Early‑life environmental conditions can shape the adult traits of insects like dragonflies long before they take flight. 



A sweeping analysis of 87 <a href="https://dragonflies.online/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European dragonfly</a> species now shows that the temperatures and seasonal rhythms a larva faces underwater matter more to adult trait variety than the climate the insect meets in the air, challenging long‑held conservation habits.



“This is really useful going forward, as the results will provide a new general rule to guide how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">biodiversity</a> scientists forecast climate responses,” said Professor Lars L. Iversen of <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-larva-life-shapes-adult-function">Dragonfly larva life shapes adult function</h2>



Early stages often happen out of sight, yet they leave lasting biological fingerprints that show up in community‑wide patterns.



The new work argues that <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> cannot be understood only by watching visible adults because carryover effects ripple from submerged childhoods into the adult population’s body sizes, wing shapes and flight ranges.



Functional biogeographers have long mapped where <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1415442111" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits cluster</a>, but they usually assume those traits respond directly to the present environment. Iversen’s team instead found that underwater experiences set constraints that later <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/">environments</a> can only tweak rather than erase.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pond-temperatures-shape-body-traits">Pond temperatures shape body traits</h2>



A dragonfly begins life as a bold little <a href="https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/dragonfly-larvae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nymph</a> clinging to stems or burrowing in mud for up to two years before it ever unfurls a wing. 



The study linked cooler waters, steep temperature swings and irregular water levels with narrower adult trait ranges, while warmer, more stable ponds produced adults with a broader toolkit for dispersal.



“This is a really important study, as many predictions for how climate might affect diversity are based on observations of adult stages,” noted Lesley T. Lancaster of the University of Aberdeen.&nbsp;



To capture nuance across thousands of 31‑mile‑wide grid cells, the researchers calculated each community’s trait space as a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Three-dimensional-hypervolume_fig3_4201499" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three‑dimensional hypervolume</a>. This is a statistical shape that shows how body length, wing size and other measurements spread out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-larva-shape-adult-traits">Dragonfly larva shape adult traits</h2>



Mean annual temperature emerged as the single strongest predictor of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/geb.12525" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adult trait diversity</a>, and most of that link flowed indirectly through its impact on larvae rather than adults themselves.&nbsp;



Topography, forest cover and the ratio of permanent to seasonal water bodies nudged the numbers too, but their direct and indirect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-heat-shrinking-habitats-insects-face-hidden-threats/">effects</a> often pulled in opposite directions, dampening what surface observations alone would suggest.



Classic <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1938285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> show that overcrowded larvae shift strategies when food or space runs short, sharpening interference or exploitative tactics that later echo in adult sizes. 



By folding such legacy effects into structural‑equation models, the team could explain two‑thirds of the variation in adult functional diversity across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carrying-larval-traits-into-adulthood">Carrying larval traits into adulthood</h2>



Similar carryover <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2021.0023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> crop up in mosquitoes, mayflies and even beetles whose larvae face drying pools, hinting that early‑stage filters may be a widespread driver of community change. 



Because many freshwater insects are hemimetabolous, meaning they do not enjoy a complete makeover during metamorphosis, the traits they build early cannot be fully rebuilt later.



In systems where water is warming fastest, lake <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0067-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> already record shifts in mixing regimes and ice cover that alter larval conditions, foreshadowing trait reshuffles in the flying stage. 



Understanding those lags may help explain why some species expand poleward quickly while others stall despite suitable adult habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advice-for-conservation-planners">Advice for conservation planners</h2>



Restoring riparian shade or managing water levels in breeding ponds can give juveniles the thermal and oxygen buffers they need, indirectly widening adult trait portfolios that support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/">population</a> resilience. 



Policies that focus only on adult foraging grounds or migration corridors risk missing these upstream levers and may underestimate vulnerability under rapid warming.



By targeting nursery habitats, managers may also help a suite of terrestrial predators, birds, bats and spiders, that rely on the timing and size structure of dragonfly emergences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-forecasting-tools">Biodiversity forecasting tools</h2>



Most current biodiversity models assume that traits are shaped in real time by adult habitat features, with little room for past influences. But these new findings show that such models may be incomplete.



To improve accuracy, researchers suggest future climate impact models should include developmental carryover effects as core parameters. 



Incorporating early-life trait-environment links could allow forecasts to anticipate shifts not just in where species live, but how they function once they arrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-pathways-of-dragonfly-larva">Biological pathways of dragonfly larva </h2>



Researchers now want to see whether the same indirect pathways exist in tropical species, where seasonality is muted yet temperature ceilings are high.



Experts are also exploring genetic clues that might reveal how much of the carryover effect is plastic adjustment versus hard‑wired evolution. 



For now, the message is clear: if you want to protect an animal’s future, start where it begins, not where it ends.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/geb.70056" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Biogeography</a>.



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Dragonfly larvae expose climate’s hidden influence on biology

Early‑life environmental conditions can shape the adult traits of insects like dragonflies long before they take flight. A sweeping analysis of 87 European dragonfly species now shows that the temperatures and seasonal rhythms a larva faces underwater matter more to adult trait variety than the climate the insect meets in the air, challenging long‑held conservation habits. “This is really useful going forward, as the results will provide a new general rule to guide how biodiversity scientists forecast climate responses,” said Professor Lars L. Iversen of McGill University....

Rotting fruit, filled with the smell of fermentation, has long attracted fruit flies by the dozens. These small insects, especially Drosophila melanogaster - commonly known as the vinegar or pomace fly - are regular visitors to compost bins and grocery store produce sections in warm weather. 



But scientists have now uncovered a surprising reason why fruit flies flock to the scent of alcohol: it boosts their mating success.



In a new study, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ice.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology</a> investigated the effects on fruit flies and discovered that males who consume alcohol become more attractive to females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-flies-alcohol-and-mating-success">Fruit flies, alcohol, and mating success</h2>



The alcohol, particularly methanol, enhances the production of sex pheromones, which are chemical signals used to attract mates.&nbsp;



“In our experiments, we show a direct and positive effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-americans-now-link-alcohol-consumption-to-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol consumption</a> on the mating success of male flies,” said Ian Keesey, the study’s first author. 



“This in turn makes alcoholic males more attractive to females and ensures a higher mating success rate, whereas the success of drunken male humans with females is likely to be questionable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-attraction-and-danger">Balancing attraction and danger</h2>



While humans are well aware of the risks of excessive alcohol consumption, how it affects insects like the vinegar fly has remained less clear. 



To understand the biological and behavioral effects of alcohol in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a>, the research team focused on how the insects perceive and respond to alcohol-laden environments, particularly the smell of fermenting fruit.



The study found that unpaired male flies showed a greater attraction to alcohol, drawn by the smell of fermentation. 



However, the flies had to walk a fine line: while a low level of alcohol was beneficial - enhancing pheromone production and increasing their chances with females - high concentrations posed serious risks. That’s where the brain’s internal risk assessment system comes into play.



“What is unique about our results is that we found not just one, but three neural circuits that we were able to show actually balance each other in terms of this risk assessment, that is, attraction and aversion,” Keesey explained. 



“This means that the flies have a control mechanism that allows them to get all the benefits of alcohol consumption without risking alcohol intoxication.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-detection-by-fruit-flies">Alcohol detection by fruit flies</h2>



The researchers discovered that alcohol detection in fruit flies is managed by a trio of neural circuits. Two of these respond to ethanol and methanol and promote attraction to the smell, guiding flies to optimal alcohol concentrations where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-shark-mating-behaviors-observed-for-the-first-time-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating</a> benefits are highest.&nbsp;



But when alcohol levels spike - especially methanol, which can be toxic - a third pathway kicks in and triggers a repulsion response. This biological balancing act helps the flies gain advantages from moderate alcohol exposure without succumbing to the dangers of overindulgence.



“That different neural pathways with opposite valence for the same odor are combined to balance attraction and aversion based on physiological state is a rarity,” Keesey noted. 



He conducted the research during his time at the Max Planck Institute and is now an assistant professor at the University of Nebraska at Lincoln.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-brains-to-behavior">From brains to behavior </h2>



To unravel this complex behavioral response, the team combined a wide range of techniques. They used imaging technologies to observe real-time brain activity in fruit flies as they encountered alcohol-laden environments, alongside chemical analyses of odors typically found in decaying fruit. 



Behavioral experiments tracked how flies reacted to different concentrations of alcohol, how attractive they found various smells, and how successful they were in mating.



“The study provides one of the first comprehensive explanations of alcohol attraction in a model organism, from chemistry to ecology and from brain to behavior and vice versa,” said Bill Hansson, who leads the Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology at the Max Planck Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-for-more-than-flies">A model for more than flies</h2>



The findings not only offer insights into fly behavior but also serve as a reminder of the value of understanding animals in their natural context. 



Fruit flies have long been used as model organisms in scientific research, particularly in genetics and neuroscience. Yet this study underscores how ecological factors - like the smell of fermenting fruit in their natural habitats - can shape behavior and even brain function.



“It also shows how important it is to consider the natural behavior and ecology of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drunk-animals-may-explain-humans-love-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> models when using them to study physiological and behavioral processes,” noted Hansson.



The research helps explain why fruit flies seem irresistibly drawn to our kitchen compost and overripe bananas. For them, it’s not just the smell of a potential meal - it’s a cue for reproductive opportunity, carefully balanced by a neural system that can tell when enough is enough.



