-sauropod-dinosaurs">More about Sauropod dinosaurs</h2>



<p><br>Sauropod dinosaurs were a group of long-necked, herbivorous dinosaurs that lived during the Mesozoic Era, approximately 252 to 66 million years ago. They are best known for their massive size and are considered the largest animals to have ever walked the Earth. Here is a summary of some key characteristics and information about sauropod dinosaurs:</p>



<h3 id="h-size-and-anatomy">Size and anatomy</h3>



<p>Sauropods were characterized by their long necks, small heads, long tails, and columnar limbs. Their bodies were enormous, with some species measuring over 100 feet (30 meters) in length and weighing up to 100 tons. Examples of well-known sauropods include Apatosaurus, Brachiosaurus, and Diplodocus.</p>



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



<p>Sauropods were herbivores, feeding primarily on plants. Their long necks allowed them to reach high vegetation, while their peg-like teeth were adapted to strip leaves from branches. They likely swallowed their food whole or in large chunks, as their teeth were not suited for chewing. Some scientists believe they may have swallowed stones (gastroliths) to help grind up plant material in their stomachs.</p>



<h3 id="h-locomotion">Locomotion</h3>



<p>Sauropods were quadrupedal, walking on all four limbs. Their limbs were strong and column-like to support their massive weight. The arrangement of their limbs varied between species; some had front limbs that were shorter than their hind limbs (e.g., Diplodocus), while others had front limbs that were longer or nearly equal in length to their hind limbs (e.g., Brachiosaurus).</p>



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



<p>Sauropods likely reproduced by laying eggs, as evidenced by the discovery of fossilized sauropod nests and eggs. Their eggs were relatively small compared to their body size, usually about the size of a grapefruit or cantaloupe. They may have laid their eggs in large nesting colonies, similar to modern-day sea turtles.</p>



<h3 id="h-social-behavior">Social behavior</h3>



<p>The social behavior of sauropods is still a matter of debate among paleontologists. Some evidence, such as trackways and bonebeds, suggests that they may have lived in herds or traveled in groups. Others argue that their size would have made group living difficult, and they may have been more solitary animals.</p>



<h3 id="h-evolution-and-extinction">Evolution and extinction</h3>



<p>Sauropods first appeared in the Late Triassic Period and diversified greatly during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. They became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous Period, around 66 million years ago, along with other non-avian dinosaurs.</p>



<h3 id="h-fossil-record">Fossil record</h3>



<p>Sauropod fossils have been found on every continent, indicating that they were widespread during their time on Earth. However, due to their size and the fragility of their bones, complete sauropod skeletons are rare. Most of what we know about sauropods comes from partial remains and isolated bones.</p>



<p>In conclusion, sauropod dinosaurs were a diverse group of large, long-necked herbivores that lived during the Mesozoic Era. Their massive size, unique anatomy, and global distribution make them one of the most intriguing and well-studied groups of dinosaurs.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Scientists learn how super-giant Sauropods grew to be so massive

Sauropods, a group of dinosaurs that includes the iconic long-necked...

<p>A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a> has recently proposed a new model for the evolution of higher brain functions and social behavior in the Hymenoptera – a large order of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-insects-have-more-than-200000-brain-cells/">insects</a> comprising over 150,000 of species of sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts compared the Kenyon neuronal cells in the mushroom bodies – parts of the insect brain structuring the processes of sensory integration, memory, and learning - of “primitive” sawflies and more sophisticated honey bees. They discovered that three specialized Kenyon cell subtypes in the brains of honey bees may have evolved from a single, multifunctional Kenyon cell-subtype ancestor.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Besides helping scientists better understand how insect behavior has evolved, these findings could also shed new light on the evolution of the behavior of more complex organisms, including humans.</p>



<p>“In 2017, we reported that the complexity of Kenyon cell (KC) subtypes in mushroom bodies in insect brains increases with the behavioral diversification in Hymenoptera (a large and varied order of insects),” said senior author Takeo Kubo, a professor of Animal Physiological Chemistry at Tokyo. “In other words, the more KC subtypes an insect has, the more complex its brain and the behaviors it may exhibit. But we didn’t know how these different subtypes evolved. That was the stimulus for this new study.”&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>To clarify these issues, the researchers chose two Hymenoptera species that engage in highly different behaviors: the solitary turnip sawfly, which has a single KC subtype, and the sophisticated, social honey bee, which has three KC subtypes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts used transcriptome analysis to identify the genetic expression profiles of these various KC subtypes to reveal the potential evolutionary pathways between the primitive sawfly brain and the honey bees’ more complex one.</p>



<p>“I was surprised that each of the three KC subtypes in the honey bee showed comparable similarity to the single KC type in the sawfly,” said co-author Hiroki Kohno, an assistant professor of Biological Sciences at Tokyo. “Based on our initial comparative analysis of several genes, we had previously supposed that additional KC subtypes had been added one by one. However, they appear to have been separated from a multifunctional ancestral type, through functional segregation and specialization.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>As the numbers of KC subtypes increased, each of them seemed to inherit various properties from an ancestral KC, and later on evolved in different ways, leading to their varied current functions. To clarify how ancestral KC functions are present in both sawflies and honey bees, the researchers trained sawflies to perform a common honey bee behavioral test, in which they learn to associate an olfactory stimulus with a reward.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In honey bees, a gene called&nbsp;<em>CaMKII</em> contributes to long-term memory formation. The experts manipulated this gene in sawfly larvae. When the larvae grew, their long-term memory was impaired, suggesting that this gene plays a similar role in both species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, while <em>CaMKII</em>&nbsp;is expressed across the entire KC subtype in sawflies, in honey bees it is expressed in only one KC subtype, suggesting that its role in long-term memory was transmitted to a specific KC subtype in honey bees.</p>



<p>Although mammalian brains are significantly larger and much more complex than those of insects, better understanding the evolution and diversification of KC subtypes could shed new light on the evolution of social behavior in mammals, including humans.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“There are many mysteries about the neural basis that controls social behavior, whether in insects, animals, or humans. How it has evolved still remains largely unknown. I believe that this study is a pioneering work in this field,” concluded lead author Takayoshi Kuwabara, a doctoral student at Tokyo.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.add4201"><em>Science Advances</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-why-is-social-behavior-important">Why is social behavior important?</h2>



