Sharks have survived for hundreds of millions of years. They outlived the dinosaurs, Ice Ages, and major climate shifts. Yet today, they are disappearing rapidly - not because of nature, but because of us.



Since the 1970s, their global numbers have fallen by more than 70 percent. The causes are not mysterious: overfishing, finning, bycatch, and growing demand for shark meat. 



The International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) now lists nearly 40 percent of shark species as threatened. Laws and trade bans set rules, but sellers still put sharks on the market.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-meat-trade-uncovered">Shark meat trade uncovered</h2>



A team at the <a href="https://www.unc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> decided to check what is actually on sale in the United States. 



They bought shark products from grocery stores, seafood markets, and online shops. Using DNA barcoding, they tested the species. The results were shocking.



“We found critically endangered sharks, including great hammerhead and scalloped hammerhead, being sold in grocery stores, seafood markets, and online," said study co-author Dr. Savannah Ryburn.



"Of the 29 samples, 93 percent were ambiguously labeled as ‘shark,’ and one of the two products labeled at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-white-sharks-survived-the-ice-age-but-it-changed-them-forever/">species</a> level was mislabeled,” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misleading-labels-everywhere">Misleading labels everywhere</h2>



Most of the products carried only the word “shark.” Sellers even mislabeled some as safer species. Out of 30 samples, just one had a correct and clear label.



The rest included a mix of 11 species, three of which were critically endangered. Nearly a third came from species already at serious risk of extinction.



This problem isn’t limited to the United States. Around the world, shark meat appears under names like “cazón” in Brazil, “flake” in Australia, and “rock salmon” in the UK. In Peru, most people eating “tollo” did not even know it was shark.



These vague labels hide what consumers are really buying and make it almost impossible to track trade in threatened species. 



Sellers put <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-sharks-study-reveals-hidden-crisis-of-overfishing/">endangered sharks</a> in plain sight, deny scientists the ability to track catches, and prevent buyers from making safe, informed choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meat-sold-at-low-prices">Meat sold at low prices</h2>



Researchers also pointed to the price. Endangered sharks were selling for less than $5 a pound in U.S. grocery stores.



By comparison, red snapper sold for $27 a pound. The numbers show how little the market values these predators, even though they play a critical role in ocean ecosystems.



“The legality of selling shark meat in the United States depends largely on where the shark was harvested and which species are involved, under regulations from CITES and the Endangered Species Act,” Ryburn explained.



“However, by the time large shark species reach grocery stores and markets, they are often sold as fillets with all distinguishing features removed, making it unlikely that sellers know what species they are offering.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/endangered-shark-meat_false-labels_Frontiers_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/endangered-shark-meat_false-labels_Frontiers_1s.webp" alt="Photos exemplifying how some of the samples were labeled and displayed when purchased. (A) Dusky smooth-hound sold whole, missing the head, labeled as “shark” in English and Chinese at an Asian grocery store in Orlando, FL. (B) Shortfin mako shark sold as jerky and purchased online from the Newport Jerky Company in Rhode Island labeled as “mako shark jerky”. (C) Common thresher shark sold as “fresh shark [steak]” at an Asian grocery store in Duluth, GA. The label also included “wild caught/USA”. (D) Blacktip shark labeled as “wild blacktip shark, fresh never frozen” from a Publix grocery store in Cary, NC. The label also included that it was a “product of Florida” and that it was “responsibly sourced”. Credit: Frontiers in Marine Science" class="wp-image-1985976"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Photos exemplifying how some of the samples were labeled and displayed when purchased. (A) Dusky smooth-hound sold whole, missing the head, labeled as “shark” in English and Chinese at an Asian grocery store in Orlando, FL. (B) Shortfin mako shark sold as jerky and purchased online from the Newport Jerky Company in Rhode Island labeled as “mako shark jerky”. (C) Common thresher shark sold as “fresh shark [steak]” at an Asian grocery store in Duluth, GA. The label also included “wild caught/USA”. (D) Blacktip shark labeled as “wild blacktip shark, fresh never frozen” from a Publix grocery store in Cary, NC. The label also included that it was a “product of Florida” and that it was “responsibly sourced”. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Frontiers in Marine Science</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eating-shark-meat-is-dangerous">Eating shark meat is dangerous</h2>



This issue isn’t only about conservation. Sharks such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-great-hammerhead-sharks-rarely-leave-home/">hammerheads</a> and makos carry high levels of mercury and arsenic in their tissues. These metals damage the nervous system, harm unborn children, and increase cancer risks.



Mislabeled products strip consumers of their ability to make safe choices and put families at risk without their knowledge.



The danger grows because heavy metals accumulate over time, meaning even small, repeated servings of shark meat can cause long-term health effects that no label warns about.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-labels-protect-sharks">Clear labels protect sharks</h2>



The United States still allows “shark” as a generic market name. In contrast, the European Union requires far more detail, including the scientific name and catch area. 



Without clear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dont-say-vegan-food-labeling-should-focus-on-health-and-sustainability/">labeling</a>, the public cannot know whether their dinner is harmless dogfish or a critically endangered hammerhead.



“Sellers in the United States should be required to provide species-specific names," Ryburn said. "And when shark meat is not a food security necessity, consumers should avoid purchasing products that lack species-level labeling or traceable sourcing."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-extinction-risks-ocean-collapse">Shark extinction risks ocean collapse</h2>



Sharks have been around for half a billion years. If we continue to treat them as cheap, nameless meat, we may be the generation that sees them vanish. Their loss would not be just another statistic on the list of endangered species.



It would mean oceans without their top predators, seas where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/">fish populations</a> explode or collapse without balance, and ecosystems that unravel in ways we cannot easily repair. Communities that depend on healthy oceans for food and livelihoods would also suffer.



Sharks have shaped marine life for millions of years, and their future now depends on the choices we make today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1604454/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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How endangered shark meat ends up on grocery shelves despite global bans

Sharks have survived for hundreds of millions of years. They outlived the dinosaurs, Ice Ages, and major climate shifts. Yet today, they are disappearing rapidly - not because of nature, but because of us. Since the 1970s, their global numbers have fallen by more than 70 percent. The causes are not mysterious: overfishing, finning, bycatch, and growing demand for shark meat. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) now lists nearly 40 percent of shark species as threatened. Laws and trade bans set rules, but sellers...

Rapid climate change is forcing many species to evolve and adapt quickly enough to avoid extinction, particularly those that do not tolerate a large degree of environmental variation, such as species from cooler high-elevation habitats, which often lack the genetic diversity that is crucial for adapting to global warming.



According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> in Australia, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hybridization-among-wild-baboons-comes-with-hidden-costs/">hybridization</a> – the process of mixing different species – could potentially help the most vulnerable ones adapt and rapidly exploit novel genetic diversity from species that are already adapted to warmer environments. This concept is similar to how the historic mixing between our ancestors and Neanderthals seems to have improved the fitness of some modern human populations.



To test this hypothesis, the scientists traveled to the Wet Tropics region of northeastern Australia to collect samples of five species of tropical rainbowfish along an elevation gradient. Genetic analysis of the samples revealed both pure and hybrid populations of rainbowfish, and helped the researchers identify genes that enable rainbowfish populations to adapt to climate variation.



More specifically, the populations of cool-adapted upland species that have hybridized with a warm-adapted lowland species showed reduced vulnerability to future warming scenarios. “These mixed populations contain more diversity at genes we think are important for climate adaptation, and are therefore more likely to persist in warmer environments,” explained study lead author Chris Brauer, a research fellow in Landscape Genomics at Flinders University.&nbsp;



These findings highlight the underappreciated conservation value of hybrid populations, suggesting that hybridization may facilitate rapid adaptation to climate change. “Our findings are good news for biodiversity. They indicate that genetic mixing is an important tool for conservation that can contribute to natural evolutionary rescue of species threatened by climate change,” concluded senior author Luciano Beheregaray, a professor of Biodiversity Genomics at Flinders.



The study published in the journal <a href="about:blank">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Hybridization reduces vulnerability to climate change

Rapid climate change is forcing many species to evolve and...

There has been much research recently exploring the role of the gut microbiome in the health of humans and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-communicate-with-animals-using-artificial-intelligence/">animals</a>. Indeed, mammalian gut microbes have been shown to affect aspects of development, digestion, physiology, metabolism, immunity, mental health and behavior. In addition, individuals with autism or autistic-like behaviour are known to have altered gut microbe communities. Thus, the relationship between the microbiome and behavior is reciprocal, since social interactions can influence the gut microbiome, which in turn can affect social behavior.



With these connections in mind, researchers from the University of Oxford, U.K., and the University of Boulder, Colorado, set out to investigate the relationship between the gut microbiome and the social behavior of wild rhesus macaque monkeys (Macaca mulatta) on the island of Cayo Santiago, off Puerto Rico. In particular, they wondered whether monkeys with better social networks have healthier gut microbiomes compared to individuals that are less connected.&nbsp;



Macaques have an Asian origin and are found in many countries, including India, Thailand, China, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Vietnam. A group of 409 was introduced onto the 15.2 ha island of Cayo Santiago in 1938, and their behavior and social relationships have been studied there ever since. They live in social groups composed of a few adult males and many adult females and their offspring, and grooming is their primary means of making and maintaining relationships. Grooming interactions are thus a good indicator of social connectedness between individuals.



In this study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.1032495">Frontiers in Microbiology</a>, 50 uncontaminated fecal samples were collected from a specific group of macaques between 2012 and 2013. The group consisted of 22 males and 16 females between the ages of six and 20 years. Social connectedness between group members was measured in terms of the time each monkey spent grooming or being groomed during this two-year period, as well as his or her number of grooming partners. In this way, the researchers could correlate social connectedness with the gut microbiome composition of the monkeys in the group.&nbsp;



“Macaques are highly social animals and grooming is their main way of making and maintaining relationships, so grooming provides a good indicator of social interactions," explained study co-author Dr. Karli Watson from the Institute of Cognitive Science at CU Boulder.



DNA analysis of gut microbes was conducted by the researchers to find out how microbiome diversity within and between macaques was related to grooming interactions, whilst controlling for the effects of rank, sex, age, season and sampling year. The results showed that gut microbiome composition differed considerably between individuals in the group, as did the extent of social interactions.&nbsp;



Specifically, the amount of grooming an individual received was a significant factor explaining differences in microbiome composition between macaques. Put simply, monkeys that had more friends who groomed them also had more gut microbes associated with healthy functions, and fewer microbes associated with disease.&nbsp;



“Engagement in social interactions was positively related to the abundance of certain gut microbes with beneficial immunological functions, and negatively related to the abundance of potentially pathogenic members of the microbiota,” said co-author Dr. Philip Burnet, a professor in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Oxford.



For example, genera more abundant in the most sociable monkeys included Faecalibacterium&nbsp;and&nbsp;Prevotella. Conversely, the genus&nbsp;Streptococcus, which in humans can cause diseases such as strep throat and,&nbsp;pneumonia, was most abundant in less sociable monkeys.



Lead author Dr. Katerina Johnson, a research associate at the Department of Experimental Psychology and the Department of Psychiatry of the University of Oxford, said: “Here we show that more sociable monkeys have a higher abundance of beneficial gut bacteria, and a lower abundance of potentially disease-causing bacteria. It is particularly striking that we find a strong positive relationship between the abundance of the gut microbe&nbsp;Faecalibacterium&nbsp;and how sociable the animals are.&nbsp;Faecalibacterium&nbsp;is well known for its potent anti-inflammatory properties and is associated with good health.”



These findings are also consistent with findings in human populations where autism is associated with an altered gut microbial community. Autistic individuals engage in less social contact and it is possible that limited social interactions influence the gut microbiome negatively. However, the converse may also be true, namely that a distinctly altered gut microbiome may affect behavioral traits and, therefore, sociability. In this way, it is possible that the relationship between these two variables is indeed reciprocal.&nbsp;



Although none of the monkeys in the test group was classified as autistic, some were more sociable than others, and took part in more grooming activities. Just as in human society, some individuals show more social behavior while others are more isolated. Grooming in macaques involves hand-to-mouth actions and this undoubtedly affects the microbial community in the gut. Previous research has shown that grooming leads to increased similarity in the gut microbiomes of individual monkeys in social groups.&nbsp;



“The relationship between social behavior and microbial abundances may be the direct result of social transmission of microbes, for example through grooming. It could also be an indirect effect, as monkeys with fewer friends may be more stressed, which then affects the abundance of these microbes. As well as behavior influencing the microbiome, we also know it is a reciprocal relationship, whereby the microbiome can in turn affect the brain and behavior,” said Johnson.



"As our society is increasingly substituting online interactions for real-life ones, these important research findings underline the fact that as primates, we evolved not only in a social world but a microbial one as well," said study co-author Dr. Robin Dunbar, a professor from the Department of Experimental Psychology at the University of Oxford.



The authors conclude: “Our findings advance our understanding of how gut microbial communities may be associated with host behavior and reveal that social relationships may be intertwined with health and immune status&nbsp;via&nbsp;the microbiota.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Can close friendships improve our gut health?

There has been much research recently exploring the role of...

Fleeing is not the only way in which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-have-some-impressive-cognitive-skills/">songbirds</a> protect themselves from predators. Many species are known to engage in mobbing too, a phenomenon where they gather aggressively around a predator, flying rapidly while producing loud vocalizations and stereotypic movements. Such a behavior is risky for both prey and predator, with some birds getting attacked and even injured by their mobbers.



Now, a team of researchers from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> (OSU) has found that songbirds can tell when the risk of predation by a common predator is higher, depending on season and geographical features, and increase the frequency of mobbing behavior. By contrast, when the risk is minimal, they are more likely to avoid or ignore the predator.



“Mobbing must be energetically costly, because we find that its rare during winter, when food is scarce but there are still plenty of songbirds around,” said study co-author W Douglas Robinson, an ornithologist at OSU.



“On top of this effect, the likelihood of mobbing also increased as the number of songbirds present increased, diluting the risk to each mobber. Thus, songbirds can assess when the risk of predation from northern pygmy owls is highest and when there is safety in numbers.”



The experts studied mobbing of northern pygmy owls (Glaucidium gnoma) – a small, diurnal own species that usually attacks small mammals and songbirds by ambushing them from a hidden location - in western Oregon.&nbsp;



“The proportion of small birds relative to small mammals in the diet of the northern pygmy owl almost doubles from spring to summer, making birds the primary food source in summer. This is presumably because of the increasing availability of fledged offspring birds,” explained study lead author Madeleine Scott, a graduate student in Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation at OSU.



In 2020 and 2021, the scientist played back hundreds of recordings of an advertising call of the northern pygmy owl at a variety of locations to provoke mobbing. Before and after each playback, they recorded the number of species of songbirds present within 50 meters from the speaker.&nbsp;



While overall, mobbing was observed in 8.1 percent of the trials, the behavior peaked (up to 23 percent) in late summer and autumn when the owls prey mostly on young birds, and was quite rare in spring and winter (one percent), when they usually hunt small mammals. Moreover, the probability of mobbing also decreased with altitude, correlating with the lower owl density at higher altitudes. Twenty-four species of songbirds engaged in mobbing, the most frequent ones being chickadees, red-breasted nuthatches, Pacific wrens, and dark-eyed juncos.



According to the researchers, songbirds only mob if the threat is real and there are enough songbirds around to dilute the risk.



“Future research questions should study how the energetic cost of mobbing impacts the frequency of the behavior. For example, examining seasonal food availability and supplementing with additional feeders could reveal the how energetic considerations influence mobbing behavior,” Scott concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2023.1092323">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Songbirds use mobbing behavior to deter predatory owls

Fleeing is not the only way in which songbirds protect...

Underwater,Funny,Photo,Of,Golden,Labrador,Retriever,Puppy,In,Swimming

Scientists have long known that playing sports can be highly beneficial for mental well-being in humans. Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a> and the <a href="https://www.centerforcaninebehaviorstudies.org/">Center for Canine Behavior Studies</a> in Connecticut has discovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-more-aware-of-actions-than-objects/">dogs</a>’ anxiety levels can be lowered by social exercising too. The study revealed that canines suffering from generalized anxiety disorders which took part in sporting activities were more likely to get better.



The researchers examined a cohort of 1,308 dogs with at least one type of fearful or anxious behavior. Of these, 273 were diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder, a condition in which dogs – as well as other animals, including humans – exhibit constant or near-constant anxiety regardless of the context, a phenomenon significantly impairing their quality of life.



According to Nicholas Dodman, an expert in Animal Behavior at Tufts, dogs “especially benefit from activities that feed into their natural instincts.” For instance, a sheepdog suffering from anxiety disorders was significantly helped after starting sheep-herding classes. “The dog was a nervous wreck. I suggested to the owner to take him to sheep-herding classes. After several trials herding real sheep he settled right down. His anxious behavior was gone,” Professor Dodman reported.



Other sporting activities that were found to be beneficial for anxious dogs included Flyball (a type of relay race with teams of dogs), agility courses, and “canine freestyle,” in which dogs are taught to dance to choreographed routines with their owners.



“Dog-sporting activities were highly effective for treating generally anxious dogs, with just over three times the odds of improvement,” the researchers wrote.&nbsp;“The reason for the beneficial effect of engaging in sporting activities may be because of the physiological benefits of mobilization but also the psychological aspects of social integration, accomplishment and enjoyment.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/journal-of-veterinary-behavior">Journal of Veterinary Behavior</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Anxious dogs can benefit from sporting activities

Scientists have long known that playing sports can be highly...

There is a special relationship between the local net-casting fishers and a group of wild Lahille’s bottlenose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-may-also-suffer-from-alzheimers-disease/">dolphins</a> (Tursiops truncatus gephyreus) that inhabit the coastal region around the city of Laguna, on the south Atlantic coast of Brazil. This association dates back generations and involves dolphins that enter the bay and help drive schools of mullet towards fishers that wait eagerly on the shore with their throw-nets. Although it is well known that the fishers benefit from this help, the reason why the dolphins behave in this way had not been scientifically tested.



However, the results of a long-term study by researchers on this unusual alliance have now been published in the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/journal/procnatiacadscie">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. The researchers collected data on the co-operative fishing that takes place in the bay by combining drones, hydrophones and underwater cameras to capture the details of the partnership. They also conducted long-term demographic surveys of the dolphins and interviewed and observed the fishers.&nbsp;



The study was led by Mauricio Cantor of the Marine Mammal Institute at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>. “We knew that the fishers were observing the dolphins’ behavior to determine when to cast their nets, but we didn’t know if the dolphins were actively coordinating their behavior with the fishers,” said Cantor.



“Using drones and underwater imaging, we could observe the behaviors of fishers and dolphins with unprecedented detail and found that they catch more fish by working in synchrony. This shows that this is a mutually beneficial interaction between the humans and the dolphins.”



The traditional, net-casting fishers and the dolphins are both after the same fish for food - shiny, fat mullet. The fishers don’t even bother to throw their nets if there are no dolphins present; instead, they simply stand in the shallows, waiting for dolphins to arrive. The fishers recognize each dolphin and refer to it by name. The dolphins drive the mullet closer to the waiting fishers and, when a group of mullet is close enough, the dolphins signal – with a slap of the tail or a specific dive – and the fishers cast their nets.&nbsp;



Catches of mullet in this bay are far bigger than in other areas where dolphins do not help. Furthermore, the researchers found that the dolphins benefit because, as a net hits the surface, the fish respond by turning away from it, dashing to escape it - straight into the mouths of the waiting dolphins. In this way, dolphins in this group catch more fish and shown a 13 percent increase in survival rates, when compared to populations of non-cooperative dolphins.



Synchronous fishing, between these two top predators, is thus beneficial to both parties. The practice is considered a cultural tradition in the city of Laguna, where it has occurred for more than 140 years and has been passed down through generations of fishers and dolphins. The cooperative fishing relationship is specific to this population of dolphins is not a genetic trait in the animals, but is learned, Cantor said.



“From the fishers’ perspective, this practice is part of the culture of the community in all kinds of ways,” Cantor explained. “They acquire skills passed down from other fishers, and knowledge is spread through social learning. They also feel connected to this place and have a sense of belonging to the community.”



Sadly, the practice is in decline and may well cease to exist if populations of mullet decrease, or future generations of fishers lose interest in learning the art of this unique fishing practice. There are historical and recent accounts of similar behaviors in a handful of locations elsewhere in the world, but the practice is becoming less common or has disappeared completely in most places. The rare nature of the practice is one reason it is being considered for a cultural heritage designation in Brazil, he said.



Predictive models run as part of the study show that the future of the practice could be threatened in the Laguna area as well, if fish populations decline. “The practice is unlikely to continue if either the dolphins or the fishers no longer benefit from it,” said co-author Professor Damien Farine of the University of Zurich and the Australian National University.



Professor Fábio Daura-Jorge of the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil said researchers are already seeing early signs of decline in the practice. “If we take steps to document and conserve the knowledge and the culture of the practice, we can indirectly and positively impact the biological aspects, as well."



The experts suggest that conservation action is needed to ensure the future of the practice. Both the dolphins and the fishers are reliant on a strong and healthy fish population for the cooperative relationship to succeed. In recent years, the region has seen reduced availability of fish. There is also reduced interest in learning the tradition, said Daura-Jorge, who has been monitoring this population for the past 15 years.&nbsp;



“We don’t know what is going to happen in the future, but our best guess, using our best data and best models, is that if things keep going the way they are right now, there will be a time when the interaction will no longer be of interest by at least one of the predators - the dolphins or the fishers,” said Daura-Jorge. &nbsp;



The researchers noted that several conservation measures may be necessary to secure the future of the practice. The first is to try to identify the source of the mullet decline and take measures to better manage that species, such as reducing use of illegal nets through law enforcement, said Daura-Jorge.



Second, the researchers recommend steps to work with current and future artisanal fishers, stressing the cultural and economic importance of the net-casting practice. That might include offering incentives to encourage the traditional practice, such as setting a premium price for fish caught with this method.



“This phenomenon of mutually-beneficial interaction between wildlife and humans is getting more and more rare, and seems to be at global risk,” said Cantor. “The cultural value and the biological diversity are important, and it’s important to preserve it.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Brazilian fishers and dolphins benefit from fishing together

There is a special relationship between the local net-casting fishers...

Aging female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-monkeys-with-strong-friendships-survive-longer/">monkeys</a> cut down on socializing to prioritize their closest relationships, according to an international study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. The experts found that female monkeys “actively reduce” their social networks as they get older to focus on family and close friends.&nbsp;



"In humans, aging individuals have been shown to become more selective in partner choice as they age and to proactively focus on meaningful relationships, such as close friends and relatives. Intriguingly, social selectivity in older individuals may not be limited to humans. Several species of nonhuman primates have been suggested to show patterns of social aging that might indicate greater selectivity in social partners in later life," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Evidence for social selectivity in some of our closest living relatives could hint at deep evolutionary origins behind this phenomenon and may suggest that selectivity is an adaptive strategy that individuals use to cope with the physical and physiological limitations they face as they age."



The research was focused on female macaques on an island off the coast of Puerto Rico known as Monkey Island, or Cayo Santiago. The experts analyzed eight years of data on more than 200 macaques to observe how the social lives of each individual changed. The results of the study confirmed that female macaques become increasingly selective as they age.&nbsp;



"Females spent similar amounts of time socializing as they aged, suggesting that network shrinkage does not result from lack of motivation or ability to engage, nor was this narrowing driven by the deaths of social partners. Furthermore, females remained attractive companions and were not isolated by withdrawal of social partners," wrote the researchers.



Professor Lauren Brent said this pattern of narrowing social networks with age is common in humans. “Our study offers the most conclusive evidence to date that social selectivity is not unique to humans, and therefore might have deeper evolutionary underpinnings.”



According to Dr. Erin Siracusa, there are many possible reasons why macaques become more socially selective with age. “For example, the benefits of social interactions might change with time. Young macaques might benefit from a wide social group that can help them explore and find potential mates."



“For older macaques, it might be easier and safer - in terms of everything from conflict to disease transmission - to stick with family and existing friends. New relationships also require more mental effort, so while we see no decline in time spent socializing, older macaques might save mental energy by shrinking their network.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2209180119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Aging monkeys focus more on meaningful relationships

Aging female monkeys cut down on socializing to prioritize their...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1143.93601">ZooKeys</a> has recently described five new species of tree-dwelling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-snakes-evolved-from-just-a-few-surviving-species/">snakes</a> in the jungles of Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama. Famous environmental activists such as Leonardo DiCaprio and Brian Sheth,&nbsp;along with organizations like <a href="https://www.rewild.org/">Re:wild</a>, and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.natureandculture.org/">Nature and Culture International</a>,&nbsp;chose the names for three of these species in honor of loved ones, while raising public awareness about rainforest destruction caused by (often illegal) open-pit mining operations.&nbsp;



The mountainous regions of the upper-Amazon rainforest and the Chocó-Darién jungles are home to a huge diversity of snake species. Unfortunately, during the Covid-19 pandemic, the proliferation of illegal open-pit gold and copper mining has reached critical levels and is now significantly threatening tree-dwelling snake populations.



Since neotropical snail-eating snakes such as those belonging to the genera Sibon and Dipsas are arboreal and cannot survive in areas devoid of vegetation, they are particularly prone to the negative effects of open-pit mining. Moreover, because they feed exclusively on snails and slugs - a type of prey occurring mostly along rivers and streams that is currently threatened by water pollution - they livelihood is even more endangered.



“When I first explored the rainforests of Nangaritza River in 2014, I remember thinking the place was an undiscovered and unspoiled paradise,” said study lead author Alejandro Arteaga, a researcher at the Biodiversity Field Lab in Ecuador. “In fact, the place is called Nuevo Paraíso in Spanish, but it is a paradise no more. Hundreds of illegal gold miners using backhoe loaders have currently taken possession of the river margins, which are now destroyed and turned into rubble.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



Since illegal miners are proliferating, ignoring landowner rights and even threatening anyone opposed to the extraction of gold or copper, the presence of conservation areas is no longer sufficient to help protecting endangered species. However, even when the mining operations are legal, such as in Panama, large-scale copper mining is critically affecting the habitat of two snake species (Sibon irmelindicaprioae&nbsp;and&nbsp;S. canopy).



“Both legal and illegal open-pit mines are uninhabitable for the snail-eating snakes, but the legal mines may be the lesser of two evils. At the very least they respect the limit of nearby protected areas, answer to a higher authority, and are presumably unlikely to enact violence on park rangers, researchers, and conservationists,” Arteaga explained.



“These new species of snake are just the tip of the iceberg in terms of new species discoveries in this region, but if illegal mining continues at this rate, there may not be an opportunity to make any future discoveries.”



Fortunately, three NGOs in Ecuador and Panama (Khamai, Nature and Culture International, and Adopta Bosque) have already started actions to safeguard the snakes’ habitat from mining operations. Since their quest for urgent land protection seems to be the only method of saving these snakes from extinction, providing international support for these organizations is vital.



Image Credit: Alejandro Arteaga



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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South American snakes threatened by mining activities

A new study published in the journal ZooKeys has recently...

Have you ever watched an ant wandering around in search of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swans-sacrifice-rest-to-defend-their-foraging-areas/">food</a> and wondered whether there is method in its movements? Probably not. But this is exactly what Stefan Popp and Anna Dornhaus, both from the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a>, did when trying to understand how ants search their environments efficiently.&nbsp;



Most people assume that when ants need to find food that is in an unknown location, their best option would be to search in a random manner. Ants spend much of their lives searching for resources, but they must also stay close to their nest or colony, in case they need to return quickly. If they search randomly, they will be relatively efficient at locating resources, but will run the risk of returning to areas they have already searched. Alternatively, if they search in a non-random pattern, like a spiral or a left-to-right meander, they will not cross their path again but will be thrown by obstacles that obstruct their pathway and may end up deviating in a manner that takes them over territory they have already searched.&nbsp;



In order to find out which patterns rock ants (Temnothorax rugatulus) use when searching for food, the researchers transplanted five entire colonies into the lab, where they could track all ants automatically and under constant conditions. They gave the ants a large (2 x 3 m), empty arena and left them to search around for food for 5 hours. After video recording almost 5 km of ant tracks, which was equivalent to 1,384 individual tracks, they used statistical means to compare the ants’ movements with computer-generated random walk patterns.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We wanted to make sure that we are not just seeing patterns where there are none,” Popp said. “We then used a&nbsp;simple&nbsp;statistical method of detecting regularity in movement tracks to get a&nbsp;simple&nbsp;answer.”



The results, published in the online journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.105916">iScience</a>, showed that the ants used a mixture of distinctly systematic movements, along with random elements. A total of 78 percent of the ants systematically turned the direction of their search roughly every 10 mm. This means that a turn in one direction was usually followed by a turn in the opposite direction after roughly three ant body lengths. The researchers termed this regular movement “meandering.”&nbsp;



“Previously, researchers in the field assumed that ants move in a pure random walk when searching for targets of which they don't know their location,” said Popp. “We found that rock ants, show a striking, regular meandering pattern when exploring the area around their nests. This means that the ants smoothly alternate left and right turns on a relatively regular length scale of roughly three body lengths.”



The regular meandering movements are also interspersed with random elements. The researchers state that the ant tracks 1) cross themselves less often than random walks would, and 2) sometimes disperse more than random walks. This means that ants cover the search area more efficiently than if their movements were simply random, because they don’t waste time searching areas they have already covered. In addition, their systematic meandering takes them away from the nest rapidly, to areas that have not been searched as thoroughly. Thus, the movement system of the ants is more efficient than if they walked around randomly. Popp says he was most intrigued by the extreme forms the ants’ patterns could take from these simple principles.



“Parts of some tracks look like the curled threads&nbsp;one can pull out of a piece of clothing, and in some it looks like the meandering path meanders itself,” he said, “creating a seemingly fractal structure. It reminds me of some space-filling curves we know from math!”



The new study is the first to find evidence for efficient search through regular meandering in a freely searching animal, the researchers report. It also adds another complex behavior for ants, suggesting that there’s still more to learn.



Popp says he’s most fascinated in questions about the rules in an ant’s mind that allow such complex search patterns to emerge. He notes also that the ants have solved a problem of collective search over the course of evolution in a way that might find application for designing autonomous swarms of search robots or drones for use in disaster areas or unexplored landscapes.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Meandering ants have a method to their madness

Have you ever watched an ant wandering around in search...

A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a> has found that scratches on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-daspletosaurus-sheds-light-on-dinosaur-evolution/">dinosaur</a> teeth could reveal what they used to eat. By employing a technique called “dental microwear texture analysis” (DMTA) – a scanning method devised to examine topographical dental wear and tear in microscopic detail – the experts inferred the feeding habits of large theropods, including Allosaurus and T. rex.



The researchers discovered that while some dinosaurs may have frequently crunched on hard bone, others had regularly eaten soft foods and prey. This technique opens up new research avenues in Paleontology, helping scientists better understand not only dinosaurs themselves, but also the environment and communities in which they lived.



“We wanted to test if we could use DMTA to find evidence of different feeding behaviors in tyrannosaurids (from the Cretaceous period, 145 million to 66 million years ago) compared to the older&nbsp;Allosaurus&nbsp;(from the Jurassic period, 201 million to 145 million years ago), which are both types of theropods,” explained study lead author Daniela Winkler, a postdoctoral fellow in Paleontology at the University of Tokyo. “From other research, we already knew that tyrannosaurids can crack and feed on bones (from studies of their feces and bite marks on bone). But allosaurs are much older and there is not so much information about them.”



The scientists studied 48 teeth – 34 from theropod dinosaurs and 14 from crocodilians (modern crocodiles and alligators). Surprisingly, the analysis did not reveal evidence of much bone crushing behavior in either Allosaurus or tyrannosaurids, although it was well-known that the latter ate bone.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, there may be several reasons for this unexpected discovery. For instance, it could be that although T. rex was able to eat bone, it was less commonly done than previously thought. In addition, the team had to use well-preserved teeth, so it could be that extremely damaged teeth that could have provided evidence of bone crushing were excluded from the study samples.&nbsp;



The investigation also revealed noticeable differences between juveniles and adults. “We studied two juvenile dinosaur specimens (one&nbsp;Allosaurus&nbsp;and one tyrannosaurid) and what we found was a very different feeding niche and behavior for both compared to the adults. We found that there was more wear to juvenile teeth, which might mean that they&nbsp;had to more frequently feed on carcasses because they were eating leftovers,” Winkler explained.&nbsp;



“We were also able to detect different feeding behavior in juvenile crocodilians; however, this time it was the opposite. Juvenile crocodilians had less wear on their teeth from eating softer foods, perhaps like insects, while adults had more dental wear from eating harder foods, like larger vertebrates.”



Besides shedding more light on the behavior of various dinosaur species, this innovative technique could help scientists better understand the ancient environments in which these creatures lived. “From what we learn using DMTA, we can possibly reconstruct extinct animals’ diets, and from this make inferences about extinct ecosystems, paleoecology, and paleoclimate, and how it differs from today,” Winkler concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/pala.12632">Paleontology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Dinosaur teeth reveal their eating habits

A team of scientists led by the University of Tokyo...

A new study led by&nbsp;the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nord.no/en/Pages/default.aspx">Nord University</a> in Norway in collaboration with the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.icm.csic.es/es">Institut de Ciències del Mar</a>&nbsp;(ICM-CSIC) in Spain has found that the rise in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-temperatures-rise-when-plants-stop-breathing/">temperature</a> in the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions caused by global warming are promoting the settlement in these areas of species that previously lived in warmer, southern regions. These findings suggest that climate change is leading to a redistribution of species not only in the much more studied warmer areas of our planet, but also in colder regions which are warming at a much faster rate than the rest of the planet.



The scientists collected data from over 20,000 trawl surveys in the Norwegian and Barents Seas between 1994 and 2020. “In 1994, an average of eight fish species were caught in each trawl in the Norwegian and Barents Seas, while in 2020 the number rises to more than 13, which represents an increase of 66 percent. The results of the study also shown increases, albeit less significant, in the richness of adjacent areas,” said study lead author&nbsp;Cesc Gordó-Vilaseca, a doctoral student in Biosciences at the Nord University.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that, of the 193 species included, 71 relatively warm-water species are now more common in the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, while 23 species which were previously more common in the north are now occurring there less frequently. However, the study also documented the expansion of some Arctic species that seem to adapt well to rising temperatures, such as the commercially valuable common cod (Gadus morhua).&nbsp;



“The shift in frequency of species, sometimes favored by high temperatures and sometimes not, could lead to a reconfiguration of ecological interactions and, therefore, could cause changes in the structure and functioning of the entire ecosystem,” warned co-author Marta Coll, a researcher at the ICM-CSIC.



These findings could contribute to the design of more effective conservation and management strategies. In future research, the scientists aim to analyze in more detail the changes at the level of the entire ecosystem that may be caused by rising temperatures in the Arctic, as well as the effects on fisheries management and protection measures such changes may cause.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2120869120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Arctic biodiversity will get a boost from rising temperatures

A new study led by&nbsp;the&nbsp;Nord University in Norway in collaboration...

Sometimes the common names for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-animals-play-a-key-role-in-stabilizing-soil-carbon/">animals</a> can end up being rather confusing. For example, guinea pigs are not related to pigs and neither are they native to Guinea. In the case of American black bears, not all of them are black. In fact, they come in a range of colors, including brown (also known as cinnamon), blond, or bluish-grey, and some even have coats with mixed colors.&nbsp;



Scientists have wondered why there is this diversity in coat color among black bears. Some have hypothesized that the cinnamon coat is a way of mimicking the generally larger grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), which is brown (but can also be black!) This may provide some form of camouflage or defense for the American black bears.&nbsp;



In new research from scientists at <a href="https://www.hudsonalpha.org/">HudsonAlpha</a>, the University of Memphis, and the University of Pennsylvania, the answer to this question has been discovered in the genomes of the black bears, and it involves a mutation in a pigment gene that happened a very long time ago. The research paper is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



Dr. Emily Puckett is an assistant professor of Biological Sciences at the University of Memphis. She has devoted her career to learning more about the evolution and genetics of bears. With help from partners in state, provincial, and federal wildlife agencies, she collected hundreds of DNA and hair samples from North American bears. Dr. Puckett teamed up with Dr. Greg Barsh, an animal pigmentation expert at HudsonAlpha, to figure out why black bears aren’t always black.



Melanin is the pigment that gives mammals their coat colors. It is produced in the skin by cells known as melanocytes. There are two types of melanin: eumelanin is black or brown, and pheomelanin is red or yellow. It is widely accepted that genetic variation in melanin biosynthesis is what gives rise to differences in hair, eye, and skin color.&nbsp;



The researchers studied photos of bears and analyzed their hair samples. They found that the cinnamon-colored black bears produce reduced amounts of eumelanin, just like grizzly bears. They then sequenced the genomes of nearly 200 bears and identified several different missense mutations in the gene&nbsp;called TYRP1&nbsp;that codes for making the enzyme tyrosinase-related protein 1.&nbsp;



Cinnamon-colored black bears have a mutation called&nbsp;TYRP1R153C,&nbsp;while most (but not all) grizzly bears have a mutation called&nbsp;TYRP1R114C. The&nbsp;TYRP1&nbsp;gene produces the enzyme within the melanocytes, and this enzyme helps produce eumelanin, which explains why the cinnamon and grizzly bears have less of this specific pigment.&nbsp;



In addition, studies carried out in the lab of Dr. Mickey Marks at the University of Pennsylvania determined that the TYRP1R153C and TYRP1R114C&nbsp;mutations interfere with melanin synthesis and distribution.



“When we looked at other species, we were surprised to find the&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;variant responsible for cinnamon&nbsp;U. americanus&nbsp;is identical to one previously described as a cause of oculocutaneous albinism (OCA3) in humans,” says Dr. Barsh. OCA3 is characterized by reddish skin and hair and frequent visual abnormalities and is most common in people of African or Puerto Rican ancestry. But according to Puckett, bears with&nbsp;TYRP1&nbsp;mutations have normal skin and can see just fine.



The&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;variant was primarily found in bears from the southwest United States, and at lower frequencies moving northward to Southeast Alaska and the Yukon Territory.&nbsp;The TYRP1R153C&nbsp;mutation was associated with the cinnamon color in black bears, as well as with the chocolate and light brown colors, meaning it accounts for almost all of the color diversity among&nbsp;U. americanus.



The researchers used their data to learn more about the&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;mutation. One hypothesis is that it may first have occurred in grizzly bears and then been&nbsp; transferred to black bears, but demographic analysis indicated that this was not what happened. Instead, the&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;mutation arose spontaneously about 9,360 years ago in black bears living in the western United States, then spread as the bears moved and became distributed across their current geographic range.



“Based on its wide range today, the&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;mutation that arose in black bears over 9,000 years ago probably gave an advantage to the cinnamon-colored bears,” says Dr. Puckett. “We used genetic modeling and simulations to predict the selective forces acting on the cinnamon morph. But our predictions ruled out the grizzly mimicry hypothesis as well as another hypothesis having to do with thermoregulation.”



The research team proposed a new explanation for the persistence of the coat color variant: crypsis. This refers to the ability of an animal to conceal itself by blending into the surrounding environment, usually by having similar coloration or patterning as the background. The researchers suggest that this is not only important for prey species or ambush predators, but also for large-bodied species that need to blend into their habitat.&nbsp;



“These results illustrate how genetic variation in melanin biosynthesis can underlie iconic phenotypes and inform our understanding of color variation and recent evolution in large carnivores,” says Dr. Barsh.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Why are some black bears actually brown?

Sometimes the common names for animals can end up being...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxytocin-promotes-cooperation-among-humans/">Oxytocin</a> – the so-called “love hormone” – has been considered for decades to be essential for the development of social attachments in a variety of animal species. However, according to a new genetic study led by the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">University of California, San Francisco</a> (UCSF) and <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a>, prairie voles can still form enduring attachments with their mates and provide parental care even without oxytocin receptor signaling.&nbsp;



Prairie voles are one of the few monogamous mammalian species, forming life-long partnerships called “pair-bonds.” Pair-bonded voles share parental responsibilities, and prefer the company of their partners over other members of the opposite sex, actively rejecting potential new partners. Previous research which used drugs to block oxytocin from binding to its receptor found that voles lacking oxytocin binding were unable to pair-bond.



However, by using a groundbreaking genetic manipulation technique called CRISPR to generate prairie voles lacking oxytocin receptor signaling, the researchers found that these genetically-altered voles could still form pair-bonds just as easily as normal voles.



“We were all shocked that no matter how many different ways we tried to test this, the voles demonstrated a very robust social attachment with their sexual partner, as strong as their normal counterparts,” said study lead author Devanand Manoli, a neuroscientist at UCSF.



Following this surprising discovery, the experts investigated whether oxytocin receptor signaling is similarly dispensable for other functions, such as parturition, parenting, and milk release during lactation. “We found that mutant voles are not only able to give birth, but actually nurse,” reported co-author Nirao Shah, a neuroscientist at Stanford. In fact, both male and female mutants engaged in usual parental behavior, such as huddling, licking, or grooming, and were capable of rearing their offspring to weaning age.



However, the mutant voles had limited milk release compared to the normal ones, which caused fewer of their pups to survive to weaning age. In addition, the pups that managed to survive were smaller compared those of normal voles. The fact that voles could nurse at all is highly different from what has been observed in studies involving oxytocin-deficient mice. According to the researchers, this could be due to the inbred nature of lab mice strains in contrast to the genetically heterogenous voles.&nbsp;



“It could be that inbreeding in mice has selected for a large dependence on oxytocin signaling, or this may represent a species-specific role of oxytocin receptor signaling,”&nbsp;Shah explained.



“For at least the last ten years people have been hoping for the possibility of oxytocin as a powerful therapeutic for helping people with social cognitive impairments due to conditions ranging from autism to schizophrenia. This research shows that there likely isn’t a magic bullet for something as complex and nuanced as social behavior,” Manoli concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2022.12.011">Neuron</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Prairie voles can form close bonds without oxytocin

Oxytocin – the so-called “love hormone” – has been considered...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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