Dragonflies outlasted the dinosaurs and even endured asteroid strikes. But now they face a survival threat unlike any before. Rising heat and wildfires are reshaping the very traits they depend on to attract mates.



A study from the <a href="https://www.ucdenver.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Denver</a> shows how this shift could push some species toward local extinction. Traits that once drew partners are now putting dragonflies at risk.



“Dragonflies have survived asteroids, but now climate change and wildfires are threatening them in ways evolution can’t keep up with,” said lead author Sarah Nalley, a PhD student in CU Denver’s Integrative Biology program. 



“Our findings suggest that adaptation alone may not be fast enough to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-larvae-expose-climates-hidden-influence-on-biology/">species</a> in a rapidly changing climate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-ornaments-backfire">When ornaments backfire</h2>



Many dragonflies have dark spots on their wings. These patterns attract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-hunt-perfectly-even-in-extreme-temperatures/">mates</a>. They also absorb heat. In hotter regions and burned habitats, that heat builds too quickly. Males tire, rest, and lose chances to compete for females.



Thermal imaging confirmed the problem. Dark spots made wings hotter, faster. Unlike the peppered moth, where wing color affected survival through camouflage, dragonflies face a different pressure. Here, color weakens reproductive success. Survival is not enough if mating fails.



This twist highlights a blind spot in conservation. Scientists usually check if species survive hotter, drier habitats. But if mating collapses, the population vanishes regardless of survival, leaving ecosystems weaker and biodiversity loss far greater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-survival-amid-wildfires">Dragonfly survival amid wildfires</h2>



“This changes how we think about vulnerability,” said Professor Michael Moore. “It’s not just about whether animals can survive after wildfire - it’s about whether they can reproduce in those modified environments. That’s the key to long-term survival.”



If reproduction falters, decline accelerates. And dragonflies matter. They eat mosquitoes, keeping insect numbers in check. They also feed birds, fish, and amphibians. Lose them, and entire food webs shift, unraveling in unpredictable ways.



Dragonflies have always seemed resilient. But this study suggests they may not keep pace with today’s rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-developed-dark-wing-spots-for-survival/">changes</a>, showing how climate and fire pressures can overwhelm even long-lasting species once thought secure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-data-reveal-worrying-trends">Wildfire data reveal worrying trends</h2>



The project began as a class assignment in Professor Moore’s course. Students worked with open datasets: wildfire maps from the U.S. Geological Survey, climate records, and citizen science observations spanning 40 years. No external funding backed the research.



Despite the simple beginnings, the analysis uncovered a serious trend. Dragonflies with ornamental wings are disappearing from fire-damaged and hotter regions. The data gave a broad view of how climate and wildfires interact with reproductive traits.



Nalley brought personal motivation. She lost her home in Superior, Colorado, during the 2021 Marshall Fire. That experience shaped her focus.



“I knew I wanted to study animals - and after the fire, I knew I wanted to study wildfires too,” said Nalley. “That experience pushed me to ask how animals are affected not just by surviving a fire, but by whether they can still reproduce and carry on the species afterward.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-conservation">Lessons for conservation</h2>



The findings stretch beyond dragonflies. If ancient predators that once ruled the skies falter, what about other species? The research shows conservationists must look past survival rates. Reproduction matters just as much.



“Working with Sarah pushed me to think about my own research in a new way,” said Moore. “She came in with great questions about wildfires and reproduction that made me reconsider how I approach these big ecological issues.”



The study’s message is clear: ecosystems don’t just need species to live, they need them to breed. Dragonflies warn us of what happens when natural signals of attraction turn into liabilities, threatening stability, biodiversity, and long-term ecological resilience everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-decline-from-wildfires">Dragonfly decline from wildfires</h2>



Dragonflies have been here for hundreds of millions of years. Their decline would mark a profound loss. More than that, it would unsettle the balance of ecosystems that depend on them.



The CU Denver research shows how quickly environmental pressures reach into the smallest details of life - courtship displays, wing patterns, mating chances. Those details decide whether a species thrives or disappears, shaping both present ecosystems and future biodiversity.



Dragonflies are not just survivors from deep time. They are indicators of how even the most resilient animals can stumble in a warming, fire-prone world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02417-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Dragonflies lived with dinosaurs, now they face their toughest fight for survival

Dragonflies outlasted the dinosaurs and even endured asteroid strikes. But now they face a survival threat unlike any before. Rising heat and wildfires are reshaping the very traits they depend on to attract mates. A study from the University of Colorado Denver shows how this shift could push some species toward local extinction. Traits that once drew partners are now putting dragonflies at risk. “Dragonflies have survived asteroids, but now climate change and wildfires are threatening them in ways evolution can’t keep up with,” said lead author...

Mites are capable of producing offspring without the aid of a partner. The children are exact replicas of their singular parent, creating a line of pure <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=mites&amp;rlz=1C1GEWG_enZA994ZA994&amp;oq=mites&amp;gs_lcrp=EgZjaHJvbWUyFAgAEEUYORhDGIMBGLEDGIAEGIoFMgwIARAAGEMYgAQYigUyBwgCEAAYgAQyBwgDEAAYgAQyBwgEEAAYgAQyBwgFEAAYgAQyBwgGEAAYgAQyBggHEEUYPdIBCDE5NzhqMGo3qAIAsAIA&amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;ie=UTF-8">females.</a>



This isn't a scene from a science fiction novel, but a reality in the intriguing world of oribatid mites of the species Platynothrus peltifer.



Mothers give birth to daughters from fertile eggs that haven't been fertilized by any male counterpart.



This process, known as parthenogenesis, gives rise to an all-female population - a peculiar characteristic that has caught the attention of scientists around the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asexual-reproduction-in-mites">Asexual reproduction in mites</h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.uni-koeln.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cologne</a>, along with their international colleagues, set out to investigate the remarkable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asexual-reproduction-can-negatively-impact-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asexual reproduction</a> of oribatid mites.



The study revealed that the secret to the mites' survival is in the independent evolution of their double chromosome copies - a concept known as the "Meselson effect."



