Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations.



In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways.



This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human trick</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-calls-and-language-origins">Chimpanzee calls and language origins</h2>



Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts, and hoos that can match specific events or contexts. Scientists studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> communication often focus on whether these calls can be recombined to express novel ideas.



“Generating new or combined meanings by combining words is a hallmark of human language, and it is crucial to investigate whether a similar capacity exists in our closest living relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, in order to decipher the origins of human language,” said Dr. Crockford. 



Observing apes in rich forest environments over many years helped researchers gather thousands of vocal utterances, matching them to various daily events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimpanzees-use-call-combinations">How chimpanzees use call combinations</h2>



Previous analyses suggested that primates usually rely on single calls. But chimpanzees in this project displayed a variety of two-call combinations that seemed to deliver more complex messages than either single call alone.



“Recording chimpanzee vocalisations over several years in their natural environment is essential in order to document their full communicative capabilities, a task that is becoming increasingly challenging due to growing human threats to wild chimpanzee populations,” said Roman Wittig, co-author of the study and director of the Taï Chimpanzee Project. 



Calls like hoo, pant, and grunt were often linked to feeding, traveling, approaching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companions</a>, or even building a nest.



Some paired calls strayed far from the meaning of either individual call. Others narrowed or clarified the meaning of one call by combining it with another.



Researchers also discovered that a pair of calls could add both meanings together. Sometimes, flipping the order of the same two calls changed which events triggered that combination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-are-complex">Chimp calls are complex</h2>



“Our findings suggest a highly generative vocal communication system, unprecedented in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-chimp-nests-can-tell-us-about-early-independence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>, which echoes recent findings in bonobos suggesting that complex combinatorial capacities were already present in the common ancestor of humans and these two great ape species,” said Cédric Girard-Buttoz, first author of the study. 



”This changes the views of the last century which considered communication in the great apes to be fixed and linked to emotional states.”&nbsp;



Humans rely on syntax to shift the message of a group of words by rearranging them. Chimpanzee call combinations seem to share a similar principle, at least in miniature form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-and-specific-events">Chimp calls and specific events</h2>



Scientists matched each vocal utterance to events such as resting, traveling, or social interactions. 



Earlier <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982205010407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> found that certain hoo calls link with resting or feeding. This project took that approach further by analyzing two-call sequences in multiple communities of wild chimpanzees.



Some call pairs combined rest and social signals, while others popped up in contexts that had little to do with either call used alone. The addition or repositioning of a second call often changed the full vocal sequence’s event links.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-hint-at-early-language">Chimp calls hint at early language</h2>



Human language can create countless meanings from a limited set of sounds. These chimpanzee findings point to a flexible communication system that can widen its meaning capacity using simple steps.



Researchers say it is possible that human ancestors carried similar abilities. Over time, these may have expanded into the more detailed language structures we know today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-researchers-still-need-to-learn">What researchers still need to learn</h2>



Questions remain about longer sequences that might chain three or more calls. Future studies may investigate how that chaining impacts clarity or social bonding among chimpanzees.



Scientists also want to see if other primates or animals use multiple call-combining strategies. Some suggest that more species might do the same if studied across enough time and daily contexts.



Experts emphasize that playback experiments could confirm how receivers interpret each combination. Wild animals rarely stand still for tests, but careful monitoring might reveal which part of a call they respond to.



There is also the question of whether some call pairs express reference to upcoming events. Knowing that certain sequences appear during, say, nest-building might help reveal how apes convey planning or intention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-data-is-needed">More data is needed </h2>



With more data, researchers hope to better map how these combinations relate to specific events or states. Each new finding challenges the idea that only humans generate layered meanings from limited vocal elements.



Spending years in the field was crucial. It took that long to observe enough high-quality instances of different chimp calls, especially for rarer behaviors like nest-building.



Many wonder if these chimp call strategies might extend to gestures or other signals. Studies of both vocal and non-vocal communication could fill in gaps that remain.



Efforts to protect wild populations are also vital. Researchers stress that deforestation or poaching will cut short our chance to learn more about ape communication in its natural setting.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq2879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Chimpanzees mix vocal calls to create new meanings, like humans

Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations. In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways. This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively human trick. Chimpanzee calls and language origins Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts,...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ele.13983">Ecology Letters</a> has examined the cascading effects of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vicunas-and-guanacos-decimated-by-mange-outbreak/">mange outbreak</a> on the high Andes ecosystem of Argentina’s San Guillermo National Park. Before the 2015 mange outbreak, vicuñas,&nbsp;pumas,&nbsp;and condors have been intrinsically connected, with vicuñas grazing the grass, pumas preying on them, and condors feeding on the pumas’ leftovers. However, after mange nearly wiped out the entire vicuña population, these relationships quickly unraveled, profoundly destabilizing the ecosystem.



Sarcoptic mange is caused by parasitic mites that burrow under the skin of animals, triggering excruciating pain that stops the animals from moving or foraging. The outbreak in San Guillermo probably stemmed from domestic llamas that were introduced to private lands outside the park in 2015.&nbsp;



“This preserve is about as remote as you can get, with very little human interaction, and yet it is still not safe from human activities occurring hundreds of miles away,” said study co-lead author Justine Smith, as assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a>. “Pathogens can take hold quickly, leaving animals with little time to respond or adapt. We might see unintended consequences that we should be preparing for when managing at-risk populations of wildlife.”



Before this outbreak, pumas had been the biggest threat to vicuñas. However, this tiny mite proved to be much more dangerous than the large predators, decimating the park’s vicuña populations in a few years. When their main food source disappeared, condors eventually left the park altogether, while pumas needed to switch to other food sources, such as small rodents, in order to avoid starvation.



These changes among the animals also caused massive landscape changes. Bare ground became covered in grass over huge expanses visible from space, and vegetation increased by 900 percent in areas where vicuñas used to graze.



“We don’t really know how or if these systems will recover,” said Smith. “Will they return to the system we knew, or will a new balance emerge from these dynamics? It’s hard to predict.”



“Continuing to support our colleagues in Argentina who have worked for decades to understand and protect this unique system will be vital for tracing the continuing effects of the disease and for promoting the ecosystem’s recovery,” concluded study co-author Julia Monk.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tiny parasite disrupts an entire ecosystem in the high Andes

A new study published in the journal Ecology Letters has...

The number of snowshoe hares in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thirsty-mountain-forests-leave-lower-elevations-with-less-water/">forest</a> is a good indicator of how healthy the ecosystem is, and scientists have now applied a new method to find out.



Usually, live-trapping is used by researchers for determining the density of snowshoe hares and other small mammals. However, this method is costly, requires a team of people to manage, and can potentially harm the animals.



The researchers have adopted an improved, more humane method for monitoring the population density of snowshoe hares that is based on newly developed camera-trapping methods.



“Snowshoe hares are considered a keystone, boreal forest species and there’s been some evidence that hare populations are changing as the climate warms,” said study co-author Dan Thornton. “This study comes out as rapidly changing climatic conditions are altering our natural plant and animal communities worldwide.”&nbsp;



Cameras have long been used to study the presence and population density of large cats, like the Canadian lynx for years. This is because large cats are easily distinguishable, with unique markings that differ between individuals. Snowshoe hares have unmarked coats, making it difficult to use traditional camera trapping methods.&nbsp;



Analytical models have been recently developed that use photographs to extract data such as animal speed and location. While these models have been effective in estimating the density of unmarked animals such as hares, the approach has not yet been used in the wild. Questions remain as to whether the modeling approach is as reliable as traditional, live-trapping methods.&nbsp;



In 2019, researchers from <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> designed a large-scale field test to analyze the camera method while investigating the density of snowshoe hares at various forested sites on the eastern edge of the North Cascades in Washington. The experiment successfully trapped 770 snowshoe hares and collected 13,608 camera trap photos.&nbsp;



To determine effectiveness, the research team compared live-trapping and camera-trapping data. The study found that, overall, density estimates from the cameras had an 86 percent correlation with live trapping data. “Until now, cameras could only really tell us if the hares are there or not there,” said Thornton.&nbsp;



To validate the reliability of this approach, the researchers plan to use camera trapping methods in larger scale experiments. The research could help map the health of snowshoe hares and other unmarked animals, and shed new light on the health of forests themselves.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/jmammal/gyac009/6541509">Journal of Mammalogy</a>. 