<p>Social behavior is important for a variety of reasons, as it plays a crucial role in the functioning, development, and survival of individuals and societies. Here are some key reasons why social behavior is important:</p>



<h3 id="h-social-bonding-and-relationships">Social bonding and relationships</h3>



<p>Social behavior fosters the formation of relationships and connections among individuals, which are essential for emotional well-being, mental health, and overall happiness.</p>



<h3 id="h-cooperation-and-collaboration">Cooperation and collaboration</h3>



<p>Social behavior enables individuals to work together and pool their resources, skills, and knowledge to achieve common goals, solve problems, and overcome challenges.</p>



<h3 id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



<p>Social behavior involves verbal and non-verbal communication, which allows individuals to share ideas, convey emotions, and coordinate actions effectively.</p>



<h3 id="h-social-learning">Social learning</h3>



<p>Social behavior facilitates learning from others through observation, imitation, and instruction, which can lead to the acquisition of new skills, knowledge, and behaviors.</p>



<h3 id="h-culture-and-tradition">Culture and tradition</h3>



<p>Social behavior plays a role in the transmission and preservation of cultural values, beliefs, practices, and traditions across generations, helping to maintain a sense of identity and continuity within societies.</p>



<h3 id="h-social-norms-and-rules">Social norms and rules</h3>



<p>Social behavior helps establish and maintain social norms and rules that govern how individuals should behave in different situations, which can contribute to social order, stability, and cohesion.</p>



<h3 id="h-conflict-resolution-and-negotiation">Conflict resolution and negotiation</h3>



<p>Social behavior allows individuals to resolve disputes, negotiate differences, and reach compromises, which can prevent or reduce the likelihood of conflicts and promote social harmony.</p>



<h3 id="h-emotional-support-and-empathy">Emotional support and empathy</h3>



<p>Social behavior encourages individuals to provide emotional support and empathy to others, which can help alleviate stress, foster resilience, and promote mental health.</p>



<h3 id="h-social-influence-and-conformity">Social influence and conformity</h3>



<p>Social behavior can lead to social influence and conformity, which may encourage individuals to adopt socially accepted attitudes, values, and behaviors, and discourage deviant or harmful actions.</p>



<h3 id="h-evolution-and-survival">Evolution and survival&nbsp;</h3>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, social behavior has been crucial for the survival and reproduction of many species, including humans, by promoting cooperation, resource sharing, and protection from potential threats.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Study explores the basis of social behavior in the insect brain

A team of scientists led by the University of Tokyo...

<p>A new study led by the <a href="http://www.uwyo.edu/">University of Wyoming</a> and <a href="https://go.okstate.edu/">Oklahoma State University</a> has argued that the U.S. federal government’s management of wild horses will likely fail without major legal and policy changes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to the experts, since contrasting societal views have led to an approach which simultaneously manages horses on the range as wildlife, livestock, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-owners-are-happier-than-people-who-dont-have-pets/">pets</a>, current government programs of managing wild horses are incapable of succeeding.</p>



<p>“For the federal government to sustain healthy populations, ecosystem health, and fiscal responsibility, lawmakers must properly define how feral equids should be labeled. Each label (wild, livestock, pet) has validity, and management plans can be implemented to optimize equid populations with other land uses. Furthermore, providing a clear definition of feral equids will determine the legal tools that can be applied for their management,” the authors explained.</p>



<p>Although the fossil record provides evidence that there were horses in North America previously, they went extinct about 10,000 years ago. Thus, the horses that currently inhabit the continent are descendants of livestock that underwent thousands of years of domestication and artificial selection. Moreover, most of the large predators which could help limit their population growth went extinct at the end of Pleistocene.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Since horses have no natural predators, cannot be legally hunted, and are no longer slaughtered as livestock in the U.S., their populations have nearly doubled over the past decade. In addition, the number of horses removed from the range by the <a href="https://www.blm.gov/">Bureau of Land Management</a> (BLM) and held in government facilities and private lands has grown by 33 percent, with BLM spending more than $550 million since 2013 to support these captive populations.</p>



<p>“The BLM has increased the number of individuals removed from the wild in each of the past four years, leading to decreases in the on-range population,” the authors wrote. “However, the total on-range population is still approximately 50,000 individuals above the maximum (appropriate management level), and the recent moderate decrease in on-range individuals is directly correlated with an increase in the off-range population and subsequent expenditures.”</p>



<p>According to the scientists, removing wild horses from their Western range to place them in long-term holding is not an efficient solution, since such a method “simply exports the issue elsewhere - including the imperiled tallgrass prairie ecosystem - with unknown ecological effects.” And while fertility control has helped to a certain degree, there are still too many horses on the range for such an approach to work.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These problems are compounded by the fact that wild horses are treated differently from other wildlife, since the federal Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 prohibits their hunting, while the BLM’s practice of gathering and removing wild horses from the range resembles livestock operations rather than wildlife management. At the same time, “adoption programs, sales restrictions, and the abolition of slaughter have resulted in feral equids effectively serving as society’s pets.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>In the experts’ opinion, a better alternative would be choosing one of the labels – wild, livestock, or pets – and apply different rules for the management of each category.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As a wild species that lacks sufficient predation to keep most populations in check, a hunting or culling program, like those for other wild ungulates, could slow their population growth. As livestock, gathers and removals that lead to sale or slaughter would limit growth and give the animals the monetary value they currently lack. As pets, simultaneously conducting large-scale removals and administering fertility control, including permanent sterilization (and potentially euthanasia), could reduce population sizes and slow growth,” the authors explained.</p>



<p>“The current state of feral horse and burro management in the United States is unsustainable and will continue to be a painful resource sink without fundamental changes to the law. We recommend that the U.S. federal government should officially declare the status of feral equids as either wild, livestock, or pets and should provide the BLM and (U.S. Forest Service) the legal latitude and funding to develop and implement respective management options,” they concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biad033"><em>BioScience</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-wild-horses-in-the-american-west">Wild horses in the American West</h2>



<p>The history of wild horses in the American West is an intriguing tale of resilience, adaptation, and survival. The wild horses that roam the western landscape today, also known as mustangs, are descendants of domesticated horses brought to the Americas by Spanish explorers and settlers in the 16th century.</p>