Through the use of genome sequencing techniques, the researchers identified several factors that contribute to the genetic diversity of the chromosome sets which could, in turn, ensure the mite's long-term preservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolving-chromosomes-and-genetic-diversity">Evolving chromosomes and genetic diversity</h2>



The oribatid mite is a living contradiction of the evolutionary principle, surviving over 20 million years without any trace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/males-are-responsible-for-the-genetic-fitness-of-a-population/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sexual reproduction</a>.



These mites produce female offspring from unfertilized eggs, sidelining males to nonexistence or sheer rarity - thus, making no contribution to the gene pool.



In contrast to our understanding, the offspring inherit either all or some of the mother’s gene variants (alleles), turning into an identical copy of the mother.



Interestingly, the mite's two chromosome sets evolve independently, allowing the introduction of new genetic variants while preserving essential information. 



These changes enable rapid adaptation to environmental fluctuations, providing a selective advantage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-tools-in-the-genetic-toolbox">New tools in the genetic toolbox</h2>



The research highlights horizontal gene transfer (HGT) as another mechanism that enhances <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-asexual-ants-maintain-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic diversity</a>. HGT refers to the exchange of genetic material outside the boundaries of sexual reproduction.



From a metaphorical perspective, horizontal gene transfer is similar to adding new tools to a preexisting toolbox.



"Some of these genes seem to help the mite to digest cell walls, thus expanding its food spectrum," noted study lead author Dr Hüsna Öztoprak, an expert in the Institute of Zoology at the University of Cologne.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-jumping-genes">The role of "jumping genes"</h2>



Transposable elements (TEs), or '<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-fungus-has-become-more-deadly-thanks-to-jumping-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jumping genes</a>,' also play a significant role. They are dynamic components of the genome, exerting influence by altering their locations, akin to rearranging chapters in a book to change the plot's trajectory.



The excitement lies in the different activity levels of TEs in the two chromosome copies. One copy demonstrates an active state that allows for dynamic transformations, while the other remains relatively inactive.



The findings of the study add significant value to understanding the survival strategies of asexual organisms. 



"In future research projects, we would like to find out whether there are additional mechanisms that might be important for evolution without sex,” said Dr. Jens Bast, Emmy Noether group leader at the University of Cologne.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mites-and-evolutionary-adaptation">Mites and evolutionary adaptation</h2>



The study of oribatid mites offers a fascinating glimpse into how organisms can adapt and thrive without sexual reproduction, challenging long-standing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-not-as-random-as-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary theories</a>. 



While sexual reproduction is traditionally seen as essential for maintaining genetic diversity and evolutionary fitness, these mites demonstrate an alternative path. 



Their ability to evolve through mechanisms such as the Meselson effect, horizontal gene transfer, and transposable elements suggests that asexual reproduction can still provide the necessary genetic variation for adaptation. 



This discovery could inspire further research into other organisms that rely on similar strategies to survive in challenging environments, potentially offering new insights into evolutionary biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-biodiversity-and-conservation">Implications for biodiversity and conservation</h2>



Understanding the genetic mechanisms behind the asexual reproduction of oribatid mites could have broader implications for biodiversity and conservation efforts. 



These mites play a crucial role in soil ecosystems by aiding in decomposition and nutrient cycling. 



Insights into their genetic resilience could inform conservation strategies for other asexual or endangered species facing environmental pressures. 



Additionally, studying the ability of oribatid mites to adapt without genetic recombination may offer practical applications in agriculture and pest management, as scientists seek to harness or mitigate similar reproductive strategies in other organisms.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adn0817" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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How mites survived without sex for millions of years

Mites are capable of producing offspring without the aid of...

Australia has earned its reputation for harboring creatures that make many people uneasy. Spiders in particular stand out. For decades, the iconic Sydney funnel-web spider has fueled stories of dangerous, sometimes deadly encounters.&nbsp;



Known for its strong fangs and fast-acting venom, it seemed like the final word in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australias-deadliest-spider-is-actually-three-different-species/">spider dread</a>. That assumption has just been called into question.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sydney-funnel-web-spider-species">Sydney funnel-web spider species</h2>



This shift in understanding comes from a major study that is published in <a href="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-024-02332-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Ecology and Evolution</a>. Researchers found that what was once believed to be just one species of the Sydney funnel-web spider is, in fact, three separate species. Their DNA analysis and anatomical comparisons uncovered something unexpected: only one of these three spiders is the classic Sydney funnel-web. 



Another lurks in the Australian Blue Mountains. And a third, which is native to Australian Newcastle, appears to be bigger and even more venomous.



Stephanie Loria, an arachnologist at the Leibniz Institute for the Analysis of Biodiversity Change in Germany, helped confirm that this trio of spiders had been hiding under one name for far too long.&nbsp;



Her team took considerable effort to examine fresh samples and museum specimens dating back to the early 1900s, in order to untangle the details that had been overlooked until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-funnel-web-myth">Unraveling the funnel-web myth</h2>



For many years, Atrax robustus was considered the main funnel-web species around Sydney. People believed it ranged from the Central Coast all the way into the Blue Mountains.&nbsp;



The funnel-web’s venom, enriched with potent neurotoxins, has caused <a href="https://biomedicalsciences.unimelb.edu.au/departments/department-of-biochemistry-and-pharmacology/engage/avru/discover/spiders/funnel-web-spiders-atrax-robustus-and-hadronyche-sp." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">13 recorded deaths</a> since documentation began. Its bite can trigger muscle spasms, breathing problems, and serious pain.&nbsp;



However, the introduction of an antivenom in the early 1980s has prevented any further fatalities. Because of the mortality statistics, these spiders earned their status as the most dangerous in the region, if not in the world. Yet, despite its notoriety, Atrax robustus wasn’t the only funnel-web out there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meeting-the-three-species">Meeting the three species</h2>



The research team discovered a trifecta. The “true” Sydney funnel-web is still Atrax robustus. But there’s also the Southern Sydney funnel-web, now properly called Atrax montanus, which inhabits the area south and west of Sydney. 



