Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations.



In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways.



This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human trick</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-calls-and-language-origins">Chimpanzee calls and language origins</h2>



Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts, and hoos that can match specific events or contexts. Scientists studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> communication often focus on whether these calls can be recombined to express novel ideas.



“Generating new or combined meanings by combining words is a hallmark of human language, and it is crucial to investigate whether a similar capacity exists in our closest living relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, in order to decipher the origins of human language,” said Dr. Crockford. 



Observing apes in rich forest environments over many years helped researchers gather thousands of vocal utterances, matching them to various daily events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimpanzees-use-call-combinations">How chimpanzees use call combinations</h2>



Previous analyses suggested that primates usually rely on single calls. But chimpanzees in this project displayed a variety of two-call combinations that seemed to deliver more complex messages than either single call alone.



“Recording chimpanzee vocalisations over several years in their natural environment is essential in order to document their full communicative capabilities, a task that is becoming increasingly challenging due to growing human threats to wild chimpanzee populations,” said Roman Wittig, co-author of the study and director of the Taï Chimpanzee Project. 



Calls like hoo, pant, and grunt were often linked to feeding, traveling, approaching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companions</a>, or even building a nest.



Some paired calls strayed far from the meaning of either individual call. Others narrowed or clarified the meaning of one call by combining it with another.



Researchers also discovered that a pair of calls could add both meanings together. Sometimes, flipping the order of the same two calls changed which events triggered that combination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-are-complex">Chimp calls are complex</h2>



“Our findings suggest a highly generative vocal communication system, unprecedented in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-chimp-nests-can-tell-us-about-early-independence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>, which echoes recent findings in bonobos suggesting that complex combinatorial capacities were already present in the common ancestor of humans and these two great ape species,” said Cédric Girard-Buttoz, first author of the study. 



”This changes the views of the last century which considered communication in the great apes to be fixed and linked to emotional states.”&nbsp;



Humans rely on syntax to shift the message of a group of words by rearranging them. Chimpanzee call combinations seem to share a similar principle, at least in miniature form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-and-specific-events">Chimp calls and specific events</h2>



Scientists matched each vocal utterance to events such as resting, traveling, or social interactions. 



Earlier <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982205010407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> found that certain hoo calls link with resting or feeding. This project took that approach further by analyzing two-call sequences in multiple communities of wild chimpanzees.



Some call pairs combined rest and social signals, while others popped up in contexts that had little to do with either call used alone. The addition or repositioning of a second call often changed the full vocal sequence’s event links.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-hint-at-early-language">Chimp calls hint at early language</h2>



Human language can create countless meanings from a limited set of sounds. These chimpanzee findings point to a flexible communication system that can widen its meaning capacity using simple steps.



Researchers say it is possible that human ancestors carried similar abilities. Over time, these may have expanded into the more detailed language structures we know today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-researchers-still-need-to-learn">What researchers still need to learn</h2>



Questions remain about longer sequences that might chain three or more calls. Future studies may investigate how that chaining impacts clarity or social bonding among chimpanzees.



Scientists also want to see if other primates or animals use multiple call-combining strategies. Some suggest that more species might do the same if studied across enough time and daily contexts.



Experts emphasize that playback experiments could confirm how receivers interpret each combination. Wild animals rarely stand still for tests, but careful monitoring might reveal which part of a call they respond to.



There is also the question of whether some call pairs express reference to upcoming events. Knowing that certain sequences appear during, say, nest-building might help reveal how apes convey planning or intention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-data-is-needed">More data is needed </h2>



With more data, researchers hope to better map how these combinations relate to specific events or states. Each new finding challenges the idea that only humans generate layered meanings from limited vocal elements.



Spending years in the field was crucial. It took that long to observe enough high-quality instances of different chimp calls, especially for rarer behaviors like nest-building.



Many wonder if these chimp call strategies might extend to gestures or other signals. Studies of both vocal and non-vocal communication could fill in gaps that remain.



Efforts to protect wild populations are also vital. Researchers stress that deforestation or poaching will cut short our chance to learn more about ape communication in its natural setting.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq2879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Chimpanzees mix vocal calls to create new meanings, like humans

Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations. In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways. This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively human trick. Chimpanzee calls and language origins Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts,...