<h3 id="h-early-introduction">Early introduction</h3>



<p>The initial wave of horses arrived with the Spanish conquistadors, such as Hernán Cortés in 1519, and later with colonizers like Juan de Oñate in the late 16th century. The horses were of various breeds, including Andalusians, Barbs, and Garranos, and they were primarily used for transportation, agriculture, and warfare.</p>



<h3 id="h-escaped-and-released-horses">Escaped and released horses</h3>



<p>Over time, many horses escaped from the Spanish settlements or were released into the wild. These animals began to breed and form feral populations, which eventually led to the emergence of the mustang. The term "mustang" comes from the Spanish word "mestengo," which means "stray" or "ownerless" animal.</p>



<h3 id="h-expansion-and-adaptation">Expansion and adaptation</h3>



<p>As the Spanish territories expanded in the 17th and 18th centuries, the mustangs' range also grew. They adapted to the harsh conditions of the American West, developing characteristics such as hardiness, endurance, and agility. The Native American tribes of the Great Plains, like the Comanche and the Sioux, quickly recognized the value of these horses and began to capture and domesticate them for transportation, hunting, and warfare.</p>



<h3 id="h-the-horse-s-impact-on-native-american-cultures">The horse's impact on Native American cultures</h3>



<p>The introduction of horses had a profound impact on the lives of Native Americans, transforming their cultures, economies, and modes of warfare. The tribes that mastered horsemanship became powerful and influential in the region, and horses became central to their way of life.</p>



<h3 id="h-19th-century-westward-expansion">19th-century westward expansion</h3>



<p>As Euro-American settlers moved westward in the 19th century, they encountered vast herds of wild mustangs. Ranchers began capturing and using these horses for work, breeding them with other breeds to create the American Quarter Horse and other popular stock horse breeds. </p>



<h3 id="h-wild-horse-protection-and-management">Wild Horse Protection and Management</h3>



<p>In the 20th century, concerns about the mustangs' dwindling numbers led to efforts to protect and manage the remaining herds. In 1971, the US Congress passed the Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act, which aimed to protect, manage, and control the populations of wild horses and burros on public lands. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and the United States Forest Service (USFS) were tasked with managing these animals, using techniques like roundups and adoptions to maintain sustainable herd sizes.</p>



<p>Today, wild horses continue to be an iconic symbol of the American West, representing freedom, resilience, and the untamed spirit of the frontier. Efforts to protect and manage their populations are ongoing, with the goal of preserving these magnificent animals for future generations to appreciate.</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Experts propose a new strategy for managing wild horses

A new study led by the University of Wyoming and...

<p>Scientists from <a href="https://www.tmu.ac.jp/english/index.html">Tokyo Metropolitan University</a> have recently proposed an intriguing hypothesis to explain the rarity of insects in marine environments, a question that has puzzled scientists for decades.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research team, led by Professor Tsunaki Asano, has attributed this phenomenon to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-and-squid-senses-linked-to-human-brain-evolution/">evolution</a> of a unique chemical mechanism that hardens insects' shells, which gives them an advantage on land but a disadvantage in the sea.</p>



<h2 id="h-insects-have-conquered-the-land-but-not-the-seas">Insects have conquered the land, but not the seas</h2>



<p>Insects are among the most successful organisms on Earth, accounting for the majority of biomass of all terrestrial animals and playing a significant role in the global ecosystem.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Despite their abundance on land, however, insects are strikingly rare in marine environments. This perplexing disparity has left scientists searching for answers.</p>



<p>Recent advances in molecular phylogenetics have revealed that insects and crustaceans belong to the same family, Pancrustacea.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Insects branched off from their crustacean ancestors and adapted to life on land, but both groups share a common feature: an exoskeleton composed of a wax layer and a hard cuticle (see image <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/insects-in-ocean_infographic_Tokyo-Metropolitan-University_1big.jpg">here</a>).&nbsp;</p>



<p>In previous work, Asano's team discovered that insects evolved a unique gene responsible for creating an enzyme called multicopper oxidase-2 (MCO2), which allows them to harden their cuticles using oxygen.</p>



<p>MCO2 mediates a reaction in which molecular oxygen oxidizes compounds known as catecholamines in the cuticle, transforming them into agents that bind and harden the surface. This is distinct from crustaceans, who rely on calcium from seawater to harden their cuticles.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The researchers argue that the terrestrial environment, with its abundant oxygen, is more favorable for insects, whereas the ocean, with its relative lack of oxygen and presence of better-adapted organisms, is less hospitable.</p>



<p>But the benefits of MCO2 for insects don't end with shell hardening. The MCO2 pathway produces a cuticle that is not only protective but also lightweight.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team postulates that this lightweight material enabled insects to climb plants, glide, and eventually fly, allowing them to migrate and occupy previously unoccupied ecological niches. This diversification and expansion is a significant factor in the insects' incredible success on land.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In contrast, crustacean shells are much denser, with a strong correlation between density and the degree of calcification.</p>



<p>While insects are not the only arthropods to have adapted to life on land, the characteristics of their cuticles are key to their success in terrestrial environments.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers believe that MCO2 is a defining feature of insects, even going so far as to say, "no MCO2, no insects." This groundbreaking work offers a fresh perspective on the role that cuticle hardening might play in insect evolution and the transition from aquatic to terrestrial habitats.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-insects">More about insects</h2>



<p>Insects are a diverse and fascinating group of organisms, belonging to the class Insecta within the phylum Arthropoda.&nbsp;</p>



<p>They are the most abundant and diverse group of animals on Earth, with over a million described species and estimates suggesting that millions more are yet to be discovered. Insects can be found in virtually every habitat, from the highest mountains to the deepest caves, and they play a critical role in many ecosystems as pollinators, decomposers, and food sources for other organisms.</p>



<h3 id="h-some-key-characteristics-of-insects-include">Some key characteristics of insects include:</h3>



<h4 id="h-body-structure">Body structure</h4>



<p>Insects typically have a segmented body divided into three main parts: the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head contains sensory organs, such as compound eyes and antennae, as well as mouthparts adapted for feeding. The thorax bears three pairs of legs and, in many species, two pairs of wings. The abdomen houses the digestive, reproductive, and excretory systems.</p>



<h4 id="h-exoskeleton">Exoskeleton</h4>



<p>Insects have a hard, protective exoskeleton made of a material called chitin. The exoskeleton provides support, protection from predators and harsh environments, and helps prevent water loss.</p>