And then there’s the heavyweight champion: Atrax christenseni, which is nicknamed the “Big Boy.” Its home turf is Newcastle, about 90 miles north of Sydney, and it boasts longer legs and a hefty physique.



“The Newcastle funnel-web, Atrax christenseni - 'Big Boy - is a totally new species. The 'true' Sydney funnel-web, Atrax robustus, centers on the North Shore of Sydney and the Central Coast while the Southern Sydney funnel-web is a resurrected species name from 1914,” explained Dr. Loria at the conclusion of their extensive analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-boy-steals-the-spotlight">Big Boy steals the spotlight</h2>



Atrax christenseni earned its colloquial name when a local spider enthusiast, <a href="https://phys.org/news/2025-01-scientists-identity-crisis-australia-deadliest.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kane Christensen</a>, noticed some males that seemed unusually large. He collected these spiders for venom programs and showed them to scientists for a closer look.&nbsp;



“The sheer size of the males, compared to the males of the other Atrax species, is simply astounding,” said Christensen.&nbsp;



“I am very passionate about funnel-webs and there is no greater compliment than to have another scientist name a funnel-web species after me. I am deeply honored and accept it with great pleasure.”



Experts now believe the venom of this “Big Boy” rivals or surpasses that of the classic Sydney funnel-web, making it the most venomous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/menacing-joro-spiders-are-now-moving-their-invasion-into-us-cities/">spider on Earth</a>. 



Its toxins target the human nervous system by blocking essential sodium channels, a process that can overwhelm the body if not treated promptly. Despite this intimidating fact, funnel-web bites remain quite rare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-antivenom-question">The antivenom question</h2>



Many Australians first heard about funnel-web antivenom in 1981, when the Australian Reptile Park began formal <a href="https://www.reptilepark.com.au/about/venom-program/spider-venom-program" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">programs</a> to milk these spiders.&nbsp;



Since then, it has saved countless lives. Male funnel-webs, more likely to wander, frequently show up in backyards or even inside shoes, which is one reason that they cause most envenomation incidents. 



Yet, the chances of a life-threatening bite leading to death are virtually zero if the antivenom is administered in time.



Scientists are now considering whether the existing antivenom needs fine-tuning to account for these newly identified species.&nbsp;



“While funnel-web bites are the most severe among spiders, they are not very common. If you are bitten by a funnel-web spider, call an ambulance and go straight to hospital,” said Geoff Isbister from the Calvary Mater Newcastle Hospital. Some researchers suggest that an optimized formula for each species might yield even better outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-they-live-and-why-it-matters">Where they live and why it matters</h2>



A. robustus, the classic Sydney funnel-web, occupies areas around the city’s North Shore and suburbs. A. montanus thrives in the cooler habitats of the Blue Mountains. A. christenseni, the biggest and brawniest of the group, hangs out near Newcastle.&nbsp;



Because each species has slightly different habitat preferences, spider experts now recommend paying closer attention when funnel-webs turn up, especially if they appear larger than usual.



Beyond medical relevance, these distinctions matter for conservation. Funnel-web spiders serve as key predators in their ecosystems. 



They eat insects and small animals, so changes in their populations can affect many other creatures. By pinpointing which species is found where, ecologists can better track local biodiversity and note any future shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tales-of-caution-and-care">Tales of caution and care</h2>



Despite their potent reputation, funnel-web spiders do not usually go out of their way to bite humans. They can be shy and prefer dark, moist shelters. Problems occur mostly when people inadvertently disturb them.&nbsp;



Spotting one in a garden might spark unease, but experts advise carefully relocating a funnel-web or calling in a professional rather than trying to kill it outright. For those who live in funnel-web territory, checking shoes, garden gloves, and damp corners is never a bad idea.



Venom programs also welcome healthy funnel-web specimens. One funnel-web can be milked many times over its life, helping supply the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-venom-has-hidden-biochemical-value/">venom</a> that pharmaceutical experts rely on to create and refine antivenom. If you happen to catch one, local wildlife organizations may have guidelines on safe handling and transport.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-sydney-funnel-web-spiders">Future of Sydney funnel-web spiders</h2>



Scientists plan to investigate the unique venom properties of each funnel-web species and how those may shift across different environments. By understanding these distinctions, venom researchers hope to refine treatments for spider bites.&nbsp;



This approach, they say, could prove vital if venom components vary enough to make current antivenoms less effective in certain cases.



In the end, it turns out that our old friend the Sydney funnel-web spider was never alone. The “Big Boy” from Newcastle and the southern cousin around the Blue Mountains have been around all along, hiding in plain sight. They offer a new perspective on just how much remains to be discovered in Australia’s wild landscape.



The research study was published in <a href="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-024-02332-0">BMC Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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New giant species of the world's most dangerous spider identified

Australia has earned its reputation for harboring creatures that make...

In the Southern Ocean, the world's largest iceberg is making headlines with its colossal presence and potential impact on wildlife and humans alike.



The protagonist of this unfolding tale? A gargantuan iceberg named A23a, a marvel of nature that once stretched over 1,540 square miles - twice the size of Greater London. For perspective, the current size of the main section is roughly comparable to the entire county of Cornwall, UK.



However, it isn't A23a's size that's now causing a sense of trepidation among scientists. It's the iceberg's trajectory that is now the primary concern.



A23a has become untethered from the South Orkney Islands and is ominously drifting towards South Georgia - a British territory and wildlife haven.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stark-warning-from-the-high-seas">Stark warning from the high seas</h2>



Commanding the South Georgia government vessel, Pharos, Simon Wallace has observed the impending crisis first-hand. 



"Icebergs are inherently dangerous. I would be extraordinarily happy if it just completely missed us," he said.



Iceberg A23a isn't just a looming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-has-lost-3000-billion-tons-of-ice-in-25-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass of ice</a>. It's a potentially devastating force, with parts of it already breaking into large slabs. 



These fragments could dwell in the surrounding waters for years, making nautical navigation a perilous undertaking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-antarctica-to-the-southern-ocean">From Antarctica to the Southern Ocean</h2>



The story of A23a began in 1986, when the iceberg was born from the Filchner Ice Shelf of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-is-experiencing-rapid-plant-growth-concerning-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a>. It lay dormant at the seabed of the Weddell Sea before embarking on its journey north in 2020.