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Snowshoe hares provide clues about forest health

The number of snowshoe hares in a forest is a...

The killer whale (Orcinus orca) and the false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens) are the only living cetaceans, or oceanic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-perform-a-spinning-dive-to-catch-deep-prey/" data-type="news" data-id="1899158">dolphins</a>, that feed upon other marine mammals, with pods of orcas even known to aggressively hunt and eat gigantic blue whales. However, the origins of this type of predatory behavior are unclear and fossil records for both of these species are very limited. 



In 2020, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.nyit.edu/">New York Institute of Technology</a> (NYIT) discovered the remains of an ancestor of the false killer whale on the island of Rhodes in Greece. The species was named Rododelphis stamatiadisi after the island where it was found and the paleontologist who made the discovery, Polychronis Stamatiadis. The remains represent the first clear fossil evidence for the origins of the false killer whale, which is estimated to have lived during the Pleistocene about 1.5 million years ago.&nbsp;



The researchers compared the anatomy of Rododelphis to today’s false killer whales and orcas, as well as to Orcinus citoniensis, the orca’s only known ancestor. Based on the dimensions of its skull, Rododelphis was roughly the same size as its modern counterpart, measuring 13 feet in length and weighing about 1,200 pounds. Next to the fossils, the scientists also discovered traces of what has probably been this creature’s last meal: fish bones.



While both Orcinus and Rododelphis had powerful jaw muscles and sharp interlocking teeth, these teeth were smaller and more numerous than those of today’s orcas. Moreover, the teeth of both these ancient whales lacked the rough scratches and chipping commonly caused by eating mammals, suggesting that their diet might have consisted entirely of fish.



These findings contradict the popular theory that large whales evolved such giant bodies to avoid predation. While the first giant whale emerged 3.6 million years ago, this study suggests that ancient dolphins began preying on other marine mammals such as whales much later, probably within the last three million years ago.



“The diversification of the oceanic dolphin family occurred within the last five million years, but fossil evidence from the Pleistocene epoch is exceedingly rare,” said study co-author Jonathan Geisler, an expert in marine mammal evolution at NYIT. “With&nbsp;Rododelphis, we’re now beginning to fill this gap and better understand the repeated evolution of feeding adaptations in oceanic dolphins—in other words, how both orcas and false killer whales separately evolved similar cranial anatomy and the behavior of feeding on other marine mammals.”



Further research and the discovery of more fossils are needed in order to establish with precision when these whales began changing their diet and started feeding upon other marine mammals.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960982222002639?dgcid=author">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient killer whales ate fish, not other mammals

The killer whale (Orcinus orca) and the false killer whale...

Recently, a team of <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a> biologists looked at hibernation and its effect on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-reverse-the-aging-process-in-middle-aged-mice/">aging</a> in yellow-bellied marmots. The study is the first to examine the rate of aging in a wild marmot population. 



The scientists discovered that these fluffy critters can suspend the aging process during their seven to eight-month hibernation. They found that this process occurs once they reach sexual maturity at two years of age.&nbsp;



During their hibernation, yellow-bellied marmots spend most of their time in a state of metabolic suppression. This means that their breathing rate and temperature drop significantly.&nbsp;



Moreover, they burn very little energy, only about one gram of fat per day. "That's essentially nothing for a 5,000-to-6,000–gram (11–13 lbs.) animal," noted study lead author Gabriela Pinho.



For their investigation, the experts gathered blood samples from 73 female marmots in Colorado. The study was exclusively focused on female marmots because chronological age was determined when the juveniles began leaving their natal burrows. While females stay close, males move back and forth.



The blood samples were obtained every two weeks over 14 summers, when the animals could be found outside their burrows. From this data, the researchers were able to construct statistical models to estimate what metabolic changes occurred during hibernation. Specifically, they looked at chemical modifications to the marmot DNA, known as epigenetic changes.&nbsp;



"We found that the epigenetic age of marmots increases during the active season, stops during hibernation and continues to increase in the next active season," said Pinho.



Scientists have wondered why some animals, like marmots, have such a long lifespan for their small size. According to the results of the current study, reduced aging during hibernation shows that this extended period of inactivity may play a key role.



The study findings may ultimately benefit other species, including humans. Doctors could develop better preservation practices of organ transplant by inducing hibernation in human tissues or human cells. Furthermore, space travelers could have another tool to combat cell degeneration during long-term space travel.



“Our results from different statistical approaches reveal that epigenetic aging essentially stalls during hibernation,” said Pinho. “We found that the epigenetic age of marmots increases during the active season, stops during hibernation and continues to increase in the next active season.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Marmots may hold the key to longevity

Recently, a team of UCLA biologists looked at hibernation and...

Scientists have spent decades trying to understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vacation-photos-can-help-save-endangered-animals/">animals</a> are making decisions, by focusing on their neural cells and the connections between them. A research team from the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/">Salk Institute for Biological Studies</a> has taken a different approach: analyzing behavior instead of neurons.&nbsp;



The investigation revealed that a species of predatory worm&nbsp;(Pristionchus pacificus) can take multiple factors into account and choose between actions, despite having only 302 neurons. This is a very small number compared to humans, who have over 86 billion neurons. The findings suggest that complex decision-making capabilities could be encoded in very small and simple organisms or artificial networks.



“Our study shows you can use a simple system such as the worm to study something complex, like goal-directed decision-making. We also demonstrated that behavior can tell us a lot about how the brain works,” explained study senior author&nbsp;Sreekanth Chalasani, an associate professor of Molecular Neurobiology at the Salk Institute.&nbsp;



“Even simple systems like worms have different strategies, and they can choose between those strategies, deciding which one works well for them in a given situation. That provides a framework for understanding how these decisions are made in more complex systems, such as humans.”



Professor Chalasani and his colleagues found that P. pacificus can choose between two foraging strategies for biting its prey and competitor, another worm called Caenorhabditis elegans: a predatory strategy with the goal of biting to kill the prey, or a territorial strategy, in which weaker bites are used to force C. elegans away from other food sources.



The researchers discovered that P. pacificus chooses the predatory strategy against larval C. elegans, and the territorial one against adult C. elegans, which is more difficult to kill and often outcompetes P. pacificus for food.



“Scientists have always assumed that worms were simple - when&nbsp;P. pacificus&nbsp;bites we thought that was always for a singular predatory purpose,” said study first author Kathleen Quach, a postdoctoral fellow in Chalasani’s lab. “Actually,&nbsp;P. pacificus&nbsp;is versatile and can use the same action, biting&nbsp;C. elegans, to achieve different long-term goals. I was surprised to find that&nbsp;P. pacificus&nbsp;could leverage what seemed like failed predation into successful and goal-directed territoriality.”



Further research is needed to assess whether this worm’s cost-benefit calculations are hard-wired or flexible, and to reveal the molecular underpinnings of complex decision-making in such simple forms of life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.02.033">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Simple worms can make complex decisions

Scientists have spent decades trying to understand how animals are...

Less than a week into the new year of 2022,&nbsp;<a href="https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/lawsuit-launched-challenging-epas-failure-to-protect-endangered-species-from-hundreds-of-harmful-pyrethroid-pesticides-2022-01-06/">the Center for Biological Diversity announced its intention to sue</a>&nbsp;the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for approving 300 pyrethroid insecticides over the past six years, without considering their potential harm to endangered species. The EPA is no stranger to such lawsuits; environmental groups have&nbsp;<a href="https://cen.acs.org/articles/89/i38/Pesticides-Endangered-Species.html">sued the agency repeatedly for decades</a>&nbsp;for failing to comply with the Endangered Species Act (ESA) when registering pesticides. The law requires the EPA to consult with other federal agencies when a pesticide has the potential to harm endangered species or their critical habitats, but the agency has rarely done this without litigation first being initiated.&nbsp;



But now, in what can be described as a paradigm shift, the EPA is taking the issue seriously and is being more proactive about assessing these substances’ compliance with the Endangered Species Act (ESA), according to a feature article in&nbsp;Chemical &amp; Engineering News, an independent news outlet of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a>.



Senior Editor Britt E. Erickson writes that in&nbsp;January 2022, the agency rolled out a policy stating it would now evaluate how active ingredients could impact endangered species before new pesticides are introduced to the market, instead of waiting to be sued after products are already commercially available. The EPA also appointed Ya-Wei “Jake” Li, a lawyer with experience in chemical regulation and endangered species conservation, as deputy assistant administrator for pesticide programs. Li’s top priority is improving the pesticide office’s compliance with the ESA.



“Incorporating ESA assessments into the registration process for new pesticides is a key component of EPA’s larger effort to meet the Agency’s ESA obligations efficiently and effectively,”&nbsp;<a href="https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-announces-endangered-species-act-protection-policy-new-pesticides">Li said in a Jan. 11 statement announcing the policy</a>.



With the new policy, EPA also committed to consulting with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service when appropriate. This is the process that is meant to take place when assessing the potential effects of a new pesticide, but it has not been successfully employed in many instances in the past. One of the issues is that the different agencies use different methods and criteria to determine the thresholds and risks of a pesticide for endangered species.&nbsp;



For example, in the case of malathion, the EPA predicted that nearly all endangered species would be negatively impacted, whereas the Fish and Wildlife Service stated that less than 5 percent would experience such consequences. Some groups say that the EPA’s models overestimate pesticide usage and potential impacts, forcing companies and farmers to use mitigation measures that aren’t necessary. In the meantime, litigation is likely to continue as a way to keep focusing attention on the issue.



Some environmental groups welcome the EPA’s change in approach, but are worried that the policy will only be applied to include new pesticide products, and not to the countless, toxic products already on the market.&nbsp;



The Center for Biological Diversity is urging the EPA to systematically evaluate pesticides by class for their potential to harm endangered species. In its latest intent-to-sue notice to the EPA, the group suggests starting with pyrethroids because of their acute toxicity to several endangered species.



“Despite pyrethroid pesticides representing one of the most dangerous and harmful groups of pesticides for aquatic wildlife, as well as causing significant harm to other wildlife and plants, the EPA has failed to take a single action to implement any on-the-ground conservation actions to protect any endangered species from these toxic chemicals,” the Center writes in a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/campaigns/pesticides_reduction/pdfs/Center-Notice-of-Intent-to-Sue-on-Pyrethroid-Class-of-Pesticides.pdf">Jan. 6 letter to EPA</a>&nbsp;administrator Michael Regan.



Although stakeholders are generally encouraged that the EPA is talking to parties on all sides of the issue in order to chart a path forward, they remain doubtful that this will be the year that the agency comes up with a workable plan to address the risks of pesticides to endangered species.&nbsp;



According to Hartl of the Center for Biological Diversity, if the agency fails to address the backlog of pesticides that have not undergone endangered species consultations, “we’ll bring lawsuits, class by class, to address the violations and force a queue to develop. We really do want to make sure that the most important places are protected,” he says, so that there aren’t “spraying or applications happening in a way that pushes species towards extinction.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

EPA takes new stance on pesticide risks to endangered species

Less than a week into the new year of 2022,&nbsp;the...

A research team led by the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/">Salk Institute for Biological Studies</a> has recently managed to effectively and safely reverse the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moderate-drinking-can-cause-premature-brain-aging/">aging</a> process in middle-aged and older mice by partially resetting their cells to more youthful states. This approach could provide new tools for the medical community to restore organismal health by improving cell function and resilience in the context of various health problems, such as neurodegenerative diseases.



As organisms age, their cells have different patterns of chemicals along their DNA – called epigenetic markers – than those present in younger organisms. Previous research has shown that adding a mixture of four reprogramming molecules known as “Yamanaka factors” (Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and cMyc) to aging cells can reset the epigenetic markers to their original patterns.&nbsp;



In a 2016 <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(16)31664-6">study</a>, this method was applied successfully to counter the signs of aging and increase life span in mice with premature aging disease. Moreover, in a related <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-23353-z">study</a> from 2021, scientists found that, even in young mice, the Yamanaka factors could accelerate muscle regeneration. Other researchers have used the same approach to improve the function of tissues such as the brain, heart, and optic nerve.&nbsp;



In the new study, researchers from the Salk Institute tested variations of the cellular regeneration approach in healthy animals as they aged. One group of mice received regular doses of the Yamanaka factors from 15 months to 22 months of age (the equivalent to age 50 to 70 in humans), another group was treated from 12 to 22 months (35 to 70 in humans), and a final group was only treated for a month, when they were 25 months old (similar to age 80 in humans).



“What we really wanted to establish was that using this approach for a longer time span is safe,” said study co-first author Pradeep Reddy, a research scientist at the Salk Institute. “Indeed, we did not see any negative effects on the health, behavior or body weight of these animals.”



In fact, the mice that were treated for seven to ten months resembled younger animals and, if injured, their skin cells had a greater ability to proliferate and were less likely to form permanent scars. Moreover, metabolic molecules in their blood did not show normal age-related changes. The findings suggest that these treatments are not simply pausing aging, but are actively turning it backwards.



“At the end of the day, we want to bring resilience and function back to older cells so that they are more resistant to stress, injury and disease. This study shows that, at least in mice, there’s a path forward to achieving that,” Dr. Reddy concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43587-022-00183-2">Nature Aging</a>.



&nbsp;---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists can reverse the aging process in middle-aged mice

A research team led by the Salk Institute for Biological...

Using thousands of acoustic recordings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pigs-recognize-human-faces/">pigs</a>, from their births to deaths, an international team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> has managed to understand what emotions each type of grunt expresses in a variety of situations. By shedding more light on the psychological states of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disposable-masks-are-increasingly-impacting-marine-animals/">animals</a>, these findings can be used to improve their welfare.



Until now, animal welfare has focused almost exclusively on the physical health of livestock by employing several systems that can automatically monitor animals’ physical condition. However, according to an increasing number of scientists, animals’ mental health and well-being should also be taken into consideration. Understanding what emotions animals feel in various situations could help farmers maximize the psychological well-being of their livestock.



In order to shed more life on pigs’ emotional life, researchers used 7,414 acoustic recordings from 411 pigs in different scenarios, from birth to death. In a next step, they devised and trained a machine learning algorithm that could decode whether a pig was experiencing a positive emotion (such as “happy” or “excited”) or a negative one (“scared” or “stressed”).



The scientists found that positive situations such as huddling with littermates, nursing, or running freely elicited shorter grunts, with minor fluctuations in amplitude, while negative situations such as missed nursing, social isolation, fighting, or castration were associated with high-frequency calls, such as screams and squeals.&nbsp;



“There are clear differences in pig calls when we look at positive and negative situations. In the positive situations, the calls are far shorter, with minor fluctuations in amplitude. Grunts, more specifically, begin high and gradually go lower in frequency. By training an algorithm to recognize these sounds, we can classify 92 percent of the calls to the correct emotion,” explained study co-leader Elodie Briefer, a professor of Animal Behavior and Communication at the University of Copenhagen.



“With this study, we demonstrate that animal sounds provide great insight into their emotions. We also prove that an algorithm can be used to decode and understand the emotions of pigs, which is an important step towards improved animal welfare for livestock.”



Professor Briefer and her colleagues hope that this algorithm might pave the way for a new platform for farmers to keep track of their animals’ psychological well-being.&nbsp;



“We have trained the algorithm to decode pig grunts. Now, we need someone who wants to develop the algorithm into an app that farmers can use to improve the welfare of their animals,” concluded Professor Briefer.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-07174-8">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pigs reveal emotions through their grunts

Using thousands of acoustic recordings of pigs, from their births...

An extinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-shark-species-secretly-added-to-pet-food/">shark</a> species known for its massive size grew larger in colder waters, according to a remarkable new study led by Professor Kenshu Shimada of <a href="https://www.depaul.edu/">DePaul University</a>. Megalodon was a "big tooth" shark that lived approximately 23 to 3.6 million years ago.



Even though Megalodon is assumed to have been an enormous, terrifying beast, this species is only known from teeth and vertebrae in the fossil record. Despite the uncertainty, scientists still believe that the sharks grew in lengths of at least 50 feet, and possibly as much as 65 feet.



The researchers set out to investigate the body size patterns of Otodus megalodon throughout various regions throughout time. They analyzed records of geographic occurrences of Megalodon teeth along with their estimated total body lengths.



“Our findings suggest a previously unrecognized body size pattern for the fossil shark, notably following a geography-driven ecological pattern known as Bergmann’s rule," explained Professor Shimada.



“The main conclusion of this study is that not all geographically different Megalodon individuals grew to gigantic sizes equally. The common notion that the species reached 18–20 m TL should be applied primarily to populations that inhabited cooler environments."



In the mid-1800s, German biologist Carl Bergmann proposed that larger animals are better suited for cooler climates because their size helps them retain heat more efficiently than animals with smaller bodies.&nbsp;



"Scientists constantly search for rules of life that help us predict natural patterns, and it seems that Bergmann's rule applied to Otodus megalodon," said study co-author Victor Perez.



Interestingly, the researchers determined that nursery areas for Megalodon are located near the equator, where water is warmer.&nbsp;



“It is still possible that O. megalodon could have utilized nursery areas to raise young sharks. But our study shows that fossil localities consisting of smaller Megalodon teeth may instead be a product of individual sharks attaining smaller overall body sizes simply as a result of warmer water,” explained study co-author Harry Maisch.



"The results of this study have important implications for understanding how modern climate change is rapidly accelerating marine habitat shifts to more polar latitudes in apex predators such as sharks,” said study co-author Michael Griffiths.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/ghbi20/current">Historical Biology</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Megalodons grew larger in cold water

An extinct shark species known for its massive size grew...

Despite their long-term reputation as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-gardens-provide-a-reliable-food-supply-for-pollinators/">garden</a> menaces, slugs and snails will no longer be classified as pests, according to Britain’s leading garden charity, the <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/">Royal Horticultural Society</a> (RHS). According to scientists from RHS, these slimy creatures are highly misunderstood and in fact play a very important role in maintaining the health of various garden ecosystems.



“The RHS is all too aware of the role that gardens have in supporting biodiversity and as such will no longer label any garden wildlife as ‘pests,’” declared RHS principal entomologist, Andrew Salisbury. “



Instead, there will be greater consideration of and focus on the role that slugs, aphids, and caterpillars play in a balanced garden ecosystem along with more popular wildlife (or animals) such as birds, hedgehogs, and frogs.”



For a long time, snails and slugs were at the top of RHS’s pest charts, with a large number of people complaining that these gastropods are destroying their crops. However, new findings show that, for example, only nine of the 44 recognized species of slugs in the UK feed upon garden plants. According to RHS, these animals should be considered nature’s recyclers, playing a fundamental role in clearing dead matter from the gardens, and constituting an important food source for birds or hedgehogs.



When slugs or snails cause unwanted damage to plants, more “ethical” modes of intervention are advised by RHS scientists, such as using mulch or planting species that gastropods will eat near prized blooms in order to attract them to these plants instead.



“We are never going to eliminate slugs, aphids, caterpillars, and other plant-munching invertebrates from our gardens – their existence after all predates the garden itself – and our plots are all the more lively and valuable because of them,” said Salisbury. “Amid the climate and biodiversity emergencies, now is the time to gracefully accept, even actively encourage, more of this life into our gardens.”



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Slugs and snails no longer classified as pests

Despite their long-term reputation as garden menaces, slugs and snails...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.ljmu.ac.uk/">Liverpool John Moores University</a> (LJMU) has found that giant, long-necked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sauropod-dinosaurs-lived-only-in-earths-warmer-regions/">sauropod</a> dinosaurs such as diplodocus had a gait that was most similar to that of a hippopotamus. In this so-called “diagonal gait,” each step of a front leg is in tandem, or very closely followed by, the hind leg from the opposite side. 



Such a gait allowed for efficient walking while maintaining diagonal limb support throughout the step cycle, which was very important for these huge, wide-gauged creatures.



The sauropods – a group of herbivorous dinosaurs that lived between 200 million and 66 million years ago - were among the largest animals to have ever walked the Earth, some of them weighing the equivalent of 14 African elephants. Scientists have previously thought that these creatures used to walk like elephants, employing a “lateral gait,” with the two limbs on the same body side tending to move forward one after the other.



“Everybody always assumed that sauropods walked like modern elephants,” said study lead author Jens Lallensack, a paleontologist at LJMU. “But they didn’t, and we think that’s because the sauropods were just so much broader.”



Four-footed animals use different gaits, such as trots, walks, or pace gaits. In a trot, one diagonal pair limb - such as the hind right and front left legs - moves together, followed by the other diagonal limb pair. A large number of mammals use trots while running, while reptiles use this type of gait at slow speeds.



By analyzing fossilized Lower Cretaceous sauropod footprints from three sites in Arkansas, Dr. Lallensack and his colleagues&nbsp;have found that the sauropod gait was most similar to a trot, while still presenting slight differences.&nbsp;



When most animals trot, the two diagonal limbs land at the same time. In the case of sauropods though, the front foot touched down just before the hind, diagonal one. This particular gait allowed them to have at least one foot on the ground on both the left and right sides of the body at all times, preventing them to sway from side to side and lose their balance.&nbsp;



“Sauropods chose a gait that maximized stability, but still allowed for efficient walking,” concluded Dr. Lallensack.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.02.012">Current Biology</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Giant sauropods walked more like hippos than elephants

A new study led by Liverpool John Moores University (LJMU)...

Mussel,On,A,Sandy,Beach.,Background.,Close-up.

Mussels attach themselves tenaciously to rocks and other substrates to survive the pummeling of harsh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-can-hitchhike-on-ocean-plastic/">ocean</a> waves. The secret to their powerful bond is a type of natural glue. Made of multiple proteins, this “glue” coats the mussel’s foot and sticks it to surfaces.&nbsp;



Engineers have sought to understand this “glue” better and create their own version of the substance. Now, researchers at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University</a> think they’ve cracked the code of the mussel glue.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, in an attempt to mimic the mussel’s glue, they somehow improved upon it. The new substance, which is made of protein-like polymers, could be useful for medicine.&nbsp;



“The polymer could be used as an adhesive in a biomedical context, which means now you could stick it to a specific tissue in the body,” said Northwestern’s Nathan Gianneschi. “And keep other molecules nearby in one place, which would be useful in wound healing or repair.”



In the natural mussel glue, there are chains of amino acids that give the substance the properties of being stretchy, sticky and strong. This is very hard for researchers to replicate. Study first author Or Berger found a way to mimic these same properties in the lab, placing the amino acid building blocks into a synthetic polymer.&nbsp;



“Proteins arrange amino acids as chains, but instead we took them and arranged them in parallel, on a dense synthetic polymer backbone,” said Gianneschi. “This was the same thing we have begun to do for controlling specific biological interactions, so the same platform technology we will use for future therapeutics has really become potentially interesting in materials science.”



After creating their version of mussel glue, the scientists tested the substance alongside the native glue. They put both substances on glass plates and then watched to see which would adhere more cells to the plate. It turned out that their synthetic glue held more cells than the native mussel glue.



“We actually didn’t mean to improve on the mussel’s properties," said Berger. "We only meant to mimic it, but when we went and tested it in several different assays, we actually got better properties than the native material in these settings.”



The scientists already have other ideas of nature-based synthetic materials, such as those inspired by substances found in insect legs and wings.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/jacsat">Journal of American Chemistry Society</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Glue inspired by mussels may help heal the human body

Mussels attach themselves tenaciously to rocks and other substrates to...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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