<h4 id="h-life-cycle">Life cycle</h4>



<p>Insects undergo either complete or incomplete metamorphosis during their life cycle. Complete metamorphosis consists of four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult, as seen in butterflies, beetles, and flies. Incomplete metamorphosis involves three stages: egg, nymph, and adult, which occurs in insects like grasshoppers and true bugs.</p>



<h4 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h4>



<p>Most insects reproduce sexually, with males and females producing sperm and eggs, respectively. Some species, however, are capable of asexual reproduction through processes such as parthenogenesis.</p>



<h4 id="h-respiration">Respiration</h4>



<p>Insects breathe through a series of tiny tubes called tracheae that connect to the outside of their body through small openings called spiracles. Oxygen diffuses through these tubes and reaches the cells directly, while carbon dioxide is expelled through the same system.</p>



<h4 id="h-communication-and-behavior">Communication and behavior</h4>



<p>Insects exhibit a wide range of behaviors, including communication through chemical signals (pheromones), visual displays, and auditory signals. Many insects are social, with some, like ants and bees, forming complex colonies with division of labor and intricate communication systems.</p>



<h4 id="h-diet">Diet</h4>



<p>Insects have diverse feeding habits, ranging from herbivores that feed on plant material to carnivores that prey on other insects or animals. Some insects, like butterflies and bees, consume nectar from flowers, while others, such as mosquitoes and ticks, feed on the blood of their hosts.</p>



<h4 id="h-economic-and-ecological-importance">Economic and ecological importance</h4>



<p>Insects have significant ecological and economic impacts. They are essential for pollination of many plants, including agricultural crops, and they help recycle nutrients by breaking down dead organic matter. Insects also serve as a vital food source for numerous other species. However, some insects are pests, causing damage to crops, transmitting diseases, and invading homes.</p>



<h4 id="h-conservation">Conservation</h4>



<p>Many insect populations are declining due to factors such as habitat loss, pesticide use, and climate change. It is crucial to protect insect biodiversity, as they play a vital role in maintaining healthy ecosystems and providing essential services to humans.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Why do so few insect species live in the ocean? Scientists think they know

Scientists from Tokyo Metropolitan University have recently proposed an intriguing...

<p>The American <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-way-transmission-of-coronavirus-confirmed-between-humans-and-minks/">mink</a> is an invasive species in Europe that was first introduced from North America during the 1920s for fur farming. Soon after their introduction, individual minks escaped from fur farms due to poor housing facilities or deliberate releases by activists and started to spread throughout Europe, with many mink populations becoming established in the wild.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Currently, scientists worry that this invasive species may threaten European native species and biodiversity, while also facilitating the circulation of various infectious diseases, including mink-related strains of Covid-19.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.uclm.es/?sc_lang=en">University of Castilla-La Mancha</a> in Spain has compiled data from 34 databases covering 32 countries to map this species’ distribution across Europe in order to help officials develop reliable risk assessment and risk management policies. </p>



<p>The analysis revealed a progressive spread of the American mink in most European countries, including the Baltic States, France, Germany, Iceland, Poland, Scandinavia, Spain, and the United Kingdom.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Although the mink is reported to be absent from some areas, such as parts of Norway, Iceland, and the UK, and data is still deficient for countries in south-eastern Europe, the findings suggest that, over the past 15 years, the species has continued to spread across Europe, and can be currently found across most of the continent.</p>



<p>“The study underscores the urgent need for effective control strategies and continued monitoring of American mink populations across Europe to prevent further harm to biodiversity and potential transmission of zoonotic diseases,” said senior author Joaquin Vicente, an expert in the health and population monitoring of wildlife at the University of Castilla-La Mancha. </p>



<p>“The research findings will be valuable to policymakers, conservationists, and other stakeholders working to protect European ecosystems and public health.”</p>



<p>The authors conclude that population monitoring of the American mink in Europe requires a coordinated effort, which should be particularly intensified in regions currently lacking data, such as southeastern Europe. The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mam.12315"><em>Mammal Review</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-invasive-species">More about invasive species&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Invasive species refer to non-native species that are introduced to a new environment and have a negative impact on the native species and the ecosystem. Invasive species can be plants, animals, or microorganisms, and they can cause significant economic, environmental, and social problems.</p>



<p>The introduction of invasive species often happens through human activities such as trade, transportation, and travel. Invasive species can outcompete native species for resources such as food, water, and habitat, leading to the decline or even extinction of the native species. </p>



<p>They can also alter the physical characteristics of the environment, such as the water chemistry or the soil composition, which can further impact the native species and ecosystem.</p>



<p>In addition to their impact on the environment, invasive species can also have economic consequences. They can reduce crop yields, damage infrastructure, and increase management costs, among other effects. Invasive species can also have social impacts, such as reduced recreational opportunities and reduced quality of life.</p>



<p>Efforts to control or eradicate invasive species can be challenging and expensive. Prevention through measures such as education, regulation, and early detection is often the most effective approach. </p>



<p>Once established, control measures may include physical, chemical, or biological methods, such as manual removal, herbicides, or biological control agents. However, it is important to consider the potential unintended consequences of these methods and to ensure that they are applied in a responsible and sustainable way.</p>



<h2 id="h-some-of-the-most-threatening-invasive-species">Some of the most threatening invasive species</h2>



<p>There are many invasive species that are considered to be highly threatening due to their ability to rapidly spread and negatively impact the environment, economy, and/or human health. Here are a few examples:</p>



<h3 id="h-burmese-python">Burmese Python</h3>



<p>Native to Southeast Asia, the Burmese Python is an invasive species in Florida, where it has become established and has had a significant impact on native wildlife populations.</p>



<h3 id="h-zebra-mussel">Zebra Mussel&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Native to Europe and Asia, the Zebra Mussel has invaded waterways throughout North America, where it can damage water treatment facilities, clog pipes, and outcompete native species.</p>



<h3 id="h-asian-carp">Asian Carp</h3>



<p>Originally from China, the Asian Carp has invaded many waterways in North America, where it poses a threat to the food web by outcompeting native fish and disrupting ecosystems.</p>



<h3 id="h-emerald-ash-borer">Emerald Ash Borer</h3>



<p>This invasive beetle is responsible for killing millions of ash trees in North America, resulting in significant economic and ecological impacts.</p>



<h3 id="h-giant-hogweed">Giant Hogweed</h3>



<p>Originally from Asia, this invasive plant can grow up to 15 feet tall and produce a toxic sap that can cause severe burns and blisters on human skin.</p>



<p>These are just a few examples of the many invasive species that can pose a threat to the environment, economy, and/or human health. It is important to be aware of invasive species in your area and take steps to prevent their spread.</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Invasive American mink has spread throughout Europe

The American mink is an invasive species in Europe that...

<p>As cities gobble up increasingly more natural spaces, a variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-birds-lay-larger-eggs/">birds</a> have adapted to live alongside traffic, noise, skyscrapers, and large numbers of humans. In order to help cities strengthen biodiversity through better urban planning, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA) has recently identified the most important traits that help birds adapt to urban living.</p>



<p>“Identifying traits that help wildlife adapt or even thrive in cities can help urban planners bolster biodiversity by, for example, increasing green spaces, planting more and taller trees, building more varied potential habitats, or reducing housing density,” explained study lead author Monte Neate-Clegg, a postdoctoral fellow in Ornithology at UCLA. “It can also help conservation biologists to identify which types of species are most threatened by urbanization.”</p>



<p>The researchers used data on over 125 million individual bird sightings from the public science project <a href="https://ebird.org/home">eBird</a> to calculate an “urban association index” - which describes how closely each bird species is associated with living in cities – and applied it to 3,768 bird species in 137 cities across six continents.</p>



<p>“Many of the most common urban birds globally are very familiar to us here in the U.S., including the house sparrow, barn swallow, osprey, and peregrine falcon,” said senior author Morgan Tingley, an associate professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at UCLA.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Although, interestingly, the species with the strongest associations with urban areas are actually three species of parakeet and a tanager from South America. Plus, of course, the feral pigeon.” Moreover, bird families with high average scores on the index included starlings, swallows, swifts, parrots, blackbirds, and orioles.</p>



<p>The birds with the highest urban associated index shared a variety of traits that allow them to thrive in urban settings, including smaller body size, lower territoriality, greater ability to fly over long distances – a trait known as “dispersal ability” – broader dietary preferences and habitat niches, and larger clutch sizes. Such traits make it easier for birds to find food and suitable nesting places in cities, while raising offspring that survive.</p>



<p>“In a city like Los Angeles, for example, the American crow is a cosmopolitan species whose broad diet, arboreal nesting habits, and long lifespan favor life in the concrete jungle. In contrast, canyon wrens are highly territorial insectivores with low dispersal ability that shun cities and keep to steep, rocky terrain,” Neate-Clegg&nbsp;explained.</p>



<p>However, cities’ geographical properties – such as latitude, population sizes, or surrounding terrain – moderated the importance of these traits. For instance, while a broad diet was found to be more important in temperate cities such as New York, habitat generalists were more prevalent in tropical cities such as Bogotá.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, if in cities with small populations and plentiful natural surroundings such as Anchorage, Alaska, large birds like bald eagles - which feed on fish from rivers and lakes - can easily thrive, sprawling, densely populated cities like Bangkok usually feature smaller birds that don’t require much raw land and can adapt to consuming a variety of foods to survive.</p>



<p>“Thus, the importance of trait filters in birds varies predictably across cities, indicating biogeographic variation in selection for urban tolerance that could explain prior challenges in the search for global patterns. A globally informed framework that predicts urban tolerance will be integral to conservation as increasing proportions of the world’s biodiversity are impacted by urbanization,” the authors concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.03.024"><em>Current Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-which-birds-are-common-in-cities">Which birds are common in cities?</h2>



<p>The types of birds commonly found in cities can vary depending on the location and habitat of the city. However, here are some of the most common bird species found in urban areas:</p>



<h3 id="h-pigeons">Pigeons</h3>



<p>Pigeons are one of the most common bird species found in cities around the world. They are adaptable and can survive on a diet of seeds and scraps.</p>



<h3 id="h-sparrows">Sparrows</h3>



<p>Sparrows are also common in urban areas, and they are known for their distinctive chirping songs. They can often be found in gardens and parks.</p>



<h3 id="h-starlings">Starlings</h3>



<p>Starlings are a species of bird that have adapted well to urban environments. They are known for their ability to mimic other birds' songs and sounds.</p>



<h3 id="h-seagulls">Seagulls</h3>



<p>Seagulls are a common sight in coastal cities, and they are opportunistic feeders that will eat almost anything.</p>



<h3 id="h-crows-and-ravens">Crows and ravens</h3>



<p>These birds are known for their intelligence and adaptability, and they are often found in urban areas scavenging for food.</p>



<h3 id="h-house-sparrows">House sparrows</h3>



<p>House sparrows are small birds that are found in cities worldwide. They are known for their brown and gray plumage and their habit of nesting in buildings and other man-made structures.</p>



<h3 id="h-canadian-geese">Canadian geese</h3>



<p>Canadian geese are migratory birds that often spend the winter in urban areas. They are known for their distinctive honking calls and their large size.</p>



<p>Overall, many species of birds can be found in urban areas, and the ones listed above are just a few of the most common.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-do-birds-thrive-in-cities">How do birds thrive in cities?</h2>



<p>Birds have adapted to living in urban environments by changing their behavior, habitat use, and diets. Here are some ways in which birds thrive in cities:</p>



<h3 id="h-nesting">Nesting</h3>



<p>Birds build nests in various urban environments, including buildings, trees, and even on the ground. Many birds also use nesting boxes or birdhouses provided by humans.</p>



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



<p>Urban birds have adapted to eating a wide range of foods, including insects, seeds, fruits, and human food scraps. Some species, such as pigeons and gulls, have become particularly adept at scavenging in urban areas.</p>



<h3 id="h-flight">Flight</h3>



<p>Birds have plenty of space to fly in urban areas, and they use rooftops and other structures as perches and launch sites. Additionally, urban areas often have less wind turbulence, which makes it easier for birds to fly.</p>



<h3 id="h-light">Light</h3>



<p>Urban areas often have a lot of light pollution, which can disrupt some bird species' migratory patterns. However, other species, such as owls and nightjars, have adapted to living in areas with artificial light.</p>



<h3 id="h-temperature">Temperature</h3>



<p>Urban areas can be warmer than rural areas due to the urban heat island effect, which can benefit some bird species. However, this effect can also be harmful if temperatures become too high.</p>



<p>Overall, while living in urban areas can present challenges for birds, many species have adapted to thrive in these environments.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Which traits help birds thrive in urban areas?