Initially, the iceberg's progress was hindered by an ocean phenomenon known as a Taylor Column, causing it to spin almost on the spot. 



Nonetheless, its liberty was confirmed by satellite images in December, which showed it had split from its restrictive shackles.



"It's exciting to see A23a on the move again after periods of being stuck. We are interested to see if it will take the same route the other large icebergs that have calved off Antarctica have taken," noted Dr Andrew Meijers, an oceanographer with the prestigious British Antarctic Survey (<a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BAS</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctica-s-iceberg-highway">Antarctica's iceberg highway</h2>



Interestingly, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> reports that most icebergs from Antarctica follow a similar route. Over 90% of them enter the Weddell Gyre's clockwise-flowing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-circumpolar-current-speed-increasing-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">current</a> off East Antarctica.



They ultimately make their way north along the Antarctic Peninsula and venture into the Drake Passage's warmer South Atlantic waters. This passage is playfully referred to as "iceberg alley."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iceberg-threat-to-south-georgia">Iceberg threat to South Georgia</h2>



This isn't the first time South Georgia has faced the prospect of an invading iceberg. In 2017, an iceberg named A68a embarked on a three-year, 10,000-mile odyssey towards the island, fortunately passing by without incident.



However, three years later, an iceberg called A76 posed a similar threat, leaving dangerous ice slabs scattered around the island. 



"Those pieces basically cover the island - we have to work our way through it," said Captain Wallace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wildlife-sanctuary-at-risk">A wildlife sanctuary at risk</h2>



The island, located in the southern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-atlantic-ocean-may-soon-enter-its-declining-phase/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atlantic Ocean</a>, is often referred to as a "wildlife sanctuary." It is a true oasis amid the tumultuous Southern Oceans.



 From penguins and seals to whales and albatrosses, this sanctuary is home to a dazzling array of species.



The majestic A23a has now become a point of intense study for scientists, sailors, and fishermen as they closely monitor its movement via satellite images. 



"The iceberg, at least in satellite images, appears to be maintaining its structure and has not yet broken up into smaller chunks, as previous "megabergs" have done," noted Dr. Meijers.



"It is presently in a meander of the current and not moving directly towards the island, but our understanding of the currents suggests that it is likely to again move towards the island soon."



Dr. Meijers noted that the current follows the shallow continental shelf around the island to the south east, but the question is whether the berg will follow this out into the open South Atlantic, or run up onto the shelf and become stuck for some time.



"If this happens it could seriously impede access to feeding grounds for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/south-georgia-is-a-haven-for-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> - seals and penguins mostly - that breed on the island."



The story of A23a serves as a stark reminder that while mankind's actions may contribute to climate change, nature itself is perfectly capable of scripting its own potentially perilous narratives.



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World's largest iceberg may crash into a wildlife sanctuary

In the Southern Ocean, the world's largest iceberg is making...

We often admire the alpha males of the world - think of a lion ruling his pride, a CEO commanding a boardroom, or a wolf leading his pack. These males have dominance, respect, and the first pick of resources. But what if being on top wasn’t as great as it seemed? 



For alpha baboons, for example, the price of power is steep. 



A new study shows that these primates live under intense stress. Surprisingly, their stress doesn’t come from fighting rivals but from guarding their mates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-it-mean-to-be-an-alpha-male">What does it mean to be an alpha male?</h2>



Being an alpha male often means embodying confidence, leadership, and a strong presence in social situations. 



People who see themselves - or others - as alpha males typically take charge in group settings, make decisive choices, and inspire others to follow their lead. 



They usually exhibit traits like assertiveness, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-robots-with-charismatic-voices-get-better-results-from-students/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">charisma</a>, and the ability to stay calm under pressure. Whether it's in the workplace, among friends, or in romantic relationships, alpha males are seen as the ones who set the tone and drive the group forward. 



They prioritize their goals and are often highly motivated, which can make them natural leaders in various aspects of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alpha-males-and-leadership-pressure">Alpha males and leadership pressure</h2>



Becoming an alpha male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baboon</a> is no easy feat. Males must battle their way up the ranks - relying on strength, strategy, and persistence. But reaching the top is only the beginning. Staying there demands constant vigilance.



The dominant male must protect his status against challengers, ensuring that no rival steals his position. But his biggest concern is not other males - it is the females.



During fertile periods, he must closely monitor them and prevent other males from mating with them. This requires following the females around for days on end, ensuring that he remains their only mate.



“They’re essentially staking a claim; preventing other males from gaining access,” said Professor Susan Alberts of <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>.



This near-constant surveillance takes a toll. Instead of using their time to rest, eat, or socialize, alpha males devote their energy to guarding their mates. Over time, this effort drains them both physically and mentally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-in-alpha-male-baboons">Stress in alpha male baboons</h2>



For decades, scientists have studied wild baboons in Kenya as part of the <a href="https://amboselibaboons.nd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amboseli Baboon Research Project</a>. Since 1971, researchers have closely tracked the social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visually-striking-primate-features-ease-tension-and-reduce-conflict/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions and behaviors</a> of these animals, collecting valuable data about their lives.



A study published in 2011 provided one of the first clues that being an alpha male comes with a cost. The research, led by senior scientist Laurence Gesquiere at Duke University, found that alpha males had significantly higher levels of glucocorticoids - hormones linked to stress and the "fight-or-flight" response.



“In humans, this response is activated for every kind of challenge we face, whether it’s running down the block because you’re late for a meeting, running a marathon, or going into a stressful meeting with your boss,” Alberts explained.



The new study builds on these findings. The research team analyzed 14 years of behavioral data from 204 male baboons and measured their stress hormone levels using droppings left behind in the wild.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-source-of-stress">Surprising source of stress</h2>



The results confirmed that life at the top is stressful. Alpha males had 6% higher glucocorticoid levels than lower-ranking males. 