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Alcohol makes fruit flies look sexy and boosts mating success

Rotting fruit, filled with the smell of fermentation, has long...

New research has found that most dogs across the United States display at least one behavior that could be problematic.&nbsp;



According to the study, led by Texas A&amp;M’s College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (<a href="https://vetmed.tamu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VMBS</a>), more than 99 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> scored moderate to severe in at least one area. Fear and anxiety, aggression, and attachment behaviors emerged as the most common challenges.



“Overall, 99.12 percent of dogs had at least one response of moderate to severe in an area of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-canine-cognitive-code-everyday-dog-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>,” said study author Bonnie Beaver, a professor in the VMBS’ Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences.&nbsp;



“The majority of responses suggest dogs do not have a lot of problems, and the problem behaviors that do exist are relatively minor. Owners may not see them as issues worth addressing, but almost any dog owner will encounter a behavior that is at least inconvenient.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-the-dog-aging-project">Insights from the Dog Aging Project</h2>



This research relied on data from the&nbsp;Dog Aging Project&nbsp;(<a href="https://dogagingproject.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DAP</a>), a large-scale initiative gathering information from tens of thousands of companion&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-owners-ages-and-beliefs-influence-their-pet-food-choices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog owners</a>. 



The DAP aims to track how dogs age and what helps them lead healthy lives. Participants answer questions about their pets’ health and daily habits, including 28 items related to behavior. Each question has a scoring scale of zero to four, with higher numbers indicating more serious concerns.



“The questions used in the study are not intended to be a diagnosis, and many behaviors overlap into different categories,” Beaver explained. 



“For example, anxiety and separation are often related behaviors, but questions about them were put into separate categories. Dogs may act aggressively out of fear, but again the questions about each were in separate categories. So, a fear-biting dog may not be obvious in the results.”



While the findings suggest most dogs have at least some minor issues, Beaver emphasized that a better understanding of canine behavior could prevent small problems from escalating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problem-behavior-is-often-overlooked">Problem behavior is often overlooked </h2>



Behavior is an essential consideration for anyone who owns or works with dogs. 



“Some studies report that only 50 percent of veterinarians ask questions about behavior during appointments, and owners may not think to ask the veterinarian about something they don’t like. This has to change, so we don’t end up missing half of the problems,” Beaver noted.



The same goes for dog owners who may hesitate to consult a veterinarian unless the behavior is highly disruptive or has become dangerous. 



“For dog owners, it’s important to learn to read your dog’s body language and talk to your local veterinarian if there is any type of behavior happening that bothers you,” Beaver noted. "They can help you identify the cause and find a solution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-owners-tolerate-different-behaviors">Dog owners tolerate different behaviors</h2>



Different owners have different tolerance levels for canine behaviors. What one person considers bothersome might not even register as a concern for someone else.&nbsp;&nbsp;Beaver illustrated this point by recalling a case.&nbsp;



“As an example, I once saw a miniature poodle that came in for a problem with barking. In the patient’s history, I found out that the dog would routinely urinate on a Persian rug, but that behavior didn’t bother the owner as much as the barking,” said Beaver.



To gain a comprehensive picture of a dog’s behaviors, Beaver suggests that veterinarians ask questions in several ways. Appointments may be short, and owners might overlook or forget to mention specific incidents, especially if they happened weeks or months ago.&nbsp;



“Giving owners a questionnaire before asking in-person questions can help give them time to think, which will increase the chance that they tell you about behavior problems,” she noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-dogs-become-dangerous">When dogs become dangerous</h2>



Minor issues are one thing; truly dangerous behaviors raise the stakes considerably. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-you-control-your-dogs-aggression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aggression</a> - whether manifesting as growling, snapping, or biting - can stem from fear, frustration, or defensive instincts. 



“Aggression is a normal behavior in animals and it happens for a reason,” Beaver said. "So, you need to consider why the dog is behaving that way. Is it fearful? Is it being threatened by a little kid getting too close, somebody staring in its eyes, by a bigger dog coming toward it, or by a stranger approaching?"



"As veterinarians, we’ve got to look at the context in which a behavior happens to try and appreciate what might be going on in the animal’s mind.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-problem-behaviors-in-dogs">Recognizing problem behaviors in dogs</h2>



Recognizing fear signs, such as crouching, trembling, or avoidance, can help owners intervene before their dog escalates to aggression. “Animals think. But they probably don’t think like we do," noted Beaver.



In households with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/family-dogs-boost-physical-activity-levels-among-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">children</a>, the need for vigilance is even greater. According to Professor Beaver, the people most often bitten are children under the age of 7.



“If you have children and a dog, be sure that they are only together under supervision. Do not allow your kids to climb all over the dog or pull its hair and ears. And teach your kids not to approach a dog - even their own family dog - unless they are with a parent.”



By staying aware of a dog’s emotional signals and seeking help from veterinarians or qualified trainers, owners can address minor concerns early and prevent them from becoming significant problems. 



The hope is that by shining a light on the behavioral patterns present in nearly every dog, both medical professionals and families can work together to foster safer, happier relationships between people and pets.



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More than 99% of dogs in the U.S. have a behavior problem

New research has found that most dogs across the United...

Bowhead whales glide under drifting ice and are rarely seen for more than a few precious moments. They support the Arctic ecosystem in ways that still leave many questions open.



Researchers from various institutions have studied these creatures using tracking devices. Their efforts have given fresh insights into how bowhead <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-in-hot-water-will-climate-change-disrupt-their-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> might organize their days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-follow-daily-dive-pattern">Whales follow daily dive pattern</h2>



Researchers <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prresearch/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.033174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">found</a> a 24-hour submersion rhythm in these Arctic giants. 



Part of this pattern involves staying nearer to the surface at night and submerging more deeply in the afternoon, which aligns with prey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-transport-nutrients-across-entire-ocean-basins-in-their-urine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements</a>.



Evidence also indicates that a couple of whales even stayed in step with each other for long stretches, though they were far apart. The synchronicity suggests these animals may keep in touch across wide distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-and-language-like-patterns">Whales and language-like patterns</h2>



Studies on other whale species highlight a language-like efficiency in their vocalizations. A <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.ads6014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2025 survey</a> of 16 different whales shows that 11 display <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34415939/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Menzerath’s law</a>, sometimes at levels exceeding human speech as noted by <a href="https://masonyoungblood.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mason Youngblood</a>.



In many instances, whales shorten certain sounds as they grow more frequent, revealing a principle akin to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027717301166" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zipf’s law of abbreviation</a>. This suggests these marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-patterns-in-whale-songs-predict-ecosystem-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> may prize concise signaling to save time and energy while in deep waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-in-cold-seas">Social bonds in cold seas</h2>



Communication can help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-predicts-whale-movements-to-reduce-deadly-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> handle long winters, where ice quickly seals over the surface. By fine-tuning vocal signals, they may share feeding updates and coordinate activities.



Some scientists hypothesize that these calls also reflect group identity. Research has <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-80220-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shown</a> that bowhead whales may share complex song structures within clusters of animals, with variability that could help maintain social bonds or signal individual identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-immediate-horizon">Beyond the immediate horizon</h2>



Sound travels more efficiently in water than in air. Unlike land mammals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-poop-is-a-natural-fertilizer-that-keeps-the-ocean-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> make long-distance calls that can hold the group together, preserve social ties, and perhaps alert others to predators or scarce food.



Those bursts of coordinated behavior might be driven by something as simple as a subtle change in sunlight. Or they might be triggered by learned calls that unify individuals across a giant body of water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-the-whale-patterns">Interpreting the whale patterns</h2>



The concept of “<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.ads6014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language-like</a>” efficiency gained traction after observers noticed that more frequent calls become shorter. This aligns with findings in other animals, from songbirds to some dolphins.



Earlier <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7237478/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> in human linguistics showed that pressure to communicate efficiently leads to patterns where common words shrink in length. The same dynamic may appear among bowheads if it delivers benefits for social bonding or survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-patterns-may-show-intelligence">Whale patterns may show intelligence</h2>



Some experts believe that bigger brains in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> might allow them to juggle complex tasks like adjusting calls to remain hidden from predators. Others think the calls mainly track seasonal rhythms.



A few listeners hypothesize that these calls double as an internal group code. The more they chat, the more they refine this code, balancing effort and clarity each day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-studying-hidden-giants">Challenges in studying hidden giants</h2>



Harsh conditions up north force scientists to rely on specialized tags and instruments, which often detach after days or weeks. The partial data leaves questions about how many whales adopt these behaviors.



In addition, tag-based approaches can’t always capture acoustic evidence of calls echoing through the water. To confirm direct exchanges, it’s crucial to record whale sounds around the clock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-new-approaches">Clues from new approaches</h2>



Automated analysis now helps scientists map subtle features in whale calls. One approach uses something called time-delay embedding, which treats each submersion sequence as a system that oscillates based on oxygen need and feeding opportunities.



Another technique relies on sorting out short and long calls while factoring in how frequently certain notes occur. That fine detail offers a glimpse into how whales might structure their signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-to-next">Where to next?</h2>



Additional tagging campaigns could confirm how these animals interact when far apart. Extended acoustic logging might catch continuous call exchanges over several days, tying them to submersion cycles.