As cities gobble up increasingly more natural spaces, a variety...

<p>Chimpanzees' ability to combine vocalizations into larger meaningful structures may hold the key to understanding the evolutionary origins of human language.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="http://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a> (UZH) conducted experiments with wild chimpanzees in Uganda, revealing that these primates, much like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-and-their-humans-often-share-similar-personalities/">humans</a>, can communicate by combining individual vocalizations into larger compositional phrases.</p>



<p>Understanding how human language evolved has long been a topic of scientific inquiry. A key aspect of this evolution is the ability to combine words into larger compositional phrases, where the meaning of the whole is related to the meaning of its parts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Although the origins of this ability remain unclear, chimpanzees, our closest-living relatives, may offer valuable insights.</p>



<p>Chimpanzees are known to produce a variety of vocalizations to manage their social and ecological lives, and under certain circumstances, combine these calls into larger sequences.&nbsp;</p>



<p>UZH researchers, led by postdoctoral student Maël Leroux, aimed to understand whether these combinations are comprehensible to other chimpanzees.</p>



<p>Leroux explains, “Chimpanzees produce ‘alarm-huus’ when surprised and ‘waa-barks’ when potentially recruiting conspecifics during aggression or hunting. Our behavioral observations suggest that chimpanzees combine these calls when exposed to a threat where recruiting group members is advantageous, such as when encountering a snake, but until now experimental verification has been missing.”</p>



<p>The researchers presented model snakes to the chimpanzees and were able to elicit the call combination. The chimpanzees reacted more strongly to playbacks of the combined calls than to either the "alarm-huu" or "waa-bark" alone.&nbsp;</p>



<p>UZH professor Simon Townsend, the study's last author, believes that this indicates that the listening chimpanzees are indeed combining the meaning of the individual calls.</p>



<p>The findings have significant implications for our understanding of the evolutionary roots of language's compositional nature. Townsend points out that since humans and chimpanzees last shared a common ancestor around 6 million years ago, the capacity to combine meaningful vocalizations could be at least that old, if not older.</p>



<p>Leroux adds that these data offer "an intriguing glimpse into the evolutionary emergence of language." The research suggests that compositionality may have originated before the appearance of language itself.&nbsp;</p>



<p>To confirm these findings, further observational and experimental work, ideally involving other great ape species, will be crucial. The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-37816-y"><em>Nature Communications</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-cognitive-abilities-of-chimpanzees">More about the cognitive abilities of chimpanzees</h2>



<p><br>Chimpanzees are known for their remarkable cognitive abilities, which set them apart from other non-human primates. These abilities have been extensively studied, and they continue to provide insights into the evolutionary origins of human cognition. Some key cognitive abilities of chimpanzees include:</p>



<h3 id="h-problem-solving-and-tool-use">Problem-solving and tool use</h3>



<p>Chimpanzees are capable of using tools to solve complex problems. They have been observed using sticks to extract termites from mounds, using leaves as sponges to absorb water, and even creating spears to hunt smaller primates. Their ability to use and modify tools highlights their advanced cognitive skills.</p>



<h3 id="h-memory">Memory</h3>



<p>Chimpanzees have impressive memories, particularly when it comes to spatial awareness and recalling the locations of various resources such as food and water sources. They can also remember the faces and social dynamics of group members, which is vital for navigating their complex social lives.</p>



<h3 id="h-social-cognition">Social cognition</h3>



<p>Chimpanzees live in large social groups with intricate hierarchies, requiring advanced social cognition skills. They can recognize and remember relationships between group members, understand the intentions of others, and use this knowledge to their advantage. They are also capable of deception, empathy, and cooperation, further demonstrating their social intelligence.</p>



<h3 id="h-imitation-and-learning">Imitation and learning</h3>



<p>Chimpanzees are capable of learning by observing and imitating the actions of others. This ability to learn from others is crucial for the transmission of knowledge and skills within a group, allowing them to adapt to changing environments and develop complex cultural behaviors.</p>



<h3 id="h-numerical-and-quantitative-abilities">Numerical and quantitative abilities</h3>



<p>Chimpanzees can understand numerical concepts and perform basic arithmetic tasks. They have been shown to match quantities, compare numerical values, and even remember the correct sequence of numbers in some experiments.</p>



<h3 id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



<p>As mentioned in the previous response, chimpanzees are capable of producing and understanding a variety of vocalizations and gestures. They can use these to communicate information about their environment, emotions, and intentions to other members of their group.</p>



<h3 id="h-self-awareness">Self-awareness</h3>



<p>Chimpanzees exhibit self-awareness, as demonstrated by their ability to recognize themselves in mirrors. This level of self-recognition is indicative of a complex understanding of their own identity and mental states.</p>



<p>These cognitive abilities highlight the intelligence of chimpanzees and provide a basis for understanding the evolutionary development of human cognition. Studying these abilities not only helps us appreciate the complexity of these fascinating animals but also sheds light on the origins of our own cognitive skills.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Chimpanzees have a much more complex language than we thought

Chimpanzees' ability to combine vocalizations into larger meaningful structures may...

<p>While climate change has recently led to earlier spring blooms for wildflowers and ocean plankton, its effects on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-alaskas-wild-salmon-getting-smaller/">salmon</a> populations are more unpredictable and complicated, according to a new study led by <a href="http://www.sfu.ca/">Simon Fraser University</a> (SFU).&nbsp;</p>



<p>To better understand this phenomenon, the experts compiled the largest dataset in the world on juvenile salmon migration timing, including 66 populations ranging from Oregon to British Columbia and Alaska. These datasets focused specifically on wild salmon and were at least 20 years in length, with the longest one dating back to 1951.</p>



<p>“Field scientists from many different organizations work really hard to collect data on the migration of smolts [young salmon], day after day, year after year. Bringing this data together really showcases the importance of long-term monitoring,” said study lead author Samantha Wilson, a postdoctoral fellow in Biology at SFU.</p>



<p>The investigation revealed that, although many species of salmon significantly changed their migration patterns over the past few decades – such as the pink and chum salmon, which are now migrating seven days per decade earlier – others did not change them, despite the rapid warming of their habitats.</p>



<p>Surprisingly, the researchers found greater variation between populations within species than between different species. “We were really surprised. Yes, there were really strong signals of climate change as many salmon tended to be migrating earlier, but it was incredibly variable and unpredictable,” Wilson said.</p>



<p>A match between the migration timing of juvenile salmon and food availability creates ideal conditions for surviving the first months in the ocean, influencing how many adults return. However, since many salmon populations do not appear to be responding to changes in the coastal ocean, mismatches could become increasingly common under future climate change, leading to population declines.</p>



<p>As global warming continues to alter a variety of ecosystems, being able to predict which species or populations are the most vulnerable is crucial for conservation efforts. However, when such changes are difficult to predict – as in the cases of salmon – a precautionary management approach could work best for the long-term conservation of ecologically, culturally, and economically important species.</p>



<p>“Climate change is here and it is changing salmon and their ecosystems. Many of these changes are going to be unpredictable, which calls for the protecting of salmon biodiversity and their habitats,” said co-author Jonathan Moore, an expert in the Ecology and Management of Aquatic Ecosystems at SFU.</p>



<p>Moreover, as this study has proven, collaborations among a variety of scientists from different backgrounds and the use of large datasets spanning extended periods of time are essential to examine the dynamics of large-scale, unpredictable systems.</p>



<p>“This study brought together more than 50 scientists from government and community organizations, with everyone contributing their expertise and data to better understand this important, but often overlooked life stage. Long term monitoring projects are expensive and logistically challenging to run, and yet are increasingly important to better our understanding of how climate change may be affecting salmon,” concluded co-author Matthew Sloat, the director of science at the <a href="https://wildsalmoncenter.org/">Wild Salmon Center</a>.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02057-1"><em>Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</em></a>.</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Climate change has unpredictable effects on salmon migration

While climate change has recently led to earlier spring blooms...

<p>Prudhoe Bay is located on the Arctic Coastal Plain in Alaska and is one of the most important avian breeding grounds in the world, with millions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-and-light-pollution-alter-the-breeding-behavior-of-birds/">birds</a> nesting here each year, before migrating to distant places such as Central and South America, Africa, Russia, Australia, China, Japan, New Zealand, and even Antarctica.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Unfortunately, Prudhoe Bay is also a site of intensive energy development which is now likely to increase due to the recently approved $8 billion Willow oil project - a controversial, long-term effort to drill in Alaska’s largest still untouched regions.</p>



<p>By analyzing 17 years of migratory bird-nesting data in Prudhoe Bay, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society</a> (WCS) has now found that nest survival decreased substantially in the vicinity of high-use oil and gas infrastructure and the various disturbances it produces, including noise, traffic, dust, and air pollution.</p>



<p>“Tundra-breeding birds contend with short breeding seasons, harsh climatic conditions, and now, rapidly changing, variable, and unpredictable environmental conditions caused by climate change. Additionally, as we demonstrate here, those breeding in industrial areas are impacted by human activities too,” said study co-author Martin Robards, the Regional Director of WCS’s Arctic Beringia Program.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The urgency to better understand these relationships and mitigate impacts cannot be expressed strongly enough, given widely acknowledged declines in these species, our national and global obligations to protect migratory birds, and the fact that the potential impacts are so large.”</p>



<p>By monitoring 1265 shorebird nests, 378 passerine (songbird) nests, and 231 waterfowl nests, the experts examined the factors influencing reproductive parameters of breeding birds at Prudhoe Bay between 2003 and 2019.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The investigation revealed that nest survival decreased significantly close to high-use infrastructure – a worrisome aspect that previous short-term studies were unable to detect, suggesting that long-term datasets are crucial for understanding how climate change and increased anthropogenic activities impact breeding birds.</p>



<p>Some of the factors linked to industrial development which may directly or indirectly influence nesting include habitat degradation through hydrology alteration and road dust, noise, air pollution, vehicle and aircraft traffic, and the increased numbers of nest predator populations associated with development, such as ravens, Arctic foxes, or glaucous gulls.</p>



<p>“In the face of current uncertainty, to protect migratory birds, the U.S. Government should ensure the most important bird areas continue to be set aside, as has been done through the NPR-A’s Special Areas [regions from the 36,875 square mile National Petroleum Reserve west of Prudhoe Bay that are set aside from production due to their significant ecological importance or subsistence value],” concluded John Calvelli, the Executive Vice President for Public Affairs at WCS.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jav.03075"><em>Journal of Avian Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Oil and gas infrastructure harms breeding birds in Alaska

Prudhoe Bay is located on the Arctic Coastal Plain in...

<p>Scientists at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> have discovered the first direct evidence of musth, a testosterone-driven episode of heightened aggression against rival males, in adult male woolly mammoths.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings, based on traces of sex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-a-hormone-that-coordinates-plant-regeneration/">hormones</a> extracted from a woolly mammoth's tusk, reveal that the extinct species experienced musth in a manner similar to modern elephants.</p>



<p>While elevated testosterone levels during musth in male elephants had previously been detected through blood and urine tests, musth battles in extinct relatives of modern elephants were only inferred from indirect evidence such as skeletal injuries and broken tusk tips.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, this new study, published online in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06020-9"><em>Nature</em></a>, is the first to demonstrate that testosterone levels are recorded in the growth layers of both mammoth and elephant tusks.</p>



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="z7vJs5AAzj-2720787-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 id="h-what-the-scientists-learned">What the scientists learned</h2>



<p>The researchers, in collaboration with their international colleagues, reported annually recurring testosterone surges up to ten times higher than baseline levels within a permafrost-preserved woolly mammoth tusk from Siberia.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The adult male mammoth in question lived more than 33,000 years ago. The study authors also found that the testosterone surges seen in the mammoth tusk are consistent with musth-related testosterone peaks observed in an African bull elephant tusk.</p>



<p>"Temporal patterns of testosterone preserved in fossil tusks show that, like modern elephants, mature bull mammoths experienced musth," said study lead author Michael Cherney, a research affiliate at the U-M Museum of Paleontology and a research fellow at the U-M Medical School.</p>



<p>The research establishes that both modern and ancient tusks hold traces of testosterone and other steroid hormones. These compounds are incorporated into dentin, the mineralized tissue that constitutes the interior portion of all teeth. Tusks are, in fact, elongated upper incisor teeth.</p>



<p>"This study establishes dentin as a useful repository for some hormones and sets the stage for further advances in the developing field of paleoendocrinology," Cherney said. "In addition to broad applications in zoology and paleontology, tooth-hormone records could support medical, forensic, and archaeological studies."</p>



<h2 id="h-examining-ancient-hormones-from-tusk-samples">Examining ancient hormones from tusk samples</h2>



<p>Hormones, which are signaling molecules that help regulate physiology and behavior, have previously been analyzed in human and animal hair, nails, bones, and teeth in both modern and ancient contexts. However, the significance and value of such hormone records have been subject to ongoing scrutiny and debate.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The authors of the new Nature study believe that their findings should help change this perception by demonstrating that steroid records in teeth can provide meaningful biological information that sometimes persists for thousands of years.</p>



<p>"Tusks hold particular promise for reconstructing aspects of mammoth life history because they preserve a record of growth in layers of dentin that form throughout an individual's life," explained study co-author Daniel Fisher, a curator at the U-M Museum of Paleontology and professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences.</p>



<p>"Because musth is associated with dramatically elevated testosterone in modern elephants, it provides a starting point for assessing the feasibility of using hormones preserved in tusk growth records to investigate temporal changes in endocrine physiology," added Fisher.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



<p>The research team developed innovative methods to extract steroids from tusk dentin, which has enabled them to investigate the hormone levels of adult African bull elephants and two adult woolly mammoths from Siberia—one male and one female. The samples were obtained in accordance with relevant laws and appropriate permits.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This groundbreaking research not only offers valuable insights into the hormone levels of these ancient animals but also has potential applications in various fields, including reproductive ecology, life history, population dynamics, disease, and behavior in both modern and prehistoric contexts.</p>



<p>The researchers used CT scans to identify annual growth increments within the tusks. A tiny drill bit, operated under a microscope and moved across a block of dentin using computer-actuated stepper motors, was employed to grind contiguous half-millimeter-wide samples representing approximately monthly intervals of dentin growth. The powder produced during the milling process was collected and chemically analyzed.</p>



<h3 id="h-measuring-the-hormone-levels">Measuring the hormone levels</h3>



<p>To measure the steroids in tusk dentin with a mass spectrometer, U-M endocrinologist and study co-author Professor Rich Auchus developed new methods.</p>



<p>"We had developed steroid mass spectrometry methods for human blood and saliva samples, and we have used them extensively for clinical research studies. But never in a million years did I imagine that we would be using these techniques to explore 'paleoendocrinology,'" said Professor Auchus.</p>



<p>"We did have to modify the method some, because those tusk powders were the dirtiest samples we ever analyzed. When Mike (Cherney) showed me the data from the elephant tusks, I was flabbergasted. Then we saw the same patterns in the mammoth - wow!"</p>



<p>Radiocarbon dating revealed that the male woolly mammoth lived 33,291 to 38,866 years ago, while the female woolly mammoth's tusk was carbon-dated to between 5,597 and 5,885 years before present.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers found that, as expected, the female woolly mammoth's tusk showed little variation in testosterone levels over time, and the average testosterone level was lower than the lowest values in the male mammoth's tusk records.</p>



<p>"With reliable results for some steroids from samples as small as 5 mg of dentin, these methods could be used to investigate records of organisms with smaller teeth, including humans and other hominids," wrote the study authors.</p>



<p>"This is one of the reasons we come to work every morning at the University of Michigan: to make discoveries that empower us to see the world in new ways," said study co-author Perrin Selcer of the U-M Department of History. He also emphasized the importance of collaboration across schools and the university's instrumentation infrastructure.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-woolly-mammoths">More about Woolly mammoths</h2>



<p>Woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius) were large, prehistoric mammals closely related to modern-day elephants. They roamed the Earth during the last ice age, around 400,000 to 4,000 years ago, and were most commonly found in the northern parts of North America, Europe, and Asia.</p>



<h3 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h3>



<p>Woolly mammoths were well-adapted to the cold, harsh environments they inhabited. They stood around 9 to 11 feet tall at the shoulder and weighed between 4.5 to 6.8 metric tons. Their most distinctive features were their long, curved tusks, which could grow up to 16 feet in length. These tusks were used for fighting, digging for food, and clearing snow.</p>



<p>Woolly mammoths were covered in a thick, shaggy coat of hair that could be up to 3 feet long, providing insulation against the cold. Underneath the hair was a layer of fat up to 4 inches thick, which helped to conserve heat and store energy. Their large, flat, and furry ears were smaller than those of modern elephants, which helped to reduce heat loss.</p>



<h3 id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



<p>Woolly mammoths were herbivores, primarily feeding on grasses, shrubs, and other vegetation. Due to the cold climate and frozen ground, they used their tusks and trunk to dig through snow and ice to reach plants. The low nutritional value of their diet meant that they had to consume large quantities of food daily.</p>



<h3 id="h-social-behavior">Social behavior</h3>



<p>Woolly mammoths are believed to have lived in social groups, similar to modern elephants. These groups were likely led by a dominant female, or matriarch, and consisted of related females and their offspring. Adult males usually lived apart from the group, either alone or in smaller, loosely associated bachelor groups. Males would join female groups during mating season, engaging in competitive behavior to establish dominance and win mating rights.</p>



<h3 id="h-extinction">Extinction</h3>



<p>The exact cause of the woolly mammoth's extinction remains a subject of debate among scientists. It is widely believed that a combination of factors, including climate change, habitat loss, and overhunting by humans, led to their decline and eventual disappearance. As the Earth warmed at the end of the last ice age, the mammoths' cold-adapted habitats shrank, and they faced increased competition for resources from other species. Additionally, human populations expanded, and it is thought that overhunting further contributed to the woolly mammoth's extinction.</p>



<h3 id="h-recent-discoveries">Recent discoveries</h3>



<p>Thanks to the preserved remains of woolly mammoths found in the permafrost of Siberia and other Arctic regions, scientists have been able to study their DNA and learn more about their biology, behavior, and extinction. These discoveries have also fueled discussions about the possibility of using genetic engineering to "resurrect" the species through de-extinction efforts. However, the ethical and ecological implications of such endeavors remain the subject of ongoing debate.</p>



<p><em>image Credit: University of Michigan</em></p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Woolly mammoths had testosterone-driven aggression during mating season

Scientists at the University of Michigan have discovered the first...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>



<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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