But the study also revealed something unexpected: aggressive behaviors such as fighting, bullying, or threatening rivals had no impact on the stress levels of alpha male baboons. “That was a big surprise!” Gesquiere exclaimed.



The researchers had expected that constant battles with other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-evolution-completing-the-timetree-of-life-for-all-of-our-closest-relatives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">males</a> would be the main cause of stress. Instead, they found that stress hormones spiked when alpha males spent more time guarding females.



Their thyroid hormone levels also dropped, indicating they were burning more calories than they consumed. This suggested that being an alpha male is not just stressful - it is physically exhausting as well.



“Being alpha really has energy consequences,” Gesquiere noted. Unlike lower-ranking males, who can focus on feeding and resting, alpha males are constantly on alert, even when they attempt to eat.



“They’re constantly interrupted,” Alberts said. “They'll start to dig up or pry open a tasty morsel, but then the female gets up and walks away, and they have to abandon it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-cost-for-short-term-rewards">High cost for short-term rewards</h2>



The constant stress of being an alpha male baboon appears to have lasting effects. Previous research on Amboseli <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-human-primate-chromosomes-mapped-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baboons</a> found that top-ranking males age faster and have shorter lifespans than their lower-ranking counterparts.



Chemical changes in their DNA suggest that stress accelerates aging, and weakens their bodies over time. Once they lose their alpha status, they may struggle to recover from years of physical and emotional strain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-humans-learn-from-baboons">What can humans learn from baboons?</h2>



While baboon society is different from human society, some parallels exist. Alpha males live in a rigid hierarchy, but humans navigate multiple social structures. A person may be a low-ranking employee at work but a leader in their sports team or community.



Still, the study on alpha male baboons highlights an important lesson: leadership comes with challenges, and constant stress can take a toll on well-being. In humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-primates-must-prioritize-survival-over-long-term-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baboons</a> alike, maintaining power requires energy, focus, and sacrifice.



For dominant male baboons, the cost of being on top is clear. “Stress definitely has long-term consequences,” noted Gesquiere.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1790#d1e1714" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Many alpha male primates sacrifice good health for power

We often admire the alpha males of the world -...

The January blues aren't just a human struggle - our four-legged friends can feel them too. Dogs, much like humans, can experience post-holiday lows that leave them feeling out of sorts.



We're not talking about an episode of Blues Clues here, but rather a real phenomenon that affects many pets during this time of year.



According to new research conducted by the Guide Dogs organization, changes in routine and shorter days might be contributing to your dog's seasonal slump.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-january-blues-in-dogs">January blues in dogs</h2>



Just as many of us feel a bit lethargic and down in January, our canine companions are no different. 



In fact, the survey found that about one in four dogs exhibit signs of lethargy and lack of energy. Furthermore, roughly one in seven dogs appear to show signs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-household-sounds-trigger-anxiety-in-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a> or boredom. 



But what is bringing dogs down in January? The answer is surprisingly human-like: changes in daily routines, dark mornings, and the absence of their owners (after the festive season).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-canine-emotions-mimic-humans">Canine emotions mimic humans</h2>



A staggering 94% of the surveyed owners agreed that their pets seemed to mirror their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-feel-our-emotions-through-our-heart-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotions</a>.



"Dogs are incredibly attuned to their owners’ feelings, and when routines are disrupted or we feel low, it’s no surprise that they might reflect those changes," said Tim Stafford, director of canine affairs at Guide Dogs.



However, it’s worth mentioning that while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> may be receptive to our feelings, we might not be as good at recognizing theirs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-your-dog-cope-with-the-blues">Helping your dog cope with the blues </h2>



January is undoubtedly a rough month for both dogs and their owners. With this in mind, it's important to pay extra attention to your dog’s behavior at this time.



"We know that dogs thrive on routine and consistency, so whilst January can be tough, by focusing on re-establishing structure and following our tips on exercise and stimulation, we can easily help our dogs (and ourselves) feel better," noted Stafford. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-january-s-impact-on-dog-owners">January's impact on dog owners</h2>



Did you know that more than half of dog owners feel the pressure of the dark days and cold weather of January? Approximately one-third are dealing with financial stress, while 39% struggle to get back into their routine.



Meanwhile, during January, many dog owners also observed noticeable changes in their pets' behavior. 



Lethargy was the most commonly reported issue - affecting 27% of dogs - while 15% of owners noted signs of anxiety in their furry friends. Additionally, 13% reported their dogs experiencing boredom.



Overall, 59% of owners acknowledged observing behavioral shifts in their pets during the post-holiday period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-boost-your-dog-s-mood">How to boost your dog's mood</h2>



The <a href="https://www.guidedog.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Guide Dogs organization</a> recommends maintaining regular routines around walks, playtimes, and meals. There's no denying that dogs feel secure when they know what to expect.



Engaging with your dog during walks, playing games, and teaching them new skills can spark joy and distract them from their January blues. 



On cold, dreary days, snuggling on the sofa with your furry friend can also help to reduce stress and forge a stronger bond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupted-dog-routines">Disrupted dog routines</h2>



The January blues can impact how you care for your dog too. Around one in five people confessed that the dark mornings have delayed outings, disrupting their dog's routine.



With many dog owners returning to work, about 13% reported that their dogs are spending more time alone compared to the holiday season.



However, there is some light at the end of the tunnel. An uplifting 88% of owners agreed that walking their dog improved their mental well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-battling-the-january-blues">Battling the January blues</h2>



The survey concluded on a positive note, revealing that 45% of owners have resolved to lead a more active lifestyle this year. The respondents plan to use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-walking-improves-mobility-and-prevents-falls-in-older-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog walks</a> as an opportunity to improve their fitness.



So, as we muddle through January, know that you are not alone battling the blues. It seems even our furry friends are feeling it too. 



However, by spending more time with our dogs, we can lift their spirits while giving our own a much-needed boost as well.



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Dogs suffer from the January blues, just like humans

The January blues aren't just a human struggle - our...

Understanding how birds think and process information has long been a mystery. Unlike mammals, birds do not leave behind preserved brains in fossils, making it difficult for scientists to study their cognitive abilities over time. 



