A team in central China has done something simple and bold, they directly dated dinosaur eggs instead of the rocks around them. The eggshell calcite from the Qinglongshan site yielded an age of 85.91 ± 1.74 million years.



This matters because it turns eggs from interesting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">fossils</a> into reliable timestamps for life on land during the Late Cretaceous, a time of shifting climates and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-eggshells-dated">Dinosaur eggshells dated</h2>



The fossils come from Qinglongshan in the Yunyang Basin of Hubei Province, where thousands of intact eggs rest in stacked layers with little distortion.&nbsp;



“We show that these dinosaur eggs were deposited roughly 85 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous period,” said <a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/3140051/overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Bi Zhao</a>, from the Hubei Institute of Geosciences (<a href="https://en.cug.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HIG</a>).



The group used carbonate <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/zircon-u-pb-dating" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U-Pb dating</a> on eggshell material, measuring uranium and lead atoms to calculate time since the shell formed. 



In their tests, the radiogenic signal sits in biogenic calcite, the carbonate built by the egg-laying animal, which behaved as a semi-closed system for uranium uptake after burial.



The <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2025.1638838/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> relied on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/laser-ablation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laser ablation</a>, a micro laser that vaporizes pinpoint spots of carbonate which are then analyzed by a mass spectrometer for uranium and lead ratios.&nbsp;



The resulting age is not from ash fall or nearby minerals, it is from the eggshell itself, which frees researchers from indirect age constraints that can mislead if volcanic layers formed earlier or later than the nest horizon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-carbonate-u-pb-works">How carbonate U-Pb works</h2>



Uranium isotopes in carbonates decay into lead at known, constant rates, and the proportion of parent to daughter isotopes reveals elapsed time. 



Cross checks, like repeated spots in different shell areas and agreement between fragments, keep the numbers honest, and the reported uncertainty of ± 1.74 million years reflects instrument precision and sample scatter, not guesswork.



Indirect <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1367912012005019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approaches</a> have anchored many Asian egg sites by dating interbedded tuffs, for example zircon based SIMS ages from the Tiantai Basin that bracket egg layers in the Laijia and Chichengshan formations at roughly 96 to 99 million years and 91 to 94 million years. 



That prior dating set a framework that eggshell ages can now refine where ash is missing.



Carbonate geochronology has matured fast, with careful comparisons between uranium thorium and U-Pb techniques on the same samples showing strong consistency over wide timescales. 



That broader look at geochronology <a href="https://gchron.copernicus.org/articles/7/335/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methods</a> helps explain why a tiny eggshell can carry a credible age.



The study team also separated signals, finding consistent ages from biogenic carbonates, and noisy or unusable signals from late pore filling calcite, a reminder that not all carbonates are equal for keeping time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-eggshell-site">Dinosaur eggshell site</h2>



The Qinglongshan reserve preserves egg clutches in red siltstones and sandstones, with many eggs still three dimensional and minimally deformed, a rare condition that helps both taphonomy and dating. 



The sampled clutch belonged to an oblate style of egg typical of the family <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Dendrobatidae/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dendroolithidae</a>, which is known for highly porous shells.



Those Yunyang eggs have been assigned to Placoolithus tumiaolingensis by <a href="https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app63/app005232018.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> that cleaned up the taxonomy and emphasized the diagnostic shell microstructure. That classification anchors the site in a broader Chinese record of dendroolithid eggs.



Porous eggshell architecture affects gas exchange and incubation, and the microstructure varies in ways that may reflect nesting style in a semi arid fluvial landscape. 



The new age puts those choices in a tight slice of time, late Coniacian to early Santonian, rather than a vague Late Cretaceous window.



Thousands of eggs across stacked horizons also open the door to building a basin scale timeline where shell ages from different levels track local ecological change, sedimentation rates, and any shifts in the nesting fauna.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-eggs_dating-method_china_credit-Bi-Zhao_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-eggs_dating-method_china_credit-Bi-Zhao_1s.webp" alt="Egg clutch sampled for chronological studies. Credit Dr. Bi Zhao" class="wp-image-1985991"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Egg clutch sampled for chronological studies. Click image to enlarge. Credit Dr. Bi Zhao</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-climate-context">Dinosaur climate context</h2>



Marine records indicate the Late Cretaceous did not stay uniformly hot. 



One North Atlantic sea surface temperature <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24937202/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record</a> shows a drop of about 7 degrees Celsius (12.6 degrees Fahrenheit), from around 35 degrees to below 28 degrees, between the earliest Campanian and the Maastrichtian.



Independent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18187651/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> from oxygen isotopes suggests brief glaciation episodes punctuated parts of the mid Cretaceous greenhouse, showing that climate could swing even when the world was generally warm. 



Inland Asia would have felt those shifts in precipitation, seasonality, and vegetation.



Pinned ages on terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">fossils</a> let scientists ask tighter questions about whether nesting density changed across cooler intervals or whether certain egg types rose or fell with climate. 



The eggshell ages at Qinglongshan now give one fixed point for such tests, and more layers can add the sequence needed to see patterns.



Cause and effect claims are premature at a single site, but a direct eggshell chronology makes it practical to compare neighboring basins and see whether bird and non avian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-sized-baby-dinosaur-unearthed-after-166-million-years/">dinosaur</a> nesting moved, paused, or persisted during regional climate transitions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next</h2>



The team plans to sample eggs from additional horizons at Qinglongshan, then from basins to the north and south, to build a regional timeline that can be compared with dated marine and volcanic records. 