Hair is important, and not just for humans, but for all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-mammals-play-a-role-in-combating-climate-change/">mammals</a>. Hair serves many functions. It keeps us warm, provides camouflage for both predator and prey, and many species even use hair for communication. Despite its significance, the evolution of wild primate hair is not very well understood.&nbsp;



In an effort to determine how climate, body size, and color vision may have influenced hair evolution, researchers with the <a href="https://cashp.columbian.gwu.edu/primate-genomics">Primate Genomics Lab at the George Washington University</a> looked at a wild population of Indriidae, a type of lemur endemic to Madagascar.&nbsp;



The experts found that Sifaka lemur hair is denser in arid, open habitats. They hypothesize that similar to its function in humans, this type of hair helps protect the lemur from the sun.&nbsp;



The researchers also discovered that lemurs that lived in cooler environments had darker hair. They believe that the animals adhere to Bogert’s Rule, which declares that animals who live in colder environments develop darker hair which helps them thermoregulate since darker hair absorbs more heat.



Interestingly, red hair in lemurs is more likely to be seen in populations that can perceive a more extensive range of colors. Nonetheless, several evolutionary pressures influence hair structure and color; this means that these effects will not be found in all lemur species.



Unfortunately, it is not easy to understand the evolution of human hair by looking directly at ancestral hair because it does not fossilize, which is why researchers turned to lemurs.&nbsp;



“The lemurs we studied exhibit an upright posture like humans and live in a variety of ecosystems like early humans, so our results provide a unique window into human hair evolution," said study lead author Elizabeth Tapanes,&nbsp; a postdoctoral scholar at UC San Diego.



The scientists hope that by studying non-human primates such as lemurs, we can gain a better understanding of our own evolutionary history.



“Most people are intrigued by the diversity of hair on their own bodies, and the variety of hair types among people around the world," said study co-author Professor Brenda Bradley.



“Understanding hair patterns in non-human primates, such as these lemurs, may provide a comparative context for understanding how variation arose in human hair.”



The study, “<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ajpa.24508">Hair phenotype diversity across Indriidae lemurs</a>,” is published in the American Journal of Biological Anthropology.



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lemurs provide a window into the evolution of hair

Hair is important, and not just for humans, but for...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a> has looked at the role of large mammalian herbivores in combating climate change. This is an unusual approach, as large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disposable-masks-are-increasingly-impacting-marine-animals/">animals</a> are generally not considered in ideas of climate change mitigation.&nbsp;



“Conservation efforts usually focus on either trees and carbon or the broad conservation appeal of large mammals," said Professor Yadvinder Malhi, an expert in the Environmental Change Institute at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a>. "This study looked at whether it was possible to align these agendas - under what context could protecting and restoring large animal wildlife help us tackle and adapt to climate change.”



The research examined several ways in which large mammals can impact carbon storage, fire prevention and the reflection potential of the Earth’s surface. They do so by spreading seeds, clearing vegetation and fertilizing soil. Such activities boost the biodiversity of an area, which in turn makes an environment more resilient to climate change. These actions also increase the carbon storage of an ecosystem.&nbsp;



Trampling and grazing on vegetation in colder areas also reveals bare earth or earth covered in snow. Revealing the snow layer also makes the surface more reflective, bouncing solar radiation away, thus keeping Earth cooler. This also allows more cold air near the surface of the planet, which maintains permafrost in its frozen state and keeps its carbon stores locked away.&nbsp;



Finally, the research shows that grazing by zebras, rhinoceros, elephants and other large herbivores can lessen the risk of fire. This happens because the animals trample or graze natural fire breaks, making it harder for fires to spread. Less fires of course mean less carbon in our atmosphere and less climate change.&nbsp;



“Animals can also help with localized adaptation to climate change in these environments by diversifying vegetation and increasing habitat heterogeneity," said Dr. Tonya Lander, an expert in the Department of Plant Sciences at Oxford University. "Diversity of species and microhabitats can make the ecosystem as a whole more able to resist climate change, return to a stable state following a climate-related disturbance, or find a new stable state that functions within the changed and changing climate.”&nbsp;



While the study provides some insight into how animals can impact climate change, the scientists are calling for more research so we can more fully understand and mitigate the problem.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Large mammals play a role in combating climate change

A new study published in the journal Current Biology has...

Rising levels of carbon dioxide have led to warmer oceans, with a quarter of the atmospheric CO2 dissolving into the oceans and causing them to become more acidic. Such changes can have a negative impact on various marine ecosystems, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/corals-can-be-trained-to-endure-heat-stress/">corals</a>. However, a new study led by <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> (OSU) has found that some Hawaiian corals are surprisingly resilient to warmer, more acidic conditions.



The scientists collected samples of the three most common coral species in Hawaii - Montipora capitata,&nbsp;Porites compressa,&nbsp;and&nbsp;Porites lobata – and placed them in outside tanks with four different conditions: a control tank with current ocean conditions, an ocean warming condition (plus 2 degrees Celsius), an ocean acidification condition (minus 0.2 pH units), and a combination of both warming and acidification.&nbsp;



The tanks were designed to mimic ocean reefs by including sand, rocks, fish, crabs, starfish, and urchins, and were allowed natural variability in temperature and pH levels over the course of each day and during different seasons, as they would have in their natural habitat.



Although over the course of the 22-month study the three coral species did experience significant mortality under conditions simulating the ocean temperatures and acidity expected in the future, none of them completely died off, and some were even thriving by the end of the study.&nbsp;



“We found surprisingly positive outcomes in our study. We don’t get a lot of that in the coral research field when it comes to the effects of warming oceans,” said study lead author Rowan McLachlan, who conducted the study as a doctoral student at OSU.



Overall, 61 percent of the Hawaiian corals exposed to warming conditions survived (compared to 92 percent exposed to current ocean temperatures), with the two Porites species being more resilient than M. capitata in the combined warming and acidification condition. At the end of the study, the survival rates were 71 percent for P. compressa, 56 percent for P. lobata, and only 46 percent for M. capitata.



“Of the coral that survived, especially the&nbsp;Porites&nbsp;species, they were coping well, even thriving,” said Dr. McLachlan. “They were able to adapt to the above-average temperature and acidity.”&nbsp;



“We don’t know how corals will fare if changes in temperature and acidity are more drastic than what we used in this study,” he added. “Our results do offer some hope but the approximately 50 percent mortality we saw in some species in this study is not a small thing.”



Further studies that include local stressors such as pollution or overfishing - which may have additional negative impacts on corals in some regions - are needed in order to better understand the future effects of climate change on coral reefs.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-06896-z">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hawaiian corals are surprisingly resilient to ocean warming

Rising levels of carbon dioxide have led to warmer oceans,...

The Maldives, a group of 26 atoll islands in the Indian Ocean, are home to a stunning array of tropical reef <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-fish-have-lost-the-ability-to-grow-efficiently/">fish</a>, along with a diversity of other fish, including rays and sharks. The known fish fauna total over 1,100 different species, a biodiversity that far exceeds that found in other marine regions. And now there is a brand new species to add to the list – a rose-veiled fairy wrasse, Cirrhilabrus finifenmaa.



This brightly colored reef fish is remarkable not only for its stunning beauty, but also because its discovery marks some noteworthy "firsts." It is the first species to be given a name derived from the local Dhivehi language. Its specific name, "finifenmaa" means "rose," and refers both to its pink coloration and to the island nation’s national flower. It is also the first time that local Maldivian scientists have been involved in the formal description process of a new species from the local marine environment.



“It has always been foreign scientists who have described species found in the Maldives, without much involvement from local scientists, even those species that are endemic to the Maldives,” said study co-author Ahmed Najeeb, a biologist at the Maldives Marine Research Institute (MMI). “This time it is different and getting to be part of something for the first time has been really exciting, especially having the opportunity to work alongside top ichthyologists on such an elegant and beautiful species.” 



The new fairy wrasse species was actually first collected by researchers in the 1990s. However, at that time it was thought to be the adult form of a different species, Cirrhilabrus rubrisquamis, which had been described in 1983 based on a single juvenile specimen from the Chagos Archipelago, an island chain 1,000 kilometers (621 miles) south of the Maldives. Subsequently, more specimens thought to be C. rubrisquamis were collected from the Maldives and, although scientists now assumed they had examples of adult males and females, there remained confusion about the appearance of the juvenile fish. 



In order to clear up the confusion, scientists from the <a href="https://www.calacademy.org/">California Academy of Sciences</a>, the University of Sydney, the MMRI, and the Field Museum collaborated to re-evaluate the species as part of the <a href="https://www.calacademy.org/about-us/major-initiatives/hope-for-reefs-phase-ii">Hope for Reefs</a> initiative, aimed at better understanding and protecting coral reefs around the world. 



The team conducted a very detailed analysis of the anatomy and morphology of both adult and juvenile examples of the beautiful, multicolored fish. This involved measuring the lengths of spines supporting the fins, counting scales on different body regions and measuring the dimensions of the body parts - including the head, jaw, and tail. 



The magenta and peach coloration was also described in detail for all the specimens. These data, along with genetic analyses, were then compared to data from the&nbsp;original C. rubrisquamis&nbsp;specimen to confirm that&nbsp;what the scientists had was indeed a unique species, C. finifenmaa.



One important consequence of describing C. finifenmaa as a new species is that the known ranges of the two different wrasse species now become greatly reduced. Instead of there being one species distributed all the way between the Maldives and the Chagos Archipelago, 1,000 kilometers to the south, each fairy wrasse species is now known from only one of the island groups. This is a crucial consideration when planning conservation and management strategies.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“What we previously thought was one widespread species of fish, is actually two different species, each with a potentially much more restricted distribution,” said lead author and University of Sydney doctoral student Yi-Kai Tea. “This exemplifies why describing new species, and taxonomy in general, is important for conservation and biodiversity management.”&nbsp;



Sadly, populations of the beautiful rose-veiled fairy wrasse may already be under threat. Even though this species has only just been described to science, it is already being exploited for sale to aquarium enthusiasts around the world.&nbsp;



“Though the species is quite abundant and therefore not currently at a high risk of overexploitation, it’s still unsettling when a fish is already being commercialized before it even has a scientific name,” said senior author Dr.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.calacademy.org/learn-explore/science-heroes/luiz-rocha">Luiz Roch</a>a, who co-directs the&nbsp;Hope for Reefs&nbsp;initiative. “It speaks to how much biodiversity there is still left to be described from coral reef ecosystems.”&nbsp;



Marine scientists from the MMRI have continued their collaboration with the Hope for Reefs&nbsp;researchers&nbsp;by conducting the first surveys of the Maldives’ "twilight zone" reefs. These virtually unexplored coral ecosystems are found between 50 and 150 meters (160–500 feet) beneath the ocean’s surface. Last month’s survey enabled the researchers to collect new specimens of C. finifenmaa,&nbsp;along with at least eight potentially new-to-science species yet to be described.&nbsp;



This sort of collaborative endeavor between international partners is key to understanding the Maldives’ coral reefs and ensuring they are adequately conserved into the future.&nbsp;



“Nobody knows these waters better than the Maldivian people,” said Dr. Rocha. “Our research is stronger when it’s done in collaboration with local researchers and divers. I’m excited to continue our relationship with MMRI and the Ministry of Fisheries, to learn about and protect the island nation’s reefs together.”



“Collaborating with organizations such as the Academy helps us build our local capacity to expand knowledge in this field. This is just the start and we are already working together on future projects,” said Najeeb. “Our partnership will help us better understand the unexplored depths of our marine ecosystems and their inhabitants. The more we understand and the more compelling scientific evidence we can gather, the better we can protect them.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/">ZooKeys</a>.



Image Credit: © Yi-Kai Tea



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Strikingly beautiful fairy wrasse discovered in the Maldives

The Maldives, a group of 26 atoll islands in the...

The return of the swallows has been celebrated for thousands of years as a harbinger of <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/new-evidence-reveals-that-dinosaurs-died-in-the-spring/">spring</a> in the United Kingdom. However, it was not known until the 20th century where they went after they disappeared in the autumn. Many people - including notable scientists - believed that they hibernated on the bottom of ponds.&nbsp;



With the introduction of bird ringing at the beginning of the 20th century, their true destination was revealed. In December 1912, a swallow was caught on a farm in South Africa, bearing a ring that had been placed on its leg 18 months earlier in Staffordshire, UK. Because the European winters were too cold for the insects on which swallows fed, the birds headed south each winter, traveling incredible distances until the warm south of the African continent.&nbsp;



However, according to the <a href="https://www.bto.org/">British Trust for Ornithology</a> (BTO), swallows have recently started to spend winters in the United Kingdom instead of migrating over 6,000 miles to South Africa. This major change in behavior is one of the most remarkable signs that climate change is severely dismantling a large variety of ecosystems.



“It is indeed remarkable,” said BTO’s chief executive, Professor Juliet Vickery. “We haven’t got to go back too far to remember winters when it would have been impossible for swallows to survive the freezing temperatures, but as our winters get milder it is something we may see more and more.”&nbsp;



BTO’s <a href="https://www.bto.org/our-science/projects/birdtrack">BirdTrack survey</a> of birdwatchers has received more than 100 reports of up to 12 individual swallows that were observed during January in the warmer south and south-west of Britain, as well as parts of Ireland. Thus, with an increase of mild winters in the past few years, it appears that a small number of swallows are able to spend the winter months in Britain, instead of migrating to the south.



“To suggest that our winters would be warm enough for swallows to survive would have been unthinkable a few decades ago,” said&nbsp;BTO’s Director of Science, Professor James Pearce-Higgins. “But the evidence that our climate is changing is building year by year.”



According to BTO, swallows are not the only birds affected by climate change. In fact, almost a quarter of British breeding species may be negatively affected by the steady rises in temperature witnessed in the past years. Scientists are yet to understand all the implications of these fundamental changes in bird behavior caused by global warming, and to find solutions to minimize their negative impact.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Swallows are no longer migrating south as winters become milder

The return of the swallows has been celebrated for thousands...

Cancer detection is a major public health challenge. The methods currently used to detect cancerous cells, such as MRIs and mammograms, are often invasive and expensive, which limits their long-term use.&nbsp;



In order to bypass such constraints, alternative methods like the use of animals’ sense of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sense-of-smell-has-diminished-in-humans-and-other-primates/">smell</a> are currently investigated. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/">National Center for Scientific Research</a> in France (CNRS) has found that ants can discriminate between cancerous and healthy cells, as well as between different types of cancers.



The researchers performed tests on 36 ants under a laboratory setting. They first exposed the ants to a sample of cancerous human cells, which they associated with a reward consisting of a sugary solution that the ants enjoy. After only a few minutes of training, the ants learned to reliably differentiate between cancerous and healthy human cells.



This is not the first time that scientists used animals’ olfactory sense to help detecting cancerous cells. Dogs, for example, have also been able to sniff them out. However, training them to do so required long periods of time, ranging from a few months to a year.



By contrast, according to the researchers, “insects can be easily reared in controlled conditions, they are inexpensive, they have a very well-developed olfactory system and hundreds of individuals can be conditioned with very few trials. Ants therefore represent a fast, efficient, inexpensive, and highly discriminant detection tool for detection of cancer cell volatiles.”&nbsp;



Although the efficacy of this method must now be tested in clinical trials on actual human beings, these first results suggest that ants may be some of the best animals to use in detecting cancers and more.



“Our approach could potentially be adapted to a range of other complex odor detection tasks including the detection of narcotics, explosives, spoiled food, or other diseases, including malaria, infections, and diabetes,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.103959">iScience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ants can detect cancer through smell

Cancer detection is a major public health challenge. The methods...

Lithium is a non-renewable resource in high demand to support the transition to a low carbon economy. It’s most commonly used to power the world’s electric vehicles, a promising technology to reduce global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lower-emissions-needed-to-save-the-winter-season/">emissions</a>.



Most of the world’s lithium is mined in Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina, an area known as ‘The Lithium Triangle," which is coincidentally, home to three species of flamingos.&nbsp;



A new study has found that lithium mining and climate changes in the Andes Mountains could be negatively affecting the region’s flamingo population.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study, published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, considered the effects that lithium mining and climate change are having on the lakes in the Chilean Andes where flamingos flock for feeding and breeding.&nbsp;



“Given how rapidly our demand for lithium is growing, there is a great need to understand what negative effects its production might be having on biodiversity and especially those species, like flamingos, that are important to local economies,” explained study co-author Dr. Nathan Senner, a population biologist at the <a href="https://sc.edu/">University of South Carolina</a>.



The "lithium triangle" is home to two species of flamingos who only breed in this region exclusively. Flamingos are also an important foundation of the region’s ecotourism industry.&nbsp;



The study looked at five lakes in the Chilean Andes, part of the Lithium Triangle, where Chile’s lithium mining is largely focused.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed 30 years of flamingo counts collected by citizen scientists and biologists from the Chilean government. Remote sensing data was also used to identify changes in water levels and food availability within each lake. This allowed the experts to evaluate the climatic factors influencing water and flamingo food availability, as well as how water and food influenced flamingo abundance.&nbsp;



The study revealed that lakes across the regions are starting to shrink, largely due to climate change. The impacts of a shrinking lake directly impact breeding flamingos. When a lake’s water levels are low, food levels decrease, leaving less opportunity for breeding flamingos.&nbsp;



The results show that in Salar de Atacama, a lake directly affected by mining, the two species of flamingos that breed only in these mountains have already lost 10 to 12 percent of their populations. Overall, however, the flamingo population has not yet declined.&nbsp;



The stability of the local flamingo population is likely due to the opportunity for the birds to migrate to different lakes with better conditions. The researchers are concerned that this may not last, as the demand for lithium mining is growing at an exponential rate.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In order to meet demand for electric vehicles, cell phones, and electronic storage devices, lithium mining in Chile is projected to triple by 2026 relative to 2018 levels.



“The problem is that, in the Salar de Atacama, in addition to the changes caused by climate change across the region, lithium mining is reducing water levels and increasing disturbances for flamingos,” explained Dr. Jorge Gutiérrez, an ecologist at the Universidad de Extremadura who led the study. “This means years with sufficient water for flamingos to breed occur less frequently and fewer flamingos are now present, Study co-author Dr. Cristina Dorador said that the flamingo declines in the Salar de Atacama may soon spread to the rest of the region.“Given that two of these flamingo species breed nowhere else in the world, this could lead to dramatic declines across their entire range and severely hurt the local ecotourism industry that relies on flamingos.”



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Demand for lithium comes at a cost to flamingos

Lithium is a non-renewable resource in high demand to support...

Global warming is modifying countless aspects of marine ecosystems, including species compositions and interactions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-food-chains-threatened-by-ocean-acidification/">marine food webs</a>, metabolic rates and growth of species, disease profiles and rates of primary production. The effects of this degradation are particularly noticeable in the tropical reef ecosystems of the Caribbean, where warming has caused mass coral mortality events, extinction of reef-dependent taxa and the loss of ecosystem function over the past few decades.&nbsp;



Building on previous research, Colleen Bove of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and colleagues, present the results of a new analysis of 150 years of sea-surface temperature changes throughout the Greater Caribbean region. Their results, published today in the open-access journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/">PLOS Climate</a>, provide a synthesis of ocean warming that will help scientists understand how temperatures are impacting these iconic ecosystems.



Initially, the researchers compiled a data base of the locations of Caribbean coral reefs, using the coordinates of known reefs listed in several international sources. In total, they identified the locations of 5,326 unique reefs across the Caribbean Basin. They allocated all the reefs into one of eight ecoregions that they identified using the World Wildlife Fund’s marine ecoregions classification.



They then used three open-access datasets of satellite and on-location sea-surface temperature observations to assess the changes in temperature in the region between 1871 and 2020.



Their analysis showed that, in the Greater Caribbean area as a whole, reef warming began in 1915, although in four of the eight ecoregions, warming began even earlier, during the second half of the nineteenth century. Following a global pause in warming in the mid-twentieth century, warming of the Caribbean reefs resumed in the 1980s and 1990s and has continued ever since then.



The researchers found that Caribbean reefs have been heating up at remarkable rates over the last century: they have warmed by an average of 0.18oC per decade, during this period, giving a total increase of 0.5 to 1°C in the past century. Different ecoregions have experienced varying rates of warming over time. If the warming trend continues as it has, the authors predict that the Caribbean reefs will warm by an additional1.5°C by the year 2100.



Analysis of the sea-surface temperature data also showed that marine heatwave events have increased in frequency and duration since the 1980s. The Caribbean reefs now experience an average of five heatwave events each year, compared to only one per year in the early 1980s. Recently, these extreme heating events have lasted an average of 14 days.&nbsp;



“Our study indicates that coral reefs have been warming for at least a century and many reefs across the Caribbean have already warmed by a degree Celsius," wrote the study authors. "This explains why we have seen such devastating declines in the health of this invaluable ecosystem.”



The experts conclude that the changes in thermal environment, in addition to other stressors such as fishing, pollution and diseases of corals, have caused a dramatic shift in the functioning of Caribbean coral reef ecosystems. They are calling for an urgent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, as well as plans to address these other stressors, in order to protect the remnant Caribbean coral reefs.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Caribbean corals have been warming for at least a century

Global warming is modifying countless aspects of marine ecosystems, including...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html">University of Bern</a> in the Switzerland has compared the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-may-have-galloped-long-before-they-dragged-themselves-onto-land/">locomotion</a> behavior of free-ranging dairy cows grazing on traditional summer mountain farms with that of cattle grown in modern cubicle housing without access to pastures. According to the researchers, traditionally-raised cows were more active and spent over 12 hours per day standing and moving around – a much healthier lifestyle than that of their confined counterparts.



“Welfare of intensively farmed animals and whether the housing systems allow individuals to express natural behavior, are of public concern. Pasture based husbandry systems enable cattle to express their natural behavior such as grazing, freedom of movement, and social interaction and thus provide better welfare than confinement systems,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“However, due to the increasing use of conventional indoor housing systems and automated milking systems combined with continuously increasing herd size, zero grazing systems are becoming more and more common in many countries of the European Union.”



While keeping dairy cows indoors allows for the control of climatic and environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, bedding availability, adjusted feed supply, or regular health checks, scientists worry that such confinement could compromise the animals’ well-being by stopping them from expressing their normal behavior and thus making them prone to various physical and psychological distress.&nbsp;



To test this hypothesis, researchers measured locomotion activity of healthy dairy cows kept on mountain pastures and compared it with that of cows kept in cubicle housing systems. The cows were equipped with a 3D-accelerometer on one of their hind legs, and their locomotion behavior – in terms of walking time, lying time, walking bouts, standing bouts, or number of strides – was recorded for 48 hours.



The results shown that mountain pasture cows had higher locomotor activity levels, spending almost a double amount of time walking than their penned counterparts. “In summary, cows kept on mountain pasture were more active and spent longer than 12 hours/day standing. Lying markedly less than 12 hours per day seems to represent the normal behavior of pastured cows searching for fresh grass. This does not cause any obvious damage to the locomotor system as claws of cattle are well adapted to long periods of movement on mountain pastures,” concluded the authors.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264320">PLoS ONE</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Free-ranging dairy cows have a much healthier lifestyle

A new study led by the University of Bern in...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tick-saliva-could-provide-pain-relief-to-humans/">Pain</a> is one of the primary reasons people visit the emergency room and so controlling pain is a major goal for hospitals. In fact, pain accounts for 80 percent of emergency room visits. A new study looks at a novel approach to pain management - therapy dogs.&nbsp;



Initially, therapy dogs started visiting emergency room waiting areas in Canada as a way to distract patients from long wait times. In one hospital, the trend started to grow, yet there is little research on how dog visits may help emergency room patients.&nbsp;



A handful of studies in the US and Canada show that patients and hospital workers seem to welcome the presence of dogs and may derive some benefit from them. The new research picks up where these studies left off, providing more insight into the effect of therapy dogs in emergency rooms.&nbsp;



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>, investigated the impact of therapy dogs not only on pain but also on anxiety, depression and overall well-being. Using a scale from one to eleven, these symptoms were measured immediately after a visit by a therapy dog and twenty minutes later at the Royal University Hospital Emergency Department. Heart rate and blood pressure were also recorded. Control groups of similar age, gender and ethnicity had these factors measured 30 minutes apart for comparison.&nbsp;



The results were interesting, but perhaps not too surprising for many dog owners. After a 10 minute visit by a therapy dog, people reported small but significant drops in pain. Interestingly, men reported more of a drop in anxiety than women in both control and dog visit groups.&nbsp;



Both men and women had significantly reduced depression and anxiety after the therapy dog visit. The dogs also seemed to improve the patients' sense of well-being. The study is important in showing the viability of using therapy dogs in emergency rooms.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ten minutes with a therapy dog can help relieve ER patients

Pain is one of the primary reasons people visit the...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungal-disease-is-decimating-amphibians-in-baja-california/">Amphibians</a> are sensitive to temperatures and other environmental factors, much more so than mammals. Without any way to regulate their own body temperatures, frogs, salamanders and the like are at the whim of climatic changes. Scientists at the <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/">University of Pittsburgh</a> suspected that gut microbes, important in other aspects of health, might play a role in resilience to temperature in amphibians, and set out to test this idea.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“As temperatures are warming, if animals are experiencing disruptions in their microbial communities - as we know can happen due to human-caused stress - then that could lead them to not survive as well,” said lead author Samantha Fontaine, a PhD student in the Kenneth P. Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences.



Fontaine reared tadpoles in several different pools consisting of two categories: normal pond water full of microbes and sterilized water with very few microbes. The two water treatments each contained tadpoles raised at different temperatures ranging from 57 to 82 degrees Fahrenheit.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Unsurprisingly, the tadpoles that lived in the sterilized water had less microbes in their guts. Strangely, these microbe-less tadpoles grew much larger than their counterparts raised in normal pond water.&nbsp;



Another interesting result of the research is that the tadpoles with microbes were better able to survive higher temperatures, even when the size difference was accounted for.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We definitely need more natural experiments to see how this would actually play out in the wild,” said Fontaine. “But this is the first study to show that there’s a connection between heat tolerance and the microbiome” in animals like amphibians.



The research has a practical conservation application, especially as Earth continues to warm and amphibians are increasingly threatened by many anthropogenic causes.&nbsp;



“The idea of probiotics is really big in the field: Are there microbes that are really important that we can supplement animals with?” said Fontaine. “If so, it’s possible that can help them withstand changes in temperatures more robustly.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gut microbes help tadpoles cope with climate change

Amphibians are sensitive to temperatures and other environmental factors, much...

The Christmas Island rat was abundant when Captain John Maclear anchored his ship Flying Fish in a bay off the Indian Ocean Island in 1887. His crew made a small collection of local fauna, among them the first specimen of the indigenous rat species. Phosphate mining operations began shortly thereafter on the Island, and the rats were not recorded again after 1905. Christmas Island rats were considered to be completely extinct by 1908, due to the accidental introduction of black rats (R. rattus) infested with fleas that carried the fatal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fewer-vultures-more-wild-dogs-linked-to-greater-disease-risks/">disease</a> typanosomiasis.



Having been extinct for just over 110 years, and with several museum specimens preserved for posterity, the Christmas Island rat makes an interesting candidate for de-extinction. This is a process whereby lost species are resurrected using one of several possible biotechnologies. In this case, a team of paleogeneticists considered the possibility of using genome editing to reconstruct the entire genome of the extinct rat species. Their findings are published today in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>, where they assess the chances of success and the limitations of this approach.



Usually, when sequencing the genome of an extinct species, scientists face the problem of fragmented and degraded DNA that does not reveal all the genetic information needed to reconstruct the entire genome. However, with the Christmas Island rat, evolutionary geneticist Tom Gilbert from the University of Copenhagen and his colleagues were able to obtain almost all of the rodent’s genome from the specimens housed in museums in the UK. In addition, since this species diverged relatively recently from other Rattus species that are still extant, it shares about 95 percent of its genome with living Norway brown rats.



“It was a quite a nice test model,” says Gilbert. “It’s the perfect case because when you sequence the genome, you have to compare it to a really good modern reference.”



Once the DNA of the extinct species had been sequenced, it was matched up with the genome of the living species for reference. This enabled the scientists to identify any parts of the extinct species’ genome that were missing. Indeed, they found that a few key genes were missing. These genes were related to olfaction in Christmas Island rats, meaning that a resurrected rat would likely be unable to process smells in the way it would originally have done.&nbsp;



In theory, CRISPR gene editing technology can be used to edit the DNA of the living species so that it matches that of the extinct species. If this was done on germ cells (sperm or ova) of brown rats, then they could become parents of offspring that contained the extinct species’ genome. However, this technology cannot be successful if there are missing genes that are unique to the extinct species. Unfortunately, the more degraded and old the tissue from the extinct species is, the more fragmented the resulting DNA will be, making genome assembly more challenging.



“With current technology, it may be completely impossible to ever recover the full sequence, and therefore it is impossible to ever generate a perfect replica of the Christmas Island rat,” said Gilbert.



This scenario is particularly pertinent to attempts to resurrect mammoths, which went extinct several thousand years ago. Although modern elephants are genetically similar to mammoths, the mammoth DNA has had thousands of years of degradation and will not contain a complete set of functional mammoth genes in the genome.&nbsp;



“It is very, very clear that we are never going to be able to get all the information to create a perfect recovered form of an extinct species,” said Gilbert. “There will always be some kind of hybrid.” Though a replica will never be perfect, the key is that scientists are able to edit for the DNA that makes the extinct animal functionally different from the living one.



Gilbert explained that in order to make an ecologically functional mammoth, for example, it might be enough to edit elephant DNA to make the animal hairy and able to live in the cold. “If you're making a weird fuzzy elephant to live in a zoo, it probably doesn't matter if it is missing some behavioral genes. But that brings up a whole lot of ethical questions.”



Gilbert plans to perform the actual gene editing on rats, but would like to start with species that are still living. He intends to begin by performing CRISPR edits on a black rat genome to change it to a Norway brown rat genome before attempting to resurrect the Christmas Island rat.&nbsp;



Though he is excited about this future research, the whole process still poses ethical questions. “I think it's a fascinating idea in technology, but one has to wonder if that's the best use of money as opposed to keeping the things alive that are still here."



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Resurrecting the Christmas Island rat – the limits of possibility

The Christmas Island rat was abundant when Captain John Maclear...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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