However, a breakthrough study by evolutionary biologists in Australia and neuroscience researchers in Canada is now providing remarkable insights into avian intelligence.



By analyzing the structure of bird skulls using advanced digital technology, researchers at Flinders University in South Australia and the University of Lethbridge in Canada have developed a new way to study both extinct and living birds. 



The method involves creating digital "endocasts" from the cranial spaces inside bird skulls, allowing them to estimate brain size and shape with remarkable accuracy. 



This approach is giving scientists a clearer picture of bird cognition, intelligence, and evolutionary history without needing to physically examine brain tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-bird-brains">Reconstructing bird brains</h2>



The research, published in the journal&nbsp;Biology Letters, focuses on reconstructing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagulls-birds-more-intelligent-than-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> brain structures by analyzing the inside of their skulls.



By scanning dry museum skulls from long-dead birds, scientists have been able to extract surprisingly detailed information about their brains. This includes insights into the size of crucial brain regions responsible for intelligence and agility.



"This showed that the two correspond so closely that there is no need for the actual brain to estimate a bird's brain proportions," said study lead author and <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a> PhD researcher Aubrey Keirnan.



Despite the term "bird brain" often being used as an insult, birds are known for their remarkable intelligence. Many bird species such as crows and parrots demonstrate problem-solving skills, tool use, and even self-awareness.



"The brains of birds are so large that they are practically a braincase with a beak," noted Keirnan.



This study sought to determine whether the imprint left by a bird's brain on its skull accurately reflects the proportions of two crucial parts of the brain: the forebrain, which is responsible for intelligence, and the cerebellum, which controls coordination and movement.



To test this, the researchers scanned the skulls of 136 bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survival-of-the-smartest-chickadees-with-better-memory-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and compared the results with either microscopic brain sections or existing literature data. 



By doing so, they were able to determine whether the volume of these critical brain regions matched the imprints left inside the skull.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpectedly-precise-correlation">Unexpectedly precise correlation</h2>



The results of the study surprised even the researchers. The correlation between brain volume and endocast surface area was almost one-to-one, indicating a highly reliable method for estimating brain proportions.



"We used computed microtomography to scan the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-hold-grudges-for-up-to-17-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> skulls. This allows us to digitally fill the brain cavity to get the brain's imprint, also called an endocast," explained Professor Vera Weisbecker from Flinders University.



The fact that endocasts so precisely reflect the shape of the brain means that scientists can now study the brains of rare and even extinct bird species without the need for preserved brain tissue. 



"This is excellent news because it allows us to gather insight into the neuroanatomy of elusive, rare, and even extinct species without ever even seeing their brains," said Weisbecker.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionizing-bird-brain-research">Revolutionizing bird brain research</h2>



The ability to create digital endocasts marks a significant shift in how scientists study bird brains. In the past, researchers had to pour liquid latex into a skull cavity, wait for it to harden, and then break the skull to retrieve the endocast. This process was destructive and often impractical for studying rare or fragile specimens.



"Using non-destructive scanning not only allows us to create endocasts from the rarest of birds, it also produces digital files of the skulls and endocasts that can be shared with scientists and the public," explained Weisbecker.



With these digital models, researchers can now conduct large-scale comparative studies, track evolutionary trends, and even explore how different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-count-out-loud-just-like-toddlers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird species</a> developed their unique cognitive abilities. 



The ability to share digital endocasts worldwide also means that scientists can collaborate more easily and work with data from species that might be difficult to access in person.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-bird-evolution">Implications for bird evolution</h2>



One of the most exciting aspects of this research is its potential to shed light on the evolution of bird intelligence. 



By studying the brain structures of different bird species, researchers can gain a better understanding of how certain cognitive traits developed over time.



University of Lethbridge Professor Andrew Iwaniuk, who co-led the study, admits he was surprised by how accurately the endocasts reflected brain structures. 



"While most of the telencephalon (outer part of the forebrain) is visible from the outer surface, a substantial portion of the cerebellum is obscured by this region," said Professor Iwaniuk.



"Given that the degree of obscurity can vary between species, I did not expect a strong correlation between endocast surface area and brain volume across all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bigger-bird-brains-grow-at-the-expense-of-the-parents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-bird-conservation">Implications for bird conservation</h2>



The study also has implications for conservation and research on endangered birds. Since many threatened species are difficult to study in the wild, being able to analyze skull structures from museum specimens could provide valuable insights into their cognitive abilities and behaviors.



Additionally, this research could offer clues about extinct species, including birds' closest prehistoric relatives: the dinosaurs. However, applying this method to dinosaurs remains uncertain. 



"For example, crocodiles are the closest living relatives of birds, but their brains look nothing like that of a bird - and their brains do not fill the braincase enough to be as informative," said Keirnan.



This suggests that while digital endocasts may help reconstruct the brains of extinct birds, they may not be as useful for studying dinosaur cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-avian-neuroscience">Future of avian neuroscience</h2>



This study marks a major step forward in avian neuroscience and evolutionary biology. By using advanced digital techniques, scientists can now explore the complexities of bird brains without relying on preserved brain tissue, opening up new possibilities for research.



As scanning technologies continue to improve, researchers may be able to refine their methods even further, potentially unlocking new insights into how birds process information, solve problems, and interact with their environments. 



The findings could also lead to a better understanding of the evolutionary pressures that shaped bird intelligence over millions of years.



Ultimately, this research demonstrates that birds are far more intelligent than the outdated stereotype of "bird brains" suggests. 



With new digital tools, scientists are now able to unlock the secrets hidden within bird skulls, providing a clearer picture of avian cognition and evolution.



As more species are studied, we may discover even more surprising connections between brain structure and intelligence in the animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0596" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



Image Credit: CC-BY Aubrey Keirnan (skull) Andrew Iwaniuk (brain)



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"Bird brain" study gives remarkable new insights into avian intelligence

Understanding how birds think and process information has long been...

A mysterious item from the inner workings of a cow has sparked a worldwide scramble. Hardened lumps of bile known as cattle gallstones have become so valuable that criminal rings on multiple continents have begun hunting them down.