That will clarify which changes are local quirks and which ones reflect broader environmental forcing across East Asia.



Applying the same protocol to eggs in the Xixia, Jiaolai, and Nanxiong basins would close large age gaps where ash beds are absent. 



Those basins have different egg assemblages, so a uniform clock could test migration ideas and turnover hypotheses without assuming rock ages transfer cleanly between sites.



Direct dinosaur eggshell dating also complements existing zircon frameworks rather than replacing them, since both tools answer different parts of the age question. 



Zircons pin eruptive or depositional moments for ash, while eggshells date the biological event of nesting, and together they can resolve the tempo of life on land.



With better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">timescales</a>, small details like pore geometry, clutch spacing, and shell thickness will be tied to environmental context, not guesswork. 



That is how a few careful ages can turn a crowded egg hillside into a precise chronicle of Late Cretaceous life in central China.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2025.1638838/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>.



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These dinosaur eggs tell an incredible story from 85 million years ago

A team in central China has done something simple and bold, they directly dated dinosaur eggs instead of the rocks around them. The eggshell calcite from the Qinglongshan site yielded an age of 85.91 ± 1.74 million years. This matters because it turns eggs from interesting fossils into reliable timestamps for life on land during the Late Cretaceous, a time of shifting climates and ecosystems. Dinosaur eggshells dated The fossils come from Qinglongshan in the Yunyang Basin of Hubei Province, where thousands of intact eggs rest in...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-malaria-colder-areas/">Malaria</a> is a devastating infectious disease caused by a vector-borne parasite (Plasmodium falciparum) that is carried and transmitted by mosquitoes. In humans, symptoms usually start out mild (fever, chills, and headaches), but the infection can sometimes turn lethal within 24 hours. Although scientists have long been aware that apes can also be infected with this parasite, little has been known about how malaria affects them and how deadly it is.&nbsp;



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="http://archive">Washington University in St. Louis</a> (WUSTL) has found that many species of great apes get malaria and – according to evidence from wild bonobos – the disease appears to harm them too.



“We don’t yet have a good handle on the symptoms and mortality risk,” said study lead author Emily Wroblewski, an assistant professor of Biological Anthropology at WUSTL. “The number of infected animals in captivity that have exhibited disease symptoms has been limited. Sometimes they show symptoms like fever and other things that might be associated with infection, and sometimes not. And in the wild these things are very difficult to track.”



Analyses of DNA in apes’ feces has revealed that malaria is widespread across the geographical ranges of wild chimpanzees and gorillas, with these species of great apes harboring at least 12 Plasmodium species, seven of which are closely related to the parasite causing about 95 percent of human deaths. However, bonobos appeared to have escaped infection in all but two locations where scientists have studied them in the wild.&nbsp;



This provides experts the opportunity to compare infected populations – in which 38 percent of bonobos had detectable malaria parasites in their feces – to uninfected bonobos from ten other regions across their natural range in the Democratic Republic of Congo, in order to better understand some basic facts about how malaria impacts the health and mortality of great apes.



The scientists discovered that, in areas where the parasite was detected, bonobos were more likely to have particular variants of an immune gene (Papa-B), which are very similar to a human variant (HLA-B*53) that is associated with protection from developing severe and more deadly disease, suggesting that humans and bonobos may share similar immune mechanisms.&nbsp;



“To us, this means that there is a selective advantage to individuals having these protective variants, because those individuals are more likely to survive their infection and reproduce, causing that variant to rise in frequency,” Wroblewski explained.



“Seeing infected populations differ from uninfected populations in this immune trait suggests that bonobos experience increased mortality or costs to their reproductive success because of their infection. The differences between the bonobo populations provides the first evidence of any kind, albeit indirect, that a wild great ape suffers any sort of consequences from their infection.”



Further research is needed to investigate how this particular immune gene variant protects both bonobos and humans. Better understanding these protective mechanisms could lead to the development of new treatments and vaccines for humans. Moreover, since many great apes are already endangered by anthropogenic factors, clarifying how diseases affect them is important for their future protection.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-36623-9">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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How does malaria impact wild African apes?

Malaria is a devastating infectious disease caused by a vector-borne...

A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> has recently investigated the effects of a <a href="https://www.ncagr.gov/">N.C. Department of Agriculture</a> (NCDA) three-year effort (2016-2018) to conserve and improve bee populations by installing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinator-populations-have-experienced-dramatic-changes/">pollinator</a>-friendly flowers on 16 agricultural research stations from the mountains to the coast of North Carolina. The analysis revealed that, although bee abundance and diversity increased in the studied areas, the quality of the habitat – which could be affected by the way these areas are maintained over time - also played a significant role in these positive effects.



The scientists visited all 16 sites four times each year and caught bees in nets and cups which were painted to imitate the UV reflection of flowers. By analyzing over 16,000 bees from 128 different bee species, they found that bee abundance increased over time, while bee diversity increased in 2017 and then slightly dropped in 2018 (although both years showed significant improvements compared to 2016).



“We were really happy to see increases in the abundance and number of bee species found over time,” said study lead author Hannah Levenson, a postdoctoral fellow in Entomology at NC State. “It was also exciting to see how many species we documented, especially for studying one kind of habitat. This study was limited to agricultural areas but we still found nearly 130 bee species.”



The investigation also revealed that the quality of flowers was a critical driver of bee abundance and diversity, with areas of higher flower quality attracting more bees and bee species, while poorly maintained areas with degraded flowers, weeds, and grasses lagging behind.&nbsp;



“North Carolina has 564 species of bees and they have very different life cycles from each other. Some are active in early spring when flowers are just starting to come up. Other species are active in summer. The end of summer is when most bee species are active but have the fewest resources available – it’s called the dearth. So it’s important to develop seed mixes that bloom across the seasons so we can support as many of North Carolina’s bees as possible,” Levenson explained.



Surprisingly, the researchers also found several bee species showing up in unexpected areas. For instance, squash bees – a species of economically important pollinators – were found in plots with no squash plants. In addition, they discovered high numbers of a particular bumble bee (Bombus pensylvanicus) which is currently under review for potential addition to the endangered species list.&nbsp;



“We found a high abundance of them, so it’s possible that they’re attracted to agricultural areas more than other areas. We submitted the data to Fish and Wildlife so it can be used to help make the decision on whether it should be listed as endangered or not,” Levenson reported.



“I want to give credit to the NCDA. To our knowledge it was the first government organization to do test plots like these, and hopefully what we found could encourage more government programs to take actions to protect the environment. Even though the habitats weren’t perfect, they still made a difference,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2023.1060834">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Flower quality is a critical driver of bee abundance

A team of scientists led by the North Carolina State...

An international research team has recently discovered that Daurian redstarts, a passerine bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/among-californias-bird-species-there-are-winners-and-losers/">species</a>, have evolved a strategy to avoid cuckoo brood parasitism. Cuckoo birds and other brood parasites lay their eggs in the nests of other species to be incubated and raised.



Cuckoo birds are weary of people and usually nest far from human-dominated environments. The researchers found that Daurian redstarts in northeastern China purposefully choose nesting sights near or even inside human settlements. As a result, their risk of becoming a host is reduced.&nbsp;



The Daurian redstart has two breeding periods per season. During the first breeding event, cuckoos are not present. However, the cuckoos migrate to the area during the second breeding event.



The researchers noticed that the Daurian redstarts nested farther away from human settlements during the first breeding period, and then moved closer to human settlements in the second period when cuckoos were present. The experts concluded that the birds moved their nests closer during the second breeding period to avoid parasitism.



Moreover, the researchers were able to elicit this anti-parasitism strategy by presenting cuckoo models and artificial calls. Although these simulations were conducted during the first egg-laying period, the Daurian redstarts were motivated to move closer to human environments in response to the simulations. This suggests that the Daurian redstarts change their nesting behavior in response to the presence of cuckoos, regardless of the breeding period.



“We were able to show experimentally for the first time that Daurian redstarts adapt their nesting behavior depending on whether they notice cuckoos in the area,” said Jinggang Zhang, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a>.&nbsp;



We must wonder about the ecological impacts of this interaction in an ever-changing environment.&nbsp;



“Urbanization affects habitats and animal populations around the world in many ways. Cuckoos may have to adapt to this development by venturing closer to human settlements as well, or by expanding the range of host species,” said Bart Kempenaers, a director at the institute.&nbsp;



A second study conducted by the researchers demonstrates the cuckoo’s adaptability. Daurian redstarts have two colored eggs - red and blue. The research team found that female cuckoos showed a “clear preference for nests with blue eggs”&nbsp; in the hopes that the foster parents will not reject the parasitic egg.



“We were surprised to find such a clear preference for nests with blue eggs," said Kempenaers. "Our observations suggest that cuckoo females are quite sensitive to characteristics of the nest and do not just dump their eggs in any host nest they can find."&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.01.047">Current Biology.</a>



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Birds move closer to humans to avoid brood parasites

An international research team has recently discovered that Daurian redstarts,...

Populations of California <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-restoration-could-protect-spotted-owls-in-the-long-term/">spotted owl</a> – a species living in mature and old-growth forests in Sierra Nevada and the mountains of coastal and Southern California – are currently dwindling due to habitat loss caused by logging practices, as well as climate-related hazards such as increased droughts and wildfires.&nbsp;



Scientists and environmental organizations have long advocated the need to protect this species under the Endangered Species Act (a law from 1973 aiming to safeguard imperiled species), but have not been successful until now. However, on February 23, 2023, the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> finally proposed to list the owl’s southern/coastal population as endangered, following a lawsuit against the Service’s decision from 2019 not to do so. Unfortunately, the Sierra Nevada population would only receive a threatened status, which would exempt many logging operations from having to comply with the Act’s rules.



“California’s spotted owl is an iconic species that exists nowhere else in the world,” said Elizabeth Forsyth, the biodiversity defense program attorney of <a href="https://earthjustice.org/">Earthjustice</a>, a nonprofit organization dedicated to litigating environmental issues that represented several conservation organizations in the lawsuit against the Service. “The Endangered Species Act is the strongest tool we have to protect imperiled animals and plants, and we celebrate this crucial step toward ensuring the California spotted owls’ continued survival.”&nbsp;



“These much-needed protections for the California spotted owl are long overdue,” said Pam Flick, the California program director of <a href="https://defenders.org/">Defenders of Wildlife</a>. “The best available science demonstrates that most California spotted owl populations have been declining for many years. These new protections under the Endangered Species Act will give this species a fighting chance at recovery.”



According to Susan Britting, the executive director of <a href="https://www.sierraforestlegacy.org/">Sierra Forest Legacy</a>, the listing of California spotted owl as endangered provides a major conservation tool to protect this rapidly dwindling species and its habitat.



“It took way too long for California spotted owls to be proposed for Endangered Species Act protections, but I’m thrilled they may finally get these crucial safeguards,” concluded Justin Augustine, a senior attorney at the <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/">Center for Biological Diversity</a>. “I urge the Fish and Wildlife Service to move quickly to bring these endearing birds back from the brink.”



A full version of the Service’s recent announcement can be found <a href="https://public-inspection.federalregister.gov/2023-03526.pdf?utm_source=federalregister.gov&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_campaign=pi+subscription+mailing+list">here</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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California spotted owl officially listed as endangered

Populations of California spotted owl – a species living in...

According to new research led by <a href="https://bluefood.earth/">Blue Food Assessment</a> – an international collaboration of scientists studying the role of aquatic foods in global food systems – “blue foods” originating from the ocean or freshwater environments have a significant potential to help address several global challenges such as nutritional deficits, disease risk, greenhouse gas emissions, and climate change.



“Even though people around the world depend on and enjoy seafood, the potential for these blue foods to benefit people and the environment remains underappreciated,”&nbsp;said study co-author Benjamin Halpern, a marine ecologist at the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>. “With this work, we bring attention to these many possibilities and the transformative benefit that blue foods can have for people’s lives and the environments in which they live.”&nbsp;



The scientists found that blue foods are rich in many essential nutrients (such as vitamin B12&nbsp;and omega-3 fatty acids), deficiencies of which are high globally, particularly in South American and African countries. Increasing the intake of such foods in these areas can significantly lower malnutrition issues that afflict vulnerable populations – such as young children, elders, and pregnant women - the most. Moreover, since excessive consumption of red meats in developed countries in North America and Europe lead to high incidences of cardiovascular disease, promoting the consumption of more blue foods could lower the risks of developing hearth disease.



In addition, since aquatic food production exerts lower environmental pressures than terrestrial meat production, more blue food could also result in a more environmentally friendly and sustainable food system. Finally, aquaculture, mariculture, and fishing – if carefully developed – could insure the livelihoods of millions of people worldwide.



Unfortunately, even with thoughtful implementation of policies which lower the barriers to blue food production and access, not all countries will benefit to the same degree. 



“Blue foods can play important roles in our diets, societies and economies, but what exactly this looks like will differ greatly from one country and local setting to another,” explained study lead author Beatrice Crona, a professor of Ecology at <a href="https://www.su.se/cmlink/stockholm-university">Stockholm University</a> and co-chair of the Blue Food Assessment. “Our goal is for policy makers to fully understand the diverse contributions that blue foods can make, but also for them to consider the tradeoffs that need to be negotiated to really make the most of the opportunities that blue foods provide.”



To help users better understand the relevance of policy objectives around the world in terms of nutrition, heart disease, environment, and climate resilience, the researchers designed an <a href="https://gedb.shinyapps.io/BFA_synthesis/">online tool</a>. “By further customizing the different parameters in the online tool, decisionmakers can explore the blue food policies most relevant for their national setting and use the paper to inspire blue food policies that can overcome existing environmental and nutritional challenges,” concluded co-author James Leape, an environmental scientist at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a>.



The study is published in the journal<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-05737-x"> Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Blue foods could help address global challenges

According to new research led by Blue Food Assessment –...

Joseph Grinnell, born in 1877, was an American field biologist and zoologist who served as the first director of the&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Vertebrate_Zoology">Museum of Vertebrate Zoology</a>&nbsp;and a professor at the&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>. One of Grinnell’s goals for the museum was to build a specimen collection of the fauna of California, a project he began in 1908, with his first field expedition to the Colorado Desert. Over time, he surveyed the birds, mammals and other vertebrates of California, right up until he died, in 1939.



Grinnell developed a systematic and detailed protocol for recording field observations involving not only the specimens he collected, but also written records kept in notebooks and journals. He kept accounts of species’ behaviors, made maps, took photographs of collecting sites and documented weather conditions, vegetation types, vocalizations and other evidence of animal presence.&nbsp;



These very detailed records have enabled scientists at UC Berkeley to conduct a subsequent resurvey of most of the original sites, and to compare the numbers of animals with Grinnell’s original findings in order to understand they ways in which animal populations have changed.&nbsp;



In a report published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abn0250">Science Advances</a>, the biologists present the latest results from the <a href="https://mvz.berkeley.edu/Grinnell/">Grinnell Resurvey Project</a>, particularly those relating to the numbers of birds and small mammals at the sites first surveyed by Grinnell, more than a century ago. The researchers were able to resurvey the birds at 71 of the original sites in L.A. and the Central Valley, and to use the comparisons to identify how shifts in climate and land use may have contributed to changes in the bird populations.



The study revealed that urbanization and much hotter and drier conditions in L.A. have driven declines in more than one-third of bird species in the region over the past century. Meanwhile, agricultural development and a warmer and slightly wetter climate in the Central Valley have had more mixed impacts on biodiversity.



Study senior author Steven Beissinger is a professor of Environmental Science, Policy and Management at UC Berkeley and a researcher at the&nbsp;<a href="https://mvz.berkeley.edu/">Museum of Vertebrate Zoology</a>.



“It's pretty common in studies of the impact of climate change on biodiversity to only model the effects of climate and not consider the effects of land use change,” said Professor Beissinger. “But we’re finding that the individual responses of different bird species to these threats are likely to promote unpredictable changes that complicate forecasts of extinction risk.”



In L.A., the experts found that 40 percent of bird species were present at fewer sites today than they were 100 years ago, while only 10 percent were present at more sites. Meanwhile, in the Central Valley, the proportion of species that experienced a decline (23 percent) only slightly outnumbered the proportion that increased (16 percent). In many cases, opposing responses to climate and land use change by bird species, where one threat caused a species to increase while another caused the same species to decline, moderated the impacts of each threat alone.



“The Central Valley had less change, in general – there were winners and losers,” Beissinger said. “Whereas in L.A., we saw mostly losers.”



To identify the roles of land use change and climate change in determining current bird numbers, the researchers analyzed historical maps of urban development and agriculture to establish how the landscape at each study site has been modified since Grinnell’s original survey. They also obtained data on historical average temperatures and rainfall at each site.



In L.A., they found that species such as Anna’s hummingbird and the American crow were able to tolerate the hotter and drier conditions, and the level of urban development, thus experiencing what the researchers call a population “windfall.” Other species, such as the western meadowlark and the lark sparrow, were negatively impacted by both categories of change, experiencing instead a “double whammy.”



Species that experienced mixed impacts include the black phoebe, the great egret, the house wren and the blue-gray gnatcatcher.



“Our findings really highlight the fact that we’ve got climate and land use change happening at the same time, creating happy conditions for some species, while other species are declining from the same changes,” Beissinger said. “Sometimes, species might also be pushed and pulled in different directions from the climate and land use changes.”



Bird species in the Central Valley also experienced a combination of windfalls, double whammies and mixed impacts, but the proportion of species that experienced windfalls was much higher in the Central Valley than in L.A. and nearly offset the proportion that experienced double whammies.



“There are some species that have been able to persist under the agricultural changes, and some that even colonized and increased because of those changes. But they tend to be species that are more common and widespread, and the more sensitive species are the ones that started disappearing when the natural grasslands were replaced by agriculture,” Beissinger explained. “In the urban areas, there are just fewer species that are able to find what they need and avoid the city hazards.”



The detailed field notes kept by Grinnell and his field biologists enabled Bessinger and his team to locate the original study sites, and to construct a historical baseline of California’s bird life at the turn of the 20th century. The notes are so detailed that the researchers were able to reconstruct the birds encountered on each day in the field, and to account for the ways in which new technologies, such as better binoculars and field guides, have made it easier for contemporary biologists to detect birds.&nbsp;



“In those days, they didn't have fancy binoculars. They didn't have recordings of bird calls. So, they had to get in and learn the birds through the resources that were available. Oftentimes that was from specimens in museums. Sometimes that was through popular guides or handbooks,” said Bessinger. “Grinnell was ahead of his time in the way that he was taking field notes, and he was really draconian in also making all his students take those notes.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Among California’s bird species, there are winners and losers

Joseph Grinnell, born in 1877, was an American field biologist...

In July 2013, sea stars of several different species began to die along the northwest Pacific coast, all the way from Washington to Baja California. Populations of the sunflower sea star (Pycnopodia helianthoides), among other species, were decimated by what became known as sea star wasting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-u-s-is-alarmingly-unprepared-for-zoonotic-diseases/">disease</a> (SSWD) and numbers declined by more than 97 percent. Since then, there have been few signs of recovery, and the species is now considered critically endangered. The ecological consequences have been massive.



The sunflower sea star is one of the largest in the world, reaching more than 1m in diameter. It is a highly mobile and voracious predator that hunts down a range of invertebrate prey, including bivalves, gastropods, echinoderms, crabs and carrion of any origin. In particular, they readily prey on purple sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus), that are important herbivores in several different marine and coastal ecosystems.&nbsp;



The loss of&nbsp;sunflower sea stars in parts of British Columbia and California has been associated with drastic changes in community structure in the forests of bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana) in the nearshore waters off these regions. With fewer predators, sea urchin populations exploded and the herbivores began to graze the kelp to the ground.&nbsp;



The occurrence of a simultaneous marine heatwave in the same area compounded the problems as warm temperatures are also a major stressor of kelp forests. The action of the sea urchins has led kelp forests to collapse along the California coast, where they have been replaced by so called “barrens” – areas where sea urchins have settled in abundance and have grazed away the seaweeds and left very little primary production upon which to feed.



There is now growing interest in understanding how to control sea urchin numbers and encourage the recovery of kelp forests. With this in mind, a research team including scientists from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>, the University of Oregon, the University of Washington, and The Nature Conservancy has undertaken a study into the feeding habits of sunflower sea stars, focusing particularly on whether they will consume the starving sea urchins that are typical of barren ecosystems and, if so, how fast can they eat them. 



The findings, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.1897">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, indicate that these sea stars play a much more important role in kelp forest health than was previously thought. In fact, the researchers suggest that sunflower sea stars may be key in controlling urchin density and therefore kelp forest growth.



“What we saw suggests a clear link between the crash of sea stars, the explosion in sea urchin populations and the decline in kelp,” said Sarah Gravem, a research associate in the Oregon State College of Science. “It also points to sea star recovery as a potential key tool for kelp forest recovery.”



The researchers collected 24 sunflower sea stars and kept them in laboratory tanks for four months while conducting feeding experiments. They found that the sea stars consumed urchins at an average rate of 0.68 per day, and that they even ate the starving individuals that are associated with urchin barrens. In fact, they consumed the starving urchins 21 percent more rapidly than they did the well-fed urchins that are typically found in healthy kelp forests. The authors report that this rate of consumption is sufficient to maintain and even restore the health of kelp forests.&nbsp;



“Eating less than one urchin per day may not sound like a lot, but we think there used to be over 5 billion sunflower sea stars,” said Gravem. “We used a model to show that the pre-disease densities of sea stars on the U.S. West Coast were usually more than enough to keep sea urchin numbers down and prevent barrens.”



Bull kelp is an important commercial commodity that is harvested for use in medicines and fertilizers, and as feed in aquaculture. Kelp forests thrive in cold waters and form a crucial habitat for a large number of other species, both invertebrates and vertebrates. Their sensitivity to certain growing conditions means climate change and a warming ocean are particularly problematic for them.



Researchers have long suspected that the sea star decline upset the balance between predators and herbivores in kelp forest ecosystems, allowing the herbivore populations to go unchecked. The overabundance of urchins was thought to place additional pressure on kelp forests that are already stressed by marine heatwaves. However, prior to the current study, the relationship between sea stars, urchins and kelp had not been quantified.



“This study addresses that gap, and the findings are significant and somewhat surprising,” said principal investigator Aaron Galloway of the University of Oregon Institute of Marine Biology. “We found that these stars are eager consumers of purple urchins and, most importantly, they even eat the nutritionally poor, starving ‘zombie’ urchins.”



Other important predators of purple sea urchins, such as sea otters, are generally known to avoid eating starving urchins from barrens, where the dense underwater carpets of urchins have devoured all available food and can live for years in an emaciated state, waiting for the kelp to grow back.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The researchers emphasize the need for sunflower sea stars in the remaining kelp forests in order to prevent overgrazing by urchins. Since sea star recovery has been negligible since the SSWD event, they also support the reintroduction of sea stars that have been bred in captivity. These individuals may be able to aid in the recovery of kelp forests that have become barrens because they eat the emaciated urchins that reside there.&nbsp;



The authors conclude that sunflower sea star recovery may be an effective and long-lasting method to control sea urchin populations and restore kelp forest ecosystems.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Sunflower sea stars could help save kelp forests

In July 2013, sea stars of several different species began...

A study published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/20/2/1280">Survey</a> has found that sheep grazing in urban environments may have a positive impact on human mental health.&nbsp;



The study began as an experiment to determine whether sheep grazing could benefit the physical environment. However, the focus of the research pivoted once the researchers realized the psychological benefits.&nbsp;



​​“This started out as an experiment to test their mowing abilities, and we have now published research on how they make people feel peaceful,” said study lead author Haven Kiers.



Using in-person and social media surveys, the researchers collected data from approximately 200 students and other individuals on the campus of the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a>.



“We found that there was a significantly lower likelihood of current feelings of being ‘very stressed’ or ‘stressed’ among the sheep mower group when compared to the group that did not experience sheep mowers. The group with the sheep was just so much happier,” said Kiers.



The experts emphasized the potential for alleviating loneliness by having sheep in these environments.



“Loneliness is a struggle for many of our students,” said study co-author Carolyn S. Dewa. “One robust research finding is that social support is a protective factor for mental health. One of the ways the sheep mower events help to promote mental health is by providing an opportunity for a shared experience."



“The events help people to see that they are a part of a larger group and give people a sense of community.”



Kiers mentioned that while there are plenty of stress studies that are focused on dogs and horses, scientists should expand the types of animals studied. Researchers should also extend the breadth of landscape management goals.



“We really need to look at how we can get the most out of landscape management, in all forms - in the physical environment as well as mental health.”



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Grazing sheep can reduce stress on college campuses

A study published in the journal Survey has found that...

New research published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10071-023-01751-8">Animal Cognition</a> shows that geckos are more intelligent than once thought.&nbsp;



Self-recognition is the ability to identify oneself. As visual creatures, we are familiar with our ability to recognize ourselves in the mirror.&nbsp;



However, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-eat-fire-ants-to-boost-their-immune-system/">lizards</a> are more scent oriented. If you watch a lizard or snake, you will notice them darting their tongues around as they gather various aromas from their environment.&nbsp;



We already know that geckos use their tongues to identify the pheromones of other individuals, but the question remained - can they distinguish their pheromones from those of other geckos?



To find out, researchers from the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html">University of Bern</a> conducted an experimental study in which they compared geckos’ reactions to their own odor, the odor of other geckos, and a control odor.&nbsp;



The experts found that geckos were more interested in the smell of other geckos than their own scent. Based on this reaction, the researchers determined that geckos are able to distinguish their scent from the scent of other individuals. The evidence suggests that these lizards communicate socially via pheromones.&nbsp;



“The geckos have to compare more frequently when confronted with the odor of another gecko, compared to their own odor. This indicates that they know their own odor,” said study lead author Birgit Szabo.



Research like this challenges the idea that reptiles are dumb, antisocial creatures. “Lizards and reptiles are generally seen as unsocial primitive animals. We must recognize that reptiles are more social and intelligent than we thought,” explained Szabo.



The findings also give animal behaviorists and evolutionary biologists another avenue to explore when considering the evolution of social behavior in all animals.



“Reptiles, and especially geckos, are ideally suitable for investigating fundamental questions about the evolution of sociality," said study co-author Eva Ringler. "Within geckos, we can find a vast range of social structures and habitats."



"This allows us to investigate the interrelationships of cognition, communication and social living within a small taxonomic group – and make comparisons between these and other, more distantly related groups of animals such as mammals and birds."



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Geckos can recognize their own scent

New research published in the journal Animal Cognition shows that...

Mirror neurons are clusters of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-human-brain-adapts-to-weightlessness-in-space/">brain</a> cells that activate both when we perform an action and when we observe a similar action performed by others. Since their discovery in primates in the 1990s, mirror neurons have generated much interest both in science and popular culture, rising (often unfounded) speculation that they might underlie humans’ ability to mimic, empathize, and even develop culture or appreciate art.&nbsp;



Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> has found that, in male mice, mirror neurons located in the hypothalamus – an evolutionary ancient part of the brain – play a fundamental role in structuring aggressive behaviors. The experts discovered that the same neurons become activated when mice are fighting and when they are watching a fight. These findings hint at a more primal origin for these types of neurons than previously thought.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-struggle-to-predict-aggression-in-dogs-and-other-humans/">Aggression</a> in the wild is rarely a private affair,”&nbsp;said study senior author Nirao Shah, a professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Stanford. “Aggression is usually not only to defeat the other animal, but also to tell others in the vicinity, ‘Hey, I’m the boss.’ It’s a public display.”



In previous research, Professor Shah and his colleagues traced aggression in male mice to a cluster of brain cells located in the ventromedial hypothalamus subsequently dubbed “the rage center.” Now, by using precise imaging techniques to record activity in the rage center in both mice engaged in a fight and those only witnessing a fight, the scientists found that these neurons are also sensitive to aggression between other mice.



Most research on mirror neurons has focused on those located in the cortex – the most evolutionary advanced part of the brain - so their discovery in the hypothalamus was quite shocking. Another surprising aspect was that these aggression-mirroring neurons seemed to be triggered by sight in observers, whereas in fighting mice, they were triggered by the smell of pheromones.&nbsp;



Finally, the scientists found that these neurons appeared innately tuned to aggression, even in mice that never engaged in or witnessed aggressive behavior, and not only contributed to sensing aggression, but also to enable it.



According to the experts, the fact that aggression-mirroring neurons exist in such a primitive area of the brain suggests that may have been conserved across evolution, from mice to humans. “It suggests that we might have the same neurons, and maybe they encode some qualities of aggression in ourselves,” Shah concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2023.01.022">Cell</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Do animals have "mirror neurons" that spark aggression?

Mirror neurons are clusters of brain cells that activate both...

Social networks may be crucial for the survival and success of individuals that live in groups. Being connected to others may help an individual to access food, avoid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clash-of-the-top-predators-wolves-are-eating-sea-otters/">predation</a>, disease and parasites, and reproduce fruitfully. The ecological and evolutionary importance of network structure has been recognized for a long time, although the reasons that network structures vary within and between species have not been investigated in depth.&nbsp;



For decades, researchers on Cayo Santiago, an island off the southeastern coast of Puerto Rico, have been studying rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), that were introduced from India in 1938. These primates are given supplemental food and water, and are monitored by staff of the Caribbean Primate Research Center (CPRC) on a daily basis to record births, deaths and behavioral patterns.&nbsp;



The macaques are highly social and live in matrilineal kin groups, of which there are 19 on the island. Females groom one another as a way of social bonding, and this can also be used as a measure of connectedness. Previous research has shown that the social networks of older females change as they age, with more mature females prioritizing relationships with their closer partners and kin, while reducing their contact with less favored females. These older females do not spend any less time grooming others, or being groomed themselves, but they do focus their attentions on a smaller circle of partners.



In a new study, led by scientists from the University of Exeter, the same groups of macaques were investigated to find out whether this change in social connectedness of older females has any effect on the cohesion and structure of the social network as a whole. The researchers stress that older people also tend to reduce the number of social relationships they have with others, and focus their attention and effort on close friends and family. The effect that this has on human society has also not been investigated.&nbsp;



“For both humans and macaques, focusing on close friends and family in later life may bring a variety of benefits,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://psychology.exeter.ac.uk/staff/profile/index.php?web_id=Erin_Siracusa">Dr Erin Siracusa</a>, from Exeter’s&nbsp;<a href="https://psychology.exeter.ac.uk/research/centres/crab/">Centre for Research in Animal Behavior</a>. “Our study aimed to find out what knock-on effect these individual age-related changes have for how well connected a society is overall.”



“We had information on six monkey groups collected over eight years, and representing, in total, 19 social networks,” she explained.



The 19 social networks contained differing proportions of old females (over 18 years of age), although none had more than 20 percent. The researchers hypothesized that networks with a greater proportion of old individuals would be more sparsely connected due to the older animals having fewer social partners (ie., the presence of more old females would have an effect on the overall structure of the network).&nbsp;



“The first thing we found is that that older female macaques are poor influencers,” said Siracusa. “By having fewer friends, older females are less able to transmit knowledge and experience outside their immediate social circles.”



However, the researchers did not find any differences between the structure of networks containing a greater proportion of old females and those containing a greater number of young adults. This was despite the fact that the older females have reduced social networks.&nbsp;



The team proposed that, since no more than 20 percent of monkeys were old in any given group that was studied, it was possible that this was too few individuals to affect the overall network structure. They decided to use a computer model to simulate the possible effects if a greater proportion of the network was made up of old individuals, and also if the old monkeys were even older than 18 years of age.&nbsp;



By modeling age-based differences in two interaction patterns (number of social partners and the tendency to link with kin) using data collected in the field, the researchers found that the age composition of a group can have important consequences for its cohesiveness and connectedness. Interestingly, these effects did not necessarily scale in the linear manner that might be expected in response to a linear increase in proportion of old individuals in the network.



“We found really substantial consequences for network structure, which could affect useful things like information transmission and cooperation, and could also limit the spread of disease,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://psychology.exeter.ac.uk/staff/profile/index.php?web_id=Lauren_Brent">Professor Lauren Brent</a>, also from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.



“In humans, population aging is poised to be one of the most significant social transformations of the 21st Century. Our findings suggest this could have far-reaching effects on the structure of our societies and the way they function.”



With the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health">global human population of over-60s expected to double by 2050</a>, the findings suggest social structures, cohesion and connectedness could all change significantly.



The findings, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2022.0061">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences</a>, also indicate that any animal group containing disproportionately large numbers of old, or large numbers of young individuals, is likely to experience a shift in the social network structure. This is because young and old individuals differ in the level of their social activities.



For example, the removal of older individuals through trophy hunting could alter important processes in the remaining group, such as communication, cooperation and access to resource-related knowledge. Younger individuals may also be more aggressive and less socially cohesive, which could have repercussions for network connectivity and structure.&nbsp;



"Consequently, through its effects on network structure, shifting age demography may have broader implications than previously appreciated for group dynamics and persistence, and thus warrants further research," concluded the study authors.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Aging populations have less cohesive social networks

Social networks may be crucial for the survival and success...

An,Illustration,Of,A,Male,And,Female,Dodo,Birds,In

Recently, <a href="https://colossal.com/">Colossal Biosciences</a> – a biotech company based in Dallas – has announced a bold effort to bring back from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lynx-population-in-france-is-on-the-brink-of-extinction/">extinction</a> the famous dodo bird, a flightless bird that vanished from the Island of Mauritius in the late 17th century and became emblematic of humanity’s devastating impact on the natural world. Although the company received $225 million in investments to “resurrect” the dodo, its plans depend on major advances in genome editing, stem-cell biology, and animal husbandry, thus making the success of their endeavor far from certain.



“It’s incredibly exciting that there’s that kind of money available,” said Thomas Jensen, a cell and molecular reproductive physiologist at the <a href="https://www.wells.edu/">Wells College</a>. “I’m not sure that the end goal they’re going for is something that’s super feasible in the near future.”



Colossal’s plan is to begin with the dodo’s closest living relative - the iridescent-feathered Nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica) – and to isolate and culture specialized primordial germ cells (PGCs), which make sperm and egg-producing cells, from developing Nicobars. Afterwards, they aim to edit DNA sequences in the PGCs to match those of dodos by using state-of-the-art gene-editing tools such as CRISPR. These edited cells would then be inserted into embryos from a surrogate species to generate “chimeric animals” with DNA from both species, which could ultimately produce something resembling a dodo.



However, according to various experts, this plan faces several challenges. First, in order to edit Nicobar pigeon PGCs, the scientists will initially need to identify the conditions which allow these cells to flourish in the laboratory. Although this has already been done with chickens, it may take some time to repeat this process in the case of other bird species. Moreover, according to Beth Shapiro, a paleogeneticist at the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">University of California, Santa Cruz</a>, who recently sequenced the dodo genome, an even greater challenge will be to determine the genetic changes which could transform Nicobar pigeons into dodos. In addition, it could be problematic to find a bird large enough that can act as the surrogate, since dodo bird eggs are much larger than Nicobar pigeon eggs.



Finally, even if the dodo will ultimately be resurrected, the predators that threatened it in the 17th century have not gone away, whereas most of dodo’s habitat has. “You do have to ask, if we could have such money, wouldn’t it be better spent on restoring habitat on Mauritius and preventing species from going extinct?” said Vikash Tatayah, the conservation director at the <a href="https://www.mauritian-wildlife.org/">Mauritian Wildlife Foundation</a> in Vacoas-Phoenix.&nbsp;



Nevertheless, Tatayah – as well as other scientists – are enthusiastic about the attention dodo de-extinction could bring to conservation. “It’s something we would like to embrace,” he concluded.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Could the dodo bird be brought back from extinction?

Recently, Colossal Biosciences – a biotech company based in Dallas...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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