With climate warming driving changes in the Arctic, tracking whales becomes urgent. Understanding their day-to-day cycles can reveal how they adapt to thinning ice, shifting predator presence, and new shipping routes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



Bowhead whales remain vital for ocean systems, recycling nutrients across large stretches of frigid water. The more we learn about their daily routines, the clearer it becomes that these mammals might be engaging in subtle social maneuvers.



Many remain optimistic that ongoing research will shine more light on the functions of their calls. This may unlock deeper questions about how they stay connected across miles of cold, silent sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-hope-for-whale-science">Fresh hope for whale science</h2>



Some observers see these findings as a way to improve safeguards. Studying whale calls helps officials design better protected zones or manage ship traffic with minimal disturbance.



As more data surfaces, voices are growing louder to preserve these creatures’ habitats. Protecting them means preserving an entire northern network of relationships and connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glance-at-tomorrow">A glance at tomorrow</h2>



Continued analysis might show that synchronized submersions happen more often than anyone realized. The whales appear to embrace these cycles for strategic feeding and possibly group cohesion.



Work in other regions will test whether the same patterns arise in different populations. If repeated, this will indicate that large whales around the globe rely on similar efficient signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-patterns-spark-global-curiosity">Whale patterns spark global curiosity</h2>



Many scientists now argue that whales and other marine mammals approach language-like complexity in their calls. Observations linking such patterns to big brains, long lifespans, and social groupings may reshape how we see marine life.



Biologists remain cautious about drawing direct parallels to human speech. Still, efficiency laws like Menzerath’s and Zipf’s keep appearing, and nudge us to rethink the uniqueness of linguistic structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-coordinate-more-than-we-knew">Whales coordinate more than we knew</h2>



Research in these frigid waters has uncovered a daily schedule that whales follow, along with surprising signs of unity across distances. The presence of repeated call patterns also raises the possibility of thoughtful coordination.



Whether they do this for mating, security, or general companionship is still uncertain. Yet these insights open a new window into their hidden daily lives.



This study was led by Associate Professor Evgeny A. Podolskiy at the&nbsp;Arctic Research Center, <a href="https://www.arc.hokudai.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hokkaido University</a>; Professor Jonas Teilmann at the&nbsp;<a href="https://ecos.au.dk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ecoscience</a>, <a href="https://ecos.au.dk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>; and Professor Mads Peter Heide-Jørgensen at the&nbsp;Department of Birds and Mammals, Greenland Institute of <a href="https://natur.gl/about-us/dpt-mammals-and-birds/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural Resources</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.033174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Research</a>.



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Bowhead whales somehow dive in synchrony across the ocean regardless of distance

Bowhead whales glide under drifting ice and are rarely seen...

The Isle of Skye is known for its rugged cliffs, sweeping shorelines, and traces of ancient life. It was also once home to massive dinosaurs, roaming and playing and leaving their footprints behind in lagoonal sands.



Thanks to a new discovery, we now know even more about these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric wanderers</a> and the ancient world they inhabited.



A team of researchers, led by Tone Blakesley from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a>, has uncovered a stunning collection of 131 fossilized footprints. 



These tracks, preserved at a site called Prince Charles’s Point, reveal the quiet activity of dinosaurs over 167 million years ago.



For paleontologists, it’s a window into a time and place that is rarely captured in such detail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-footprints-show-ancient-lagoon-life">Dinosaur footprints show ancient lagoon life</h2>



These footprints come from the Middle Jurassic period, a time of significant evolutionary change. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dinosaurs</a> had diversified, and new body plans were emerging across the globe. 



Yet fossil evidence from this era remains rare. The Isle of Skye stands out as one of the few places offering such rich Middle Jurassic traces.



The tracks were left in a subtropical lagoon environment, once filled with shallow water and lined with soft, rippled sand. 



The site is now part of an intertidal zone, where erosion helped expose these long-hidden marks. Wind, tide, and sediment had conspired to protect them for millions of years.



Researchers used drones to document the site in detail, mapping trackways across multiple layers of sediment. Their analysis identified patterns in the size, shape, and direction of the tracks.



The footprints range from 25 to 60 centimeters in length (about 10 to 24 inches), and they fall into distinct types that correspond with different kinds of dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theropods-on-the-move">Theropods on the move</h2>



Many of the footprints belonged to theropods - meat-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> that walked on two legs. These include morphotype-1a, a group of large, tridactyl (three-toed) tracks showing distinct toe pads and claw impressions.



These tracks likely came from Megalosaurus-sized animals, with estimated body lengths of between 5 and 7 meters (about 16 to 23 feet). The spacing between steps suggests slow, deliberate movements.



Smaller tridactyl prints, such as those made by individuals of morphotype-1d, could have come from juvenile theropods or a different species that was smaller.



These prints retain the same general structure as the larger ones but show slight variations in toe angle and pad shape. Researchers believe they could represent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-extinction-influenced-fruit-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early members</a> of the megalosaurid group or other similar carnivores known from U.K. fossils.



What sets this site apart is the abundance of theropod tracks compared to previous Skye discoveries. Their higher frequency suggests they may have preferred this lagoon environment or used it more frequently than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sauropods-leave-their-gentle-imprint">Sauropods leave their gentle imprint</h2>



Alongside the sharper, clawed tracks of the theropods are larger, rounder impressions. 



These sauropod footprints resemble massive tyre prints. The animals that made them walked on all fours, leaving both manus (front foot) and pes (rear foot) prints in rhythmic patterns.



The trackways stretch across several meters, sometimes exceeding 12 meters (39 feet) in length. These giants moved slowly and their footfalls were spaced widely apart, indicating their enormous size and weight.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dinosaurs_megalosaurs_sauropods_footprints_graphic_credit-PLoSONE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dinosaurs_megalosaurs_sauropods_footprints_graphic_credit-PLoSONE_1s.webp" alt="Textured orthophotos, outlines, contour maps, and DEMs are respectively represented for: (A-D) PC-TH-4-29, (F-H) PC-TH-4-28, and (I-L) PC-TH-4-26. The tracks likely represent worn surface tracks with morphotype-1a configurations (i.e., longer digit iv than ii) and low ~ 1.2 mesaxony. (M) Selected tracks, indicated by red boxes, in context to the rest of the trackway sequence. Due to present-day erosion, track margin definitions gradually decline across the sequence. Credit: PLoS ONE" class="wp-image-1964552"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Textured orthophotos, outlines, contour maps, and DEMs are respectively represented for: (A-D) PC-TH-4-29, (F-H) PC-TH-4-28, and (I-L) PC-TH-4-26. The tracks likely represent worn surface tracks with morphotype-1a configurations (i.e., longer digit iv than ii) and low ~ 1.2 mesaxony. (M) Selected tracks, indicated by red boxes, in context to the rest of the trackway sequence. Due to present-day erosion, track margin definitions gradually decline across the sequence. Click image to enlarge. Credit: PLoS ONE</figcaption></figure>



The shallow depth of the impressions suggests that the substrate was soft but not waterlogged, which is perfect for preserving such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traces</a>.



Early interpretations of these prints led to debate. Some thought they might be natural depressions or made by fish activity. But the regular spacing and anatomical fit have now confirmed their origin. 



These sauropod tracks likely belong to early neosauropods, such as Cetiosaurus, which is already known from nearby fossil sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-show-dinosaurs-walked-alone">Footprints show dinosaurs walked alone</h2>



One of the most curious aspects of the site is the apparent lack of direction. 



The dinosaurs weren’t marching in herds or following a leader. Instead, their tracks crisscross and overlap, suggesting solitary movement. Researchers describe this as “milling behavior,” where animals walked aimlessly or returned repeatedly to the same location.



The trackways do not show signs of interaction. Theropods and sauropods seem to have passed through at different times. 



This absence of coordinated travel supports a view of dinosaurs as more independent in their behavior, especially in these wetland settings.



The study site also lacks any prints from stegosaurs or ornithopods. This absence may reflect environmental differences or simply a preservation gap. 



The idea that only sauropods and theropods used this lagoon is plausible, but more evidence is needed in order to be sure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-and-ecological-importance">Historical and ecological importance</h2>



The researchers highlight a compelling overlap between historical significance and dinosaur footprints. Prince Charles’s Point is not only a rich fossil bed but also a key location in Scottish history.



“The footprints at Prince Charles's Point provide fascinating insight into the behaviors and environmental distributions of meat-eating theropods and plant-eating, long-necked sauropods during an important time in their evolution,“ Tone Blakesley and colleagues noted.



“On Skye, these dinosaurs clearly preferred shallowly submerged lagoonal environments over subaerially exposed mudflats. Intriguingly, the site also has some historical significance, as a place on Skye where Bonnie Prince Charlie landed and hid during his flight across Scotland following the Battle of Culloden.”



This dual legacy - one of fleeing royalty and ancient reptiles - gives the site a rare kind of depth. The stone remembers more than one kind of footstep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drone-technology-and-sediment-clues">Drone technology and sediment clues</h2>



Drone imaging played a crucial role in documenting the site. It allowed scientists to trace the orientation and depth of trackways from above. 



The aerial view revealed patterns that might have gone unnoticed from ground level. When the patterns were combined with on-site sediment analysis, the team could interpret how these footprints were formed and preserved.



Ripple marks across the site show the influence of water currents. However, dinosaur movements didn’t follow these ripples. That means the animals weren’t swimming or walking along shorelines. 



Instead, they wandered freely, and were unaffected by the flow. This supports the idea that they used the area casually rather than for migration or feeding.



The sediment itself offers more insight. Layers above the footprints contain finer material, suggesting occasional floods or rising tides. These conditions helped seal and protect the prints from erosion, locking their shapes in time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-film-features-the-dinosaur-footprints">Film features the dinosaur footprints </h2>



To bring the discovery to life, Tone Blakesley produced a feature-length documentary. The film explores how the site was found, what the footprints reveal, and why they matter. 



It captures the beauty of the Isle of Skye and the precision of scientific fieldwork. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ERQIEH7Epes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">You can watch the documentary here</a>.



This find doesn't just inform our understanding of dinosaur movement. It adds texture to a global picture of Middle Jurassic life. 



In a period where skeletal fossils remain rare, footprints tell a living story of ancient Scotland - one muddy step at a time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0319862" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Footprints reveal ancient playground for giant Jurassic dinosaurs

The Isle of Skye is known for its rugged cliffs,...

Beekeepers across the United States are sounding the alarm. Last year, they lost over 55% of their managed colonies - the highest loss rate recorded since tracking began in 2011.This level of loss is not sustainable.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, working with international partners, have studied a new method that could help beekeepers breed healthier, more resilient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey bee colonies</a>. 



The team tested a novel tool called the UBeeO assay, designed to measure bees' natural ability to spot and remove sick or dying young. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-growing-problem-for-beekeepers">A growing problem for beekeepers</h2>



"Beekeepers are losing bees at a rate that they say is unsustainable," said Samantha Alger, director of the Vermont Bee Lab at the University of Vermont and lead author of the study.



"In the '80s, beekeepers lost colonies 10–12% of the time … but now it's like 30–50%. Imagine that happening to someone who's a cattle farmer or a pig farmer every year."



While beekeepers have found ways to keep overall populations steady by raising new bees, it comes at a high cost - both in resources and in risk to wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>.



When pathogens from managed hives spread to native bee populations, the health of entire ecosystems can be affected.



Alger and her team work directly with beekeepers to breed stronger, disease-resistant honey bee colonies. One focus of their efforts is helping beekeepers select for hygienic behavior - the ability of bees to detect and remove unhealthy brood from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smart-sensors-help-beekeepers-monitor-hive-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hive</a>.



"It's definitely more desirable for a beekeeper to have bees that are better adapted at taking care of their diseases themselves, rather than using chemical treatments and interventions to try to reduce these pathogen loads, which, of course, may have negative impacts on the bees," noted Alger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-test-to-measure-bee-colony-hygiene">A test to measure bee colony hygiene</h2>



"Now the trick is, how does a beekeeper identify a colony that is really hygienic? And there's various tests that you can perform for that and this UBeeO is sort of a novel way of testing for it."



The UBeeO tool, developed by researchers at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, simulates the natural cues that honey bees use to detect sick brood. 



Instead of freezing brood cells, as traditional tests do, UBeeO uses synthetic pheromones that mimic the scent of diseased or dying bees.



"UBeeO has been known to identify colonies that are able to better resist <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australia-gives-up-on-efforts-to-eradicate-varroa-mites-which-are-wiping-out-bee-colonies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Varroa mites</a>, but it had not been used to look at other pests or pathogens," said Alger. "We found this new assay could be used to identify colonies that are resistant to these other stressors."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-bees-take-action">What makes bees take action</h2>



In a typical hive, each egg laid by the queen grows into a larva, which is fed and sealed into a wax cell by nurse bees. 



If something goes wrong - if the larva dies or becomes infected - nurse bees can uncap the cell and remove it. This hygienic behavior helps stop the spread of disease.



"Other folks have identified death pheromones, these compounds that are associated with death," said Kaira Wagoner, a research scientist at UNC Greensboro and co-author of the study.



"The famous biologist E.O. Wilson was one of the first to do this. He found oleic acid was emitted from dead ants. The same thing has been found with bees, and it's just likely a stronger signal - it's growing as the dead brood is basically decomposing in the cell. The signals that are coming out of an unhealthy brood are different and very likely more subtle than those death pheromones."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-more-selective-bee-colony-test">A more selective bee colony test</h2>



Unlike the freeze-kill test that uses liquid nitrogen to create dead brood, the UBeeO test simulates what bees would naturally encounter.



"Rather than using liquid nitrogen to kill the developing pupae or larvae, you are using a blend of synthetic pheromones that mimics the same chemicals that are emitted by dying or diseased brood," explained Alger.



"So rather than testing the bees' ability to identify dead brood, you are testing the bees' ability to identify diseased brood, which means that this test is a little bit more selective and realistic to what bees experience."



Wagoner began developing UBeeO during her doctoral studies and went on to co-found Optera, a company focused on bringing the test to beekeepers. Since becoming available in 2024, the test has been tried in over ten countries.



"It's a really young technology," said Wagoner. "We've now tested it in over 10 different countries, and there are breeding programs in at least five now, so there's a lot more data to come."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-colony-test-scores">Bee colony test scores</h2>



To examine how well UBeeO works, scientists used it in three regions - Vermont, North Carolina, and Australia.



The bee colony test is simple: synthetic pheromones are sprayed onto a patch of brood cells, and after two hours, researchers check how many cells the bees have uncapped.



This response is scored as the UBeeO percentage. Higher scores mean more cells were inspected, which usually indicates better hygienic behavior. 



The results showed that colonies with higher UBeeO scores tended to have lower levels of disease, including fungal infections like chalkbrood and parasites like Varroa mites.



"What we found, at least with this Australian dataset, is they only needed to achieve a 13% response on the UBeeO test to be really pretty resistant to chalkbrood. In contrast, colonies need to achieve a response of 55 or 60% on the UBeeO test to be resistant to mites," explained Wagoner.



"The honey bee responsiveness largely depends on how virulent or how harmful the specific disease is to the brood. Chalkbrood kills the brood, so the bees don't have to be as sensitive to detect it."



The Varroa mite poses a greater challenge. These tiny invaders reproduce inside sealed cells and feed on developing bees. 



If the nurse bees don't intervene, the mites are released into the colony, spreading disease and weakening the hive. By uncapping these cells early, bees can interrupt the mite’s life cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-colonies-without-chemicals">Smarter colonies without chemicals</h2>



Interestingly, the UBeeO test also detected colonies that were more resistant to Vairimorpha (formerly known as Nosema). This is a disease that affects adult bees, not brood. That raises new questions about how hygienic behavior might influence adult bee health.



"In the case of Vairimorpha, what they're doing is kind of the mystery," said Alger. "There might be other behaviors that hygienic colonies are performing aside of what we know."



As researchers continue to explore these questions, the hope is that tools like UBeeO will make it easier for beekeepers to raise stronger, more self-sufficient bees - and reduce their reliance on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-beekeeping-is-equally-productive-as-methods-using-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical treatments</a>.



For a profession facing some of the steepest challenges in agriculture today, that help can’t come soon enough.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/bee-science/articles/10.3389/frbee.2025.1509871/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Bee Science</a>.



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Science is giving beekeepers a better way to fight colony collapse

Beekeepers across the United States are sounding the alarm. Last...

In spring and summer, gardens explode with floral variety. Yet, watch a bumblebee closely, and you’ll notice something strange. Despite the buffet of colors and scents, the bee often sticks to one flower type per trip. 



It might move from one lavender bloom to another, ignoring daisies right beside them. This selective foraging, called flower constancy, has intrigued naturalists for centuries.



Charles Darwin proposed a simple explanation. He believed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-cause-of-honeybee-mortality-can-be-easily-reduced/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> chose the same flowers again and again because switching would require more memory effort. This idea held weight for a long time. After all, remembering different flower shapes, colors, and nectar rewards does demand mental work. 



But new research from the <a href="https://www.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tsukuba</a> offers a more refined view. It shows that bees don’t just aim to avoid thinking too much. They make smart, strategic choices based on their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bees-choose-flowers">How bees choose flowers</h2>



The study, led by Kentaro Takagi and Kazuharu Ohashi, shows that bees weigh two key costs: how much time it takes to remember a flower and how far they must travel to reach the next one. Their behavior results from balancing these two demands.



"We found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-face-a-multitude-of-complex-stressors-in-the-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> do not simply avoid memory effort but rather choose a strategy that minimizes the total cost of memory use and travel," explained Professor Shoko Sugiura.



This shifts our understanding away from passive behavior. Flower constancy is not just about bees lacking the mental power to switch. It’s about making the best of what they have - adapting their strategy in real time as flower arrangements change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bees-switch-flowers">Why bees switch flowers </h2>



The researchers tested this theory using artificial flowers in controlled indoor cages. Some flowers had high color contrast - blue and yellow. Others had subtle differences - yellow and golden yellow.



They also varied how flowers were arranged. In some cases, flower types were thoroughly mixed. In others, each type was grouped in clear clusters.



In mixed arrays, bees faced a choice. If they kept visiting only one species, they had to fly farther between flowers. This raised travel time. But if they switched flower types, they had to recall a different memory. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> often chose to switch, especially when flowers looked similar and the memory cost was low.



In this setting, bees behaved like economists. They balanced the time spent flying with the time spent thinking. 



When travel costs went up, they tolerated memory costs. When the mental load increased, they minimized flights. The shift in constancy wasn’t random. It was logical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-similar-flowers-make-switching-easier">Similar flowers make switching easier</h2>



One striking observation came from the trials involving subtly different flowers. When bees foraged among yellow and golden yellow blooms, they treated them almost as one type. 



Even though bees can tell these colors apart, the difference wasn’t strong enough to require separate memories. This helped them switch more freely and saved time.



But memory plays a second, subtler role. As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-do-not-learn-to-be-cooperative-it-is-in-their-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> visit one flower type repeatedly, they begin to forget the other. The information in short-term memory fades back into long-term storage. This "memory decay" increases the retrieval cost if the bee later wants to switch.



"Pollinators are more flexible than previously assumed. They assess costs and make efficient choices," said Professor Takuya Kameda.



In clustered arrays, this decay worked in favor of constancy. Bees stuck to one type, moved short distances, and avoided memory shifts. But in spaced-out arrays, decay had the opposite effect. By the time a bee reached the next flower, memory had already faded. Switching became easier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-adapting-smartly">Bees adapting smartly</h2>



To test their ideas further, the researchers built a computer model. They simulated bees moving through different flower arrangements. In these simulations, the experts removed memory retrieval costs. The model only considered how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> would behave if they cared only about distance.



The result matched real-world bee behavior in several cases. Especially in arrays with low visual contrast or large spacing, real bees acted like the simulated ones. 



This confirmed that travel distance alone can push bees to switch. Only when flowers were tightly packed and visibly different did memory costs dominate and lead to stronger constancy.



These results challenge the traditional view that flower constancy is just about bees being creatures of habit. It is not about a mental cap. It is a trade-off. The bee calculates, perhaps not consciously, but clearly effectively, the best path through a sea of choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-plants-and-evolution">Why this matters for plants and evolution</h2>



This new understanding has important consequences for plants, too. When bees switch flowers frequently, pollen may land on the wrong species. That’s bad news for reproduction. 



So, many ecologists thought that having flowers look different from neighbors was a strong evolutionary pressure. But the data haven’t always backed that up. Some flower communities are highly diverse. Others are not. Sometimes, co-flowering plants look nearly identical.



The findings from this study explain why. It’s not just about color differences. It’s about spatial layout. If different species grow in patches, bees will stay constant regardless of color. If they grow all mixed up, bees will switch more unless there’s a strong visual cue to stop them.



So, flower constancy isn’t fixed. It’s flexible. And that flexibility changes the selective pressures plants face. 



Mixed communities may need stronger visual traits to keep bee visits clean and efficient. Clustered species may rely more on positioning than petals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-bees-teach-us-about-smart-foraging">What bees teach us about smart foraging</h2>



Ultimately, this research gives us a new way to look at bee intelligence. These insects make highly effective decisions. They don’t act from instinct alone. 



The behavior of bees is shaped by their environment, their memory, and their spatial awareness. They save time and avoid waste. They change plans when the layout changes. That’s not limitation - it’s strategy.



Bees teach us that loyalty to a single flower isn't about habit. It’s a calculated choice in a world full of options.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2435.70008" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Functional Ecology.</a>



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Why bees choose the same flowers again and again

In spring and summer, gardens explode with floral variety. Yet,...

Yellowstone National Park is often seen as a showcase of raw, wild nature. But beneath its stunning landscapes lies a subtler drama. Here, wolves, bears, and cougars - three of North America’s top predators - navigate not just the challenge of hunting prey but of sharing space.



They all rely on overlapping food sources, especially large ungulates like elk. What happens when those resources become scarce?



Conventional ecological theory suggests that fewer prey animals should spark more intense competition. Dominant predators like wolves and bears are expected to push out subordinate ones like cougars. 



However, a new study from the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Minnesota</a> challenges that assumption. The researchers discovered that it’s not just the abundance of prey that matters - but how big that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predator-found-in-one-of-the-deepest-parts-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cougars-downsize-their-dinner">Cougars downsize their dinner</h2>



Over 23 years of data reveal a strategic shift by Yellowstone’s cougars. As elk numbers declined, predators like cougars began hunting smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/well-built-fences-keep-predators-from-harming-livestock/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> more frequently. 



Mule deer, along with other medium and small species, became more common in cougar diets. The smaller kills come with advantages. They take less time to consume and are less visible, reducing the chance of theft by larger carnivores.



"This work really showcases the complex ways large carnivores make a living," said lead author Jack Rabe, a graduate student in the <a href="https://cfans.umn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Food, Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences</a>.



From 2016 to 2022, 37.6% of cougar kills were deer, compared to just 13.8% during the 1998–2005 period. Elk kills dropped from 74.2% to under 50 percent. 



Cougars increasingly targeted elk calves rather than adults, further reducing handling time. This allowed them to eat more quickly and retreat before wolves or bears arrived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-displacement-and-the-cost-of-being-caught">Displacement and the cost of being caught</h2>



When dominant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snakes-use-invisible-colors-to-outsmart-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> arrive at a cougar kill, they often force the cat to flee. That process, known as displacement, has serious consequences. 



Cougars lose over 60% of the carcass when chased off, forcing them to hunt again much sooner. Kill intervals - the time between one successful hunt and the next - shorten from 5.6 days to just over 4.



Despite increasing wolf and bear numbers, displacement rates have actually declined. This runs counter to classic theories. But carcass size provides the missing link. 



Smaller kills are less visible, quicker to consume, and often made in terrain where wolves and bears struggle to follow. That means fewer confrontations and more food retained by the cougar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prey-choice-helps-predators-coexist">Prey choice helps predators coexist </h2>



"We found that shifting cougar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-tracing-the-evolution-of-an-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> is likely a key factor in the ecosystem's stability," said Rabe. 



"By opting for smaller prey, cougars reduce the amount of time they spend hunting to make up for kills lost to other carnivores. This allows them to maintain a relatively stable kill-rate, which in turn contributes to the overall balance of the predator-prey dynamics in the park."



This behavior not only protects cougars from losing meals, but also stabilizes their role in the ecosystem. Even though elk populations have fallen, cougars still manage to maintain their kill rates. 



That means they continue controlling deer and smaller ungulate numbers, while reducing risk of direct conflict with larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predators-evolved-the-perfect-fangs-for-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prey-size-controls-predator-conflict">Prey size controls predator conflict</h2>



The study found that carcass size - not prey density - was the strongest predictor of interference. Larger carcasses attracted more wolf and bear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-snails-evolved-defenses-against-invasive-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



 Displacements were 1.67 times more likely with each standard increase in prey size. Yet smaller kills, often weighing under 40 kg (about 88 pounds), drew far less attention.



This means cougars that kill smaller prey lose fewer meals. In turn, they can avoid the energy costs of defending kills or relocating frequently. Even predator-rich areas become manageable if cougars target the right kind of prey. 



The result? Less kleptoparasitism, fewer fights, and more peaceful coexistence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolving-diets-in-a-crowded-landscape">Evolving diets in a crowded landscape</h2>



Wolves and bears are adapting too. Wolves now hunt bison more often, especially in winter. 



From 1998–2005 to 2016–2022, bison rose from 10% to nearly 50% of the wolf diet. Bison favor open plains, far from the rough terrain preferred by cougars. This shift has reduced overlap between these predators.



Bears, though still frequent visitors in spring and summer, also showed a drop in displacement incidents. The rougher the terrain and the smaller the carcass, the lower the chance of a bear showing up. 



These changes show how prey choice shapes not only predator behavior, but the structure of the entire ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-food-risks-and-reproduction">More than food: Risks and reproduction</h2>



Displacement affects more than just dinner. For cougars, being forced off a kill also carries lethal risks. Though rare, wolf attacks can kill cougars. 



Two radio-collared cougars were killed by wolves between 2016 and 2022, both in terrain with poor escape options. By hunting smaller prey and staying mobile, cougars avoid such danger.



Interestingly, female cougars benefit even more. They kill smaller prey than males and are less likely to be displaced. Because females are crucial for reproduction, this strategy may support cougar population stability over time. 



Smaller prey means smaller meals, but more consistent access - an important tradeoff in a competitive environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-prey-helps-predators-stay-stable">Diverse prey helps predators stay stable</h2>



​This study helps reshape how ecologists understand predator guilds - groups of predators that share space and food sources. The <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone Wolf Project</a>, <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/yellowstone-cougar-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone Cougar Project</a>, and the University of Minnesota team demonstrate that prey diversity supports predator diversity



When ecosystems support a variety of prey sizes and types, predators adapt rather than fight. That flexibility, not aggression, helps maintain balance. Yellowstone offers a real-world case where smart choices by subordinate predators help everyone thrive.



As wolves hunt bison and cougars switch to deer, Yellowstone’s food web becomes more resilient. This insight may prove valuable far beyond the park, especially as predator and prey populations shift around the world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-07779-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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Cougars hunt smaller prey to avoid conflict with other predators

Yellowstone National Park is often seen as a showcase of...

Questions about the vastness of our world can leave us speechless. How many stars twinkle in our galaxy? How many grains of sand stretch across the Sahara? How many ants roam the Earth?



For a long time, most questions like these seemed unanswerable. Yet, as research methods evolve, and with the emergence of AI and machine learning models, scientists have begun to solve these mysteries that not long ago seemed unsolvable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-seems-to-love-ants">Earth seems to love ants</h2>



Because estimating insect numbers can unlock important ecosystem insights, many experts throughout history have tried to count particular insect species and map their habitats, aiming to understand why these creatures flourish in certain places but remain scarce in others.



Biologists Sabine Nooten and Patrick Schultheiss from <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg</a> have devoted their work in this particular study to one of nature’s most resilient insects - ants.



There are about 22,000 known ant species worldwide. Their success hinges on their social structure, with certain members handling reproduction and others focusing on tasks like caring for offspring, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-specialized-medical-surgeries-on-injured-friends/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing the sick</a>, or gathering food.



Ants have no commander at the helm. They rely on collective activity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-employ-safeguards-social-distancing-to-prevent-spread-of-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">swarm intelligence</a>. Individual neurons in a human brain cannot do much on their own, yet the combined power of those neurons is amazing. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-have-a-communications-system-that-closely-resembles-mental-telepathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ant colonies</a> mirror that principle. They can create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-use-chemical-trails-to-guide-their-friends-to-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intricate trail networks</a>, use their bodies as bridges, and “farm” fungi or aphids. Some colonies even outperform humans in certain cooperative cognition tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-distribution-and-diversity-on-earth">Ant distribution and diversity on Earth</h2>



The study indicates that ants prefer tropical and subtropical climates. In forests, many nest among the leaves on the ground. In arid regions, they bustle across the exposed soil. 



These details help ecologists see how temperature, vegetation, and rainfall might affect ant populations. 



The team hopes to see more work done on factors shaping where ants thrive, especially as temperatures shift around the world.



With such immense numbers, ants bring both positive and negative outcomes. 



They can keep ecosystems healthy by recycling nutrients, and they sometimes form alliances with plants or insects in ways that boost local biodiversity. 



But not all interactions are benign. In certain places, invasive ants like fire ants harm native species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-far-reaching-influence">Far-reaching influence</h2>



Ants carry soil, move seeds, and alter many parts of their surroundings. Per hectare, ants move up to 13 tons of soil mass per year, and this movement can help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungus-farming-ants-work-hard-to-maintain-healthy-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keep nutrients cycling</a>. 



Their love of seeds means they spread some plants far beyond the mother plant’s reach. 



Scientists note that understanding the number of ants worldwide can help guide future conservation strategies, because it highlights areas that might need special attention to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protect the ecological balance</a>.



In addition to soil turnover, these insects also break down decaying materials, providing valuable services that enrich soil fertility. 



Forest regeneration often benefits from the constant churning of organic matter, and ants are key contributors. Such varied roles mean they hold ecological power disproportionate to their size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-to-count-earth-s-ants">Time to count Earth's ants</h2>



The tireless team of scientists, led by Nooten and Schultheiss, analyzed data from 489 smaller studies on ground-dwelling and tree-dwelling ants to create a large database of their global population. 



This approach offered a structured look at where ants flourish and in what numbers they appear. When they crunched the numbers, they found something remarkable.



“According to our estimates, the global ant population is 20 x 10 to the power of 15 - that is, 20 quadrillion animals. That is a 20 with 15 zeros, which is hard to grasp and appreciate," Nooten explains. 



The combined mass of these insects is also astonishing. 



According to Schultheiss, the total number of ants “exceeds the combined biomass of wild birds and mammals and corresponds to about 20 percent of humanity’s biomass,” a discovery that shows how vital ants can be in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-fill-a-150-year-gap-in-biodiversity-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems everywhere</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-earth-and-climate-change">Ants, Earth, and climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-shifting-to-new-habitats-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">As climates change</a>, scientists want to see how these creatures will shift their ranges. The research by this group was the first large-scale attempt at a quantitative overview of ant populations, and it points to many open questions about potential challenges. 



While ants have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-now-using-cars-to-travel-spread-to-new-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thrived across continents</a>, altering habitat structures and climate could place pressure on species that are less adaptable.



In some areas, people view ants as pests. Yet these insects, when kept in balance, offer many unseen benefits. 



For instance, their tunnels can help water infiltration in soil. They also serve as prey for various animals, creating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-ants-art-science-sustainable-food-source-ant-cuisine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">links in the food chain</a>. 



Problems usually arise when invasive ants enter habitats and drive out local species that have no defenses against them. Fire ants, for example, can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-hold-a-grudge-against-aggressive-rivals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upend an entire environment</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-left-to-learn">What's left to learn?</h2>



Researchers are enthusiastic about finding methods to analyze trends, such as how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-not-properly-adapting-to-warming-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature extremes</a> might affect ants’ movements. 



Data from global, long-term monitoring can reveal how different species cope with droughts, hurricanes, or shifting seasons. There is also interest in exploring how farmland changes ant presence over time.



Moving forward, the team underscores the importance of refining data on these insects. By revisiting ecosystems that have been studied before, experts can learn whether ants have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-ants-use-earths-magnetic-field-for-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">settled in new zones</a> or left older ones. 



Such targeted work could inform farmers about pest control, point out regions at risk of invasion by harmful ant species, and guide decisions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-ants-make-a-huge-contribution-to-forest-regeneration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat restoration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Ants seldom top the list of creatures people think about. Yet they have an outsized role in shaping our surroundings. 



Their ability to transform habitats, redistribute resources, and affect local biodiversity suggests a need for more research. 



Different species often have specialized tasks, whether caring for aphids or forging trails that other creatures can follow. 



Learning about ant numbers brings these impacts into view, providing clues on how to preserve balance in fragile areas.



It also encourages reflection on how many hidden factors <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-destabilizing-ant-plant-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keep our ecosystems intact</a>. Though small, ants tackle responsibilities that otherwise would need a range of other organisms to manage. 



By studying these insects, scientists glean insights about resilience, adaptability, and the intricate web of life holding everything together.



Ants, often overlooked, deserve a central place in our discussions about the natural world. They shape environments, help distribute seeds, and are more populous than most of us imagined. 



Whether admired for their social complexity or managed for their potential risks, these insects illustrate how even the tiniest creatures can shift large-scale processes.



The full study, “The abundance, biomass, and distribution of ants on Earth,” was published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2201550119" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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How many ants live on Earth? The number is staggering

Questions about the vastness of our world can leave us...

Mother,And,Cub,Of,Bonobo.,Green,Natural,Background.,The,Bonobo

Bonobos, our closest relatives, may not speak, but they use something strikingly similar to human language.



A new study from researchers at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a> and <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> reveals that wild bonobos use complex vocal combinations. These resemble how humans string words together.



Researchers observed bonobos in the Kokolopori Community Reserve in the Democratic Republic of Congo. They found that bonobo calls follow the rules of compositionality, a core feature of human language.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bonobo</a> calls are more than random noises. They are structured, purposeful, and, in some cases, surprisingly complex. This research doesn’t just hint at intelligence. It shows the skeleton of a system that mirrors how we construct meaning from words and phrases.



If correct, this means that the boundary between human and non-human communication is far more blurred than scientists used to think.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-human-language-special">What makes human language special</h2>



One feature of human language stands out - compositionality. This is our ability to string small parts together into meaningful wholes.



For example, a dancer can be blond; a dancer can be bad. In the first case, “blond” adds a trait, while in the second, “bad” modifies how we think about the dancing itself. The latter is more than a label - it’s judgment woven into structure.



Compositionality comes in two forms: trivial and nontrivial. Trivial compositionality occurs when each word keeps its independent meaning. Nontrivial compositionality occurs when the combination reshapes meaning, where one part changes the sense of the other. 



Until now, evidence for nontrivial compositionality in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> other than humans was missing. Some birds and primates showed signs of trivial compositionality. But no study had proven that any non-human species could modify meaning in such layered ways.



This is where the bonobos come in. Their vocal combinations suggest they may not only understand the value of combining sounds - but can manipulate meaning like we do, through structured, nontrivial arrangements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-calls-are-like-human-language">Bonobo calls are like human language</h2>



The researchers collected 700 vocal recordings of the Kokolopori bonobos over time.



Each utterance was annotated with more than 300 contextual features - what the bonobo was doing, who was nearby, what activity the group was engaged in. These features, called FoCs (features of circumstances), offered a way to map meaning.



To analyze the patterns, the team used a framework borrowed from distributional semantics, a linguistic method that typically applies to human languages. It maps meanings by looking at how words appear across similar contexts. Words used in similar situations tend to have related meanings.



Using this method, researchers projected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-thriving-in-salonga-national-park/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobo</a> calls into a semantic space. In this space, calls with similar meanings cluster close together. 



This allowed the scientists to examine not just individual calls, but also what combinations formed - and whether those combinations held meaning greater than the sum of their parts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-use-rules-similar-to-language">Bonobos use rules similar to language</h2>



The researchers applied a rigorous four-step process to evaluate each combination. First, they checked if individual call types had distinct meanings. 



Then, they assessed whether combinations had meanings that were different from the meanings of their parts. Next, they asked whether a combination’s meaning could be derived from its components.



Finally, they looked for cases where the meaning of the whole was different from simply adding up the parts - which would be evidence of nontrivial compositionality.



“All seven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orphaned-bonobos-can-regain-social-skills-and-empathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobo</a> call types that were considered in our analysis combine into four compositional structures, of which three exhibit nontrivial compositionality,” the study's authors report.



This is a major shift. It means that not only are bonobos capable of combining calls meaningfully, but they also do so in ways that mirror the deeper, more abstract structures of human language.



The research found that combinations like High-hoot_Low-hoot, Peep_Whistle, and Peep-yelp_High-hoot all exhibited nontrivial compositionality. One combination, Yelp_Grunt, did not. It retained trivial structure, where the meaning was just the sum of the parts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-these-bonobo-calls-might-mean">What these bonobo calls might mean</h2>



Understanding bonobo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peaceful-bonobos-are-actually-more-aggressive-than-chimps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication</a> means more than just identifying call types. It means deciphering the purpose behind each sound. Grunts, for example, seem to signal “look at me,” drawing attention in various social settings like grooming or feeding. 



High-hoots are louder and often used over distance or in tense moments, suggesting “pay attention to me.” Low-hoots emerge during excited moments, such as preparing a nest for the night.



The whistle plays another role entirely - it helps maintain group cohesion, perhaps saying “let’s stay together.” Peeps and yelps, though similar, differ in tone. Peeps are more suggestive - maybe “I’d like to…” - while yelps are firmer and more like commands: “let’s do that.”



Then come the combinations. Peep_Whistle, for example, may mean something like “I’d like us to stay together,” and often appears during sensitive moments such as displays or copulation. 



High-hoot_Low-hoot might signal distress, urging others to pay closer attention. Peep-yelp_High-hoot could be a way to organize group movement, coordinating actions with distant individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-combinations-reveal">What the combinations reveal</h2>



Determining whether a combination was trivial or nontrivial required more than guessing. 



Researchers compared each combination’s meaning against hypothetical “additive” meanings - where A and B’s meanings were just added together. If the real combination strayed significantly from this sum, it was labeled nontrivial.



“For all compositional combinations except Yelp_Grunt, the difference was greater than zero,” the study states. That made Yelp_Grunt the only trivial structure. The other three combinations carried a new kind of meaning. They didn’t just add. They transformed.



This means that in at least three cases, bonobos created new meanings from existing calls. This aligns closely with how humans use language to express ideas. Words shift and adjust each other in context. 



Bonobos, it seems, do this with their own form of language too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-our-evolutionary-past">A window into our evolutionary past</h2>



What do these findings tell us about ourselves? Quite a lot, it turns out.



“Since humans and bonobos had a common ancestor approximately 7 to 13 million years ago, they share many traits by descent, and it appears that compositionality is likely one of them,” said Harvard Professor Martin Surbeck.



“Our study therefore suggests that our ancestors already extensively used compositionality at least 7 million years ago, if not more,” added Simon Townsend.



This positions language not as a sudden leap in human evolution, but as a gradual development. It suggests that the foundations for structured communication were laid long before Homo sapiens arrived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-method-with-wide-possibilities">A method with wide possibilities</h2>



The study also offers a method to understand communication across species. By mapping vocal signals using minimal human judgment and focusing on context, the researchers showed that meaning could be measured more objectively.



“We present a method for reliably inferring the meaning of all the signals of an animal’s repertoire with minimal human judgment,” the authors explain.



This method doesn’t rely on assigning meaning through guesswork. It uses context and data, opening the door to future studies across different groups of animals, from dolphins to elephants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-language-remains-complex">Bonobo language remains complex</h2>



The researchers acknowledge that some utterances remain difficult to interpret. Calls might convey emotional states, not just intentions. Subtle acoustic variations may exist but go unnoticed. Some calls may serve structural roles, like those in birdsong, rather than conveying clear messages.



Also, vocalizations are not the only form of communication. Bonobos combine vocal calls with gestures and facial expressions. These multimodal signals likely shape meaning too. Future studies may show even richer layers of nonverbal language in bonobo society.



Even so, the evidence is strong. Bonobos do not just make noise. They communicate in structured, meaningful ways. They use building blocks. They rearrange, modify, and combine. And in doing so, they remind us that the roots of language run deep.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adv1170" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Bonobo communication shares many similarities with human language

Bonobos, our closest relatives, may not speak, but they use...

Modern birds have air-filled cavities in their bones to reduce weight for flight. Interestingly, this feature has also been discovered in dinosaur fossils. 



A new study of alvarezsauridae fossils has identified these same bone features in creatures that roamed the Earth nearly 70 million years ago.



Experts studying these slender dinosaurs uncovered evidence of hollow channels that link to their respiratory systems. 



The results suggest that <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.0160" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pneumaticity</a> might have been more common in theropod dinosaurs than previously thought.



This work was led by <a href="https://www.patagonia.com.ar/General+Roca/450_Museo+Patag%C3%B3nico+de+Ciencias+Naturales.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Patagonian Museum of Natural Sciences</a> in Roca, and was founded as a project by the Patagonian Foundation of Natural Sciences. Researchers collaborated across Argentina and China to piece together details of these unusual bones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-bones-were-hollow">Dinosaur bones were hollow</h2>



Bird skeletons stand out for their lightweight build. Many have air sacs that extend into bones, helping to manage body temperature, improve respiratory functions, and reduce overall mass.



Scans of these new fossils indicate that such air sacs already existed in some dinosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineages</a>. 



Paleontologists suggest this adaptation might have provided other benefits, particularly in oxygen circulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hollow-bones-helped-dinosaur-breathing">Hollow bones helped dinosaur breathing</h2>



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.284.5423.2137" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have long known that certain dinosaur groups had air pockets in their skeletons. Yet the extent of these cavities in <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/saurischia/theropoda.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theropod dinosaurs</a> has been debated.



CT scans of the dinosaur fossil vertebrae uncovered interconnected voids that likely connected to respiratory structures. 



This structural pattern resembles what is seen in living birds, though the ancient dinosaur bones differ in shape and size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-tail-anatomy">Surprising tail anatomy</h2>



One unexpected twist came from the tail region. Internal air spaces showed up as far back as the middle segments, hinting at a more widespread distribution of air pockets than is found in some other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-case-of-the-two-clawed-dinosaur-duonychus-tsogtbaatari/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



Specialists in dinosaur fossils and biology have typically focused on the neck and torso regions for signs of air sacs. 



However, seeing as the air sacs extend far into the tail, this raises fresh questions about how these creatures breathed and moved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-random-variability-in-bone-cavities">Random variability in bone cavities</h2>



Another puzzle emerged when the team compared separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specimens</a> of different sizes. They found uneven patterns of diverticula within the same type of vertebrae, suggesting no clear progression of these air pockets.



“This study is an important first step that paves the way for future studies to uncover the extent of pneumatic invasion among alvarezsauridaes, and its macroevolutionary implications,” explained J. G. Meso from The Patagonian Museum of Natural Science.



The authors described this uneven distribution of hollow spaces in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> bones as a seemingly random process that might relate to blood vessel pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-directions-in-dinosaur-research">New directions in dinosaur research</h2>



Scholars comparing these findings to those of other species note that air cavities might show up in surprising places once larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-eggs-found-in-utah-belong-to-multiple-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> datasets are examined.



Some suspect this adaptation appeared in different dinosaur families at various points, rather than following a steady evolutionary path.



With more advanced imaging, experts hope to learn if certain groups gained or lost these hollow spaces over time. This approach could reveal unexpected links between distant branches of the dinosaur family tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-bones-changed-with-evolution">Dinosaur bones changed with evolution</h2>



Lightweight skeletal features might have enhanced efficiency, but no one knows if they aided speed, temperature control, or other factors. 



<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00534.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> of bird flight have shown that reduced bone mass can help modern species, though alvarezsauridaes did not soar.



Further research might clarify whether these air-filled bones played a role in daily activity or growth. Specialists also want to explore how these structures evolved among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-discovered-in-australia-rewrite-dinosaur-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>, scavengers, and other lifestyles within <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/saurischia/coelurosauria.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coelurosaurians</a>.



Scientists remain cautious about comparing ancient air sacs to those of living birds. Different theropod families likely followed various paths to lighten their bones and enhance respiratory function.



Some paleontologists propose that future CT analyses of more fossils could confirm if these features evolved multiple times. Each new discovery brings fresh insights into how dinosaurs thrived in unique environments.



Future research may reveal complex bone cavities in species other than dinosaurs. Ongoing studies will broaden our view of how dinosaurs thrived.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0320121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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First evidence of 'hollow bones' found in dinosaurs, just like modern birds

Modern birds have air-filled cavities in their bones to reduce...

Hummingbird,With,Flower.,Rufous-gaped,Hillstar,,,Urochroa,Bougueri,,On,Ping

The shift into warmer days often brings a renewed interest in the outdoors. Gardens begin to hum with activity as new blooms appear, and the buzz of local pollinators adds a lively backdrop. The excitement of seeing a hummingbird hovering in your yard can brighten any afternoon.



It’s fitting to recognize that these remarkable birds have captured the attention of Dr. Emily Watkins from the <a href="https://www.audubon.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Audubon Society</a>, whose work highlights simple yard enhancements that can welcome them year after year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quick-and-colorful">Quick and colorful</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hummingbirds</a> weigh less than a nickel, yet they are capable of staying airborne in one spot and sometimes even flying backward. 



Their bright feathers reflect brilliant reds, greens, or purples, depending on the angle of the sunlight. This blend of color and agility has made them a favorite subject of conversation among neighbors who compare sightings around the yard.



When they rest, they often vanish into nearby branches or shrubs. These short breaks let them conserve energy before the next <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hummingbirds-deal-with-their-need-for-flight-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">burst of motion</a>. 



A quick appearance at a flower or a feeder can shift moods, spark a moment of joy, and motivate people to experiment with plants that might catch a hummingbird’s eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tough-and-tiny-travelers">Tough and tiny travelers</h2>



Every garden has its own rhythm, but hummingbirds bring an energy that delights the senses. 



Some people notice that these feathered visitors arrive just when the temperature nudges them to plant new flowers or hang fresh feeders. 



This timing often reinforces the feeling that a new season is officially underway.



These birds use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-adjust-their-wings-to-fly-through-very-tiny-spaces/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">incredible amounts of energy</a> with every wingbeat. Some species manage flights of thousands of miles each year, and certain ones even cross the Gulf of Mexico without a break.



Their wings can beat up to 80 times per second, and they may visit hundreds of flowers in a single day. With such intense demands, they require a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-incredible-strategy-to-survive-food-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">steady supply of nectar</a> and insects. 



Filling your yard with the right kinds of flowers, such as azaleas, will guarantee that they have a steady supply of both.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-azaleas-yards-and-hummingbirds">Azaleas, yards, and hummingbirds</h2>



Azaleas come in many sizes, with some reaching 15 feet tall and others staying closer to the 3 to 6 foot range. 



Their funnel-shaped blooms are well-suited to a hummingbird’s long bill, making them a practical addition for those hoping to attract these birds. 



Beyond nectar, azaleas can draw insects such as aphids and mites, which make up about 80% of a hummingbird’s diet. 



Observers sometimes choose to pair azaleas with other nectar-rich plants, such as bee balm or salvia, to keep a yard filled with buzzing and fluttering activity throughout the growing season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-science-says">What the science says</h2>



Scientists took a close look at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-hummingbird-day-celebrating-natures-aerial-acrobats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbird sightings</a> across the mainland United States. 



They wanted to see if feeders, nectar-laden flowers, native species, or reduced pavement would affect the chances of hosting these tiny visitors. 



Findings showed that homes with a variety of blooms and regular feeders were more likely to spot hummingbirds, especially if those plantings included native flowers. 



Having less asphalt and concrete around also helped.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204619311284" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">This research</a> spanned both urban and rural regions. Results lined up with established advice from conservation groups that highlight the value of planting native species and preserving pockets of natural habitat. 



By following these suggestions, many homeowners find that their outdoor spaces become more inviting to local wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neighborhood-hummingbird-havens">Neighborhood hummingbird havens</h2>



Many communities run programs that set aside open spaces for pollinator-friendly growth. Organizers point to hummingbirds as a symbol of how nature can thrive in a suburban or city environment. 



When property owners plant shrubs that offer both nectar and insect life, those choices can provide a more welcoming stopover for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbird-chick-mimics-a-toxic-caterpillar-to-evade-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traveling birds</a>.



In some areas, city councils partner with environmental groups to develop pollinator corridors. These aim to link multiple gardens into a network of habitats. 



Once enough backyards and public spaces join the effort, hummingbirds can move through neighborhoods more easily. Residents, in turn, share a united project that connects them in a positive way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-hummingbird-yard">Creating a hummingbird yard</h2>



To sum it all up, nationwide observations from the National Audubon Society's study confirm that straightforward gardening steps can do a lot for attracting hummingbirds to your yard. 



A clean feeder with fresh sugar water, replaced every few days, is a quick option for those just starting out. 



Azaleas and other native shrubs provide the natural nectar and insects these birds depend on, giving them the variety they need. 



Small efforts add up across the block, strengthening local greenery and helping these visitors refuel during migration or while raising young.



Some people see these actions as part of a broader push for healthier local ecosystems. Planting for pollinators may also balance out land lost to development. 



Local wildlife officials often applaud neighborhood collaborations because they promote a sense of unity and keep colorful creatures thriving close to home.



Observing one dart through sunlit foliage can lift anyone’s spirits, and these moments often spark an even deeper appreciation of the living world around us.



It's that time of year, the hummingbirds are here.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204619311284" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Landscape and Urban Planning</a>.



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How to turn your yard into a haven for hummingbirds

The shift into warmer days often brings a renewed interest...

A,Close-up,Photograph,Of,A,Juvenile,St,Andrew's,Cross,Spider

Whether it’s the constant hum of traffic or the repetitive clamor of construction, the noises produced by modern society can obstruct the abilities of spiders and all other animals to send and receive signals that are crucial for their survival.



Studying how animals pick up information can be hard, but web-building spiders give scientists a special chance to look at how external tools (like spider webs) help filter out the noises they don't care about and receive the signals that are important for their survival.



Now, a team of biologists at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln (<a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNL</a>) has published one of the first known studies demonstrating how one group of animals can react to human-made noise by adjusting its own method of sensing sounds. 



In an article published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2025.02.041" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>, researchers Brandi Pessman and Eileen Hebets show that funnel-weaving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-reveal-how-cave-creatures-lose-their-vision-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> alter how their silk webs transmit vibrations in response to local noise. 



This finding suggests that the spiders might deliberately change web structure to cope with the auditory chaos surrounding them, ensuring they receive vital cues from potential mates, prey, or predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-noise-and-web-adjustments">Spiders, noise, and web adjustments</h2>



Drawing on lab experiments, the study uncovered a particularly unexpected insight: the way a spider’s web conveys vibrations varies depending on whether its architect was collected from a rural or urban area. 



This discrepancy hints at the idea that prior exposure to noise - possibly even inherited across generations - may influence a spider’s malleability when it comes to spinning webs.



“One of the most interesting things that we found is that urban and rural spiders are reacting differently when they're put into a noisy environment,” said Pessman, a postdoctoral researcher in biological sciences and the lead author of the paper. 



“This means that spiders with different experiences with noise - whether they themselves experienced it or their mothers passed it down to them across generations - respond differently.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spider-webs-as-sensory-extensions">Spider webs as sensory extensions</h2>



It has been well documented that animals such as birds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-calls-and-voices-of-frogs-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> can change their calls or the timing of their vocalizations in the face of increased human noise. 



However, little was known about how animals manage to tweak the way they receive acoustic or vibratory signals.



The main challenge is the hidden nature of most animals’ sensory systems, which are located within their bodies. 



But web-building spiders are unique, as their webs function effectively like external sensory extensions that capture vibrations from the environment.



This distinction makes funnel-weaving spiders, also known as Agelenopsis pennsylvanica, an ideal test group. They rely predominantly on vibratory signals for vital information. 



Their webs connect to various surfaces - trees, rocks, or buildings - capable of transmitting the vibratory noise created by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-get-road-rage-when-exposed-to-traffic-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traffic</a>, industrial activities, and more. 



The research team hypothesized that funnel-weaving spiders might be able to reduce the volume of unwanted or irrelevant vibrations caused by human-related noise, which often shares the frequency range these spiders need for effective communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-in-urban-areas">Spiders in urban areas</h2>



Pessman started by collecting a total of 60 funnel-weaving spiders in and around Lincoln, Nebraska - some from city settings and others from out in the countryside. 



In the lab, the spiders were then placed in controlled environments that were either quiet or noisy as they spun webs over four nights.



Upon completion, the researchers introduced test vibrations into those webs, measuring how energy moved across the silk in different conditions.



They observed that spiders from urban areas tended to build webs that lost more energy in short-distance vibrations across a broader set of frequencies when placed under noisy conditions. 



Interpreted practically, these webs essentially “muffled” environmental noise. This may prevent sensory overload, giving the spiders a clearer signal from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> or other relevant vibrations in their immediate vicinity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-that-are-exposed-to-less-noise">Spiders that are exposed to less noise</h2>



Meanwhile, rural spiders assembled their webs in such a way that energy from biologically important long-distance vibrations was preserved. 



This indicates they might be amplifying or enhancing certain frequency ranges to pick out meaningful vibrations above the background noise.



“Rural spiders are not used to as much noise in their environment,” Pessman said. “When they suddenly get a lot of noise, they might try to 'turn up' the volume in their webs or amplify what's coming in to better hear certain signals above the noise.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Given the role of funnel webs as external sensory structures, these findings open a new window into how animals can adjust the way they receive signals, a research area that had remained largely unclear until now. 



The ability to alter web structure in response to different noise environments could prove vital as human-made noise continues to escalate across the planet.



In the future, the team plans to investigate precisely how the spiders are changing their webs - whether they adjust the tension of certain silk lines, vary anchor points, or adopt an entirely new shape to filter or boost specific frequencies. 



High-speed video of the web-building process, combined with digital tracking methods, will let them delve deeper into these construction nuances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-noise-and-spider-webs">Human noise and spider webs</h2>



“This study really highlights the role of receivers in overcoming environmental noise,” said Hebets, who is a professor of biological sciences at UNL. 



“It opens up entirely new avenues of research. For example, are receivers placing themselves at certain locations in the environment where signals are going to receive less attenuation or overlap of noise?”



By revealing that some species can modify their “sensor” for hearing, the team hopes to inspire more research on how other animals cope with rising noise levels. 



The funnels built by these little invertebrates may seem inconsequential to an urban passerby, but as the study shows, each strand of silk can be precisely tuned to help the spider thrive in a clamorous world.



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Spiders build their webs differently when the noise in their neighborhood gets too loud

Whether it’s the constant hum of traffic or the repetitive...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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