Some stones can command over twice the price of gold, sparking tales of nighttime thefts and elaborate smuggling schemes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cattle-gallstones-are-suddenly-important">Why cattle gallstones are suddenly important</h2>



The fascination with gallstones centers on their use in <a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/traditional-chinese-medicine-what-you-need-to-know" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese traditional medicine</a>, which is valued at around $60 billion annually, according to the World Health Organization (<a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/traditional-complementary-and-integrative-medicine#tab=tab_1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHO</a>).&nbsp;



<a href="https://africana.sdsu.edu/our-faculty/gomes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Daniela Gomes da Silva</a>, a researcher at <a href="https://www.international.unesp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">São Paulo State University</a>, says the intensifying appetite for these stones has pushed some producers to consider strange ideas, such as trying to induce gallstones in their herds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-cattle-gallstones-the-basics">Understanding cattle gallstones - the basics</h2>



Cattle gallstones are solid formations that develop in the gallbladder of cows, although they’re not as common as in humans. They usually form when there's an imbalance in the substances that make up bile, much like in humans. 



However, in cattle, gallstones are typically made up of calcium salts like calcium carbonate or calcium phosphate instead of cholesterol, which is more common in humans. 



This difference stems from cattle’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ai-can-help-reduce-methane-emissions-from-cows/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique digestive systems</a>, which are designed to process large amounts of plant material. 



Their high-fiber diets and the way their bodies handle bile contribute to the formation of these calcium-based stones.



When cattle develop gallstones, they might not always show obvious signs at first. However, if the stones block the bile ducts, cows can experience discomfort, reduced appetite, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-supplements-reduce-methane-in-grazing-cattle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digestive issues</a>. 



Farmers and veterinarians usually detect gallstones through ultrasound examinations or other imaging techniques if they suspect a problem. 



The fact that it's impossible to know if a cow has a gallstone without proper examination adds an entirely separate and sinister layer to this new global smuggling market.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-price-and-a-hidden-black-market">High price and a hidden black market</h2>



These rust-colored nuggets can fetch more than $5,800 an ounce - twice as much as gold - in certain markets.



They are often dried, powdered, and then combined with other materials to form traditional pills that some believe can help treat serious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stem-cell-therapy-improves-brain-activity-after-stroke/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions like strokes</a>.



Because of the profits involved, a black market has developed. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-parrots-in-the-illegal-wildlife-trade-with-dna-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smugglers</a> are known to transport stones in hidden compartments to avoid taxes and police, and some producers are wary of armed theft by those who want a shortcut to these lucrative byproducts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cattle-gallstones-and-stroke-recovery">Cattle gallstones and stroke recovery</h2>



The WHO <a href="https://www.emro.who.int/health-topics/stroke-cerebrovascular-accident/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reports</a> that strokes are the leading cause of death in China. Traditional remedies that include gallstone powder are often promoted as a way to provide extra time for stroke patients.



One <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6548905/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> from the <a href="https://www.hku.hk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hong Kong</a> found evidence that certain ingredients in popular “<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4281447/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Angong</a>” pills, which include cattle gallstone powder, may offer short-term protection for the brain in rats experiencing ischemic strokes. 



While these findings are still under investigation, this belief in gallstones’ protective qualities has added to their demand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-controversies">Wildlife controversies</h2>



“The rapid growth of the TCM industry over the last few decades has exacerbated the pressure on endangered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> in Asia and beyond,” said the London-based <a href="https://eia-international.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Investigation Agency</a>. Some in the conservation community are concerned about the wider industry.&nbsp;



Although cattle gallstones themselves do not threaten wild species, the industry sometimes combines them with ingredients like rhino horn or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-pangolin-day-project-launched-to-save-the-elusive-mammal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pangolin scales</a> in certain remedies. That element has triggered alarm among groups working to curb illegal wildlife trafficking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-demand-for-cattle-gallstones">Rising demand for cattle gallstones</h2>



Rising incomes and lifestyle changes in China have led to increased obesity, hypertension, and other conditions that are linked to <a href="https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/consumer-healthcare/what-is-cardiovascular-disease" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular diseas</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">e</a>. 



As a result, gallstones, once discarded by slaughterhouses, have become prized commodities.



Because some black-market dealers try to dodge strict regulations, gallstone shipments have been hidden in everyday items to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-are-using-forensic-science-to-fight-wildlife-trafficking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">avoid detection</a>.



Authorities have also encountered schemes where sugar or brick dust is injected or ground into the stones to inflate weight and boost profits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-farming-methods-may-help">Modern farming methods may help</h2>



As Brazil becomes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-paves-the-way-for-climate-conscious-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more efficient</a> in producing beef, some farmers shorten the lifespan of their cattle with optimized feeding routines. 



Da Silva explains that younger herds may yield better meat and fewer gallstones because there is less time for these lumps to form.



The irony is that while certain ranchers see gallstones as valuable gold nuggets, modern techniques that improve farm production may unintentionally reduce the presence of these costly stones. 



Still, unscrupulous players look to exploit any opportunity to get their hands on the product, even resorting to theft in some regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lingering-mysteries">Lingering mysteries</h2>



Scientists have yet to determine the precise reasons some cattle develop gallstones. Da Silva notes that older animals with more time on pasture are more prone to this condition.



However, it remains unclear how diet, genetics, and stress might play a role. Rumors occasionally spread of stones the size of a football, but these stories are rarely supported by credible evidence.



Experts caution producers not to chase unrealistic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-elephant-day-2024-saving-the-gentle-giants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">legends</a>, warning that the gallstone frenzy can lead to costly risks, including robberies and legal troubles if regulations are ignored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-regulations-needed">More regulations needed</h2>



Strict enforcement and improved oversight may push more of the market into legal channels. Some industry analysts believe that, if gallstones continue to command a price above that of gold, more players will be tempted to enter the trade, thus fueling both opportunities and criminal activities.



Meanwhile, many medical professionals maintain that though traditional solutions may offer support, they should be one facet of a well-rounded approach to healthcare.&nbsp;



Despite the high prices and dramatic tales of smuggling, many in Brazil’s farming regions remain content to focus on milk and meat production. For them, cattle gallstones are a novelty - albeit a very expensive one.



Details for this article came from <a href="https://www.wsj.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Wallstreet Journal.</a>



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Cattle gallstones, insanely valuable, are the new 'must-have' item in global smuggling rings

A mysterious item from the inner workings of a cow...

Couple,Of,Brachiosaurus,Altithorax,And,A,Flock,Of,Pterosaurs,In

Dinosaurs left behind fossilized bones and footprints that offer vivid glimpses into their everyday survival. Paleontologists can infer their diets, estimate their sizes, and even figure out how quickly they grew. 



But there is one perplexing detail that has baffled experts for well over a century: how did these massive creatures have sex, and what were their mating rituals?



Theories about dinosaur courtship and copulation spark curiosity among researchers and casual observers alike. 



Some imagine towering, long-necked giants struggling to coordinate their bulk, while others focus on smaller species trying to avoid spiky tails or protective armor.



One person at the forefront of this conversation is <a href="https://community.geosociety.org/gbgm/dfg/rileyblack" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ms. Riley Black</a>, an American paleontologist who has examined the hidden world of dinosaur intimacy in her published commentaries for the <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Magazine</a>.



“For more than a century, paleontologists have wondered about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-triassic-fossil-gondwanax-paraisensis-may-rewrite-history-of-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> mated,” said Ms. Black in one of her discussions on the subject.



"Comparisons to living birds and crocodylians hint that individual dinosaurs usually had a phallus or a clitoris, although hard evidence of such structures has not yet been uncovered."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-courtship-rituals">Dinosaur courtship rituals</h2>



Fossils tell us only part of the story. Bones and teeth can reveal feeding behaviors, while footprints occasionally capture intriguing hints about group activity.



Yet, when it comes to mating, the direct evidence is frustratingly limited because reproductive organs rarely - if ever - turn into fossils. Despite this challenge, scientists have found ways to glean indirect insights.



In 2016, a team of paleontologists led by <a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2023/12/11/dinosaur-tracks-martin-lockley-paleontologist-ucd-ridge/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martin Lockley</a> from the <a href="https://www.ucdenver.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Denver</a> identified unusual scrape marks believed to be “<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26741567/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating grounds</a>” where large, carnivorous dinosaurs may have performed courtship displays.



These scrape marks give researchers a window into pre-mating behavior, hinting that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> had specific routines to woo potential partners.



Think of this as a type of "prehistoric foreplay" as the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daily Mail</a> so eloquently surmised when discussing these mating grounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-about-dinosaur-mating">Clues about dinosaur mating</h2>



Birds are living descendants of certain dinosaur lineages, and their closest evolutionary cousins are crocodilians. By examining these groups, scientists can make educated guesses about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> anatomy.



While many modern bird groups do not possess a visible penis, ducks and ostriches (some of the more ancient forms) still do. 



Male crocodilians have a single penis concealed in a cloaca, which is the all-purpose opening for excretion and reproduction.



Given these observations, most specialists propose that dinosaurs likely had similar structures tucked away, ready for brief yet essential moments of contact. 



This notion supports earlier work by researchers who saw parallels with living alligators and large birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-all-dinosaurs-mated-the-same-way">All dinosaurs mated the same way</h2>



Although no confirmed fossil of dinosaurs locked in an intimate embrace has ever turned up, parallels with modern reptiles suggest that their mating was typically a direct act that involved the male positioning himself behind the female.



“All dinosaurs used the same basic position to mate. Mounting from the rear, he put his forelimbs on her shoulders, lifting one hind limb across her back and twisting his tail under hers” said <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alain-Blieck/publication/298622786_L_B_Halstead_and_the_heterostracan_controversy/links/5889e749a6fdcc9a35c3badd/L-B-Halstead-and-the-heterostracan-controversy.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Beverly Halstead</a>, a noted English paleontologist who took an interest in dinosaur reproduction decades ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precarious-and-dangerous-positioning">Precarious and dangerous positioning</h2>



This statement may sound simple, but it prompts visions of a precarious balancing act for massive <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/saurischia/sauropoda.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sauropods</a>. For creatures that outweighed elephants many times over, the mechanics seem daunting.



Researchers note that supporting a partner’s weight during mating would not necessarily exceed the stress a dinosaur’s hind limbs experienced during ordinary walking or running. 



Some breakthroughs come from discoveries that are not related to mating positions at all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-parenting-evidence">Early parenting evidence</h2>



Scientists examining <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/dino-directory/tyrannosaurus.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus rex</a> bones have found <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep06253" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medullary tissue</a> in the thighbone of a pregnant female. This special type of bone tissue is found to <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1112158" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">form</a> in modern birds when they are about to lay eggs. 



This discovery confirmed that dinosaurs shared more reproductive links with birds than previously appreciated.



It also hinted at the age when these creatures reached sexual maturity, often earlier than one might assume. There are always loose ends in any discussion of dinosaur biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-dinosaurs-needed-water-to-mate">Some dinosaurs needed water to mate</h2>



Questions remain about how spiny, heavily plated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-worlds-best-preserved-psittacosaurus-dinosaurs-die/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> like stegosaurs managed intimate moments without injury. 



It is also unclear whether some massive species needed water for extra buoyancy to protect the female from a partner’s weight.



New technology and fresh fossil sites offer hope for clearer answers. Computer modeling allows paleontologists to simulate possible mating postures based on the range of motion in fossilized joints.



Synchrotron scanning and CT imaging allows them peer deeper into ancient bones for evidence of medullary layers and other reproductive signals. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-mating-and-future-discoveries">Dinosaur mating and future discoveries</h2>



Although a frozen-in-time snapshot of dinosaur mating has yet to be uncovered, many in the field anticipate that more insights into the private lives of dinosaurs are just around the corner.



Even a single skeleton with distinct indicators of reproductive behavior could reshape our entire understanding of how these creatures ensured their survival in a hostile, ever-changing world.



The original article is published in the <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/everything-you-want-know-about-sex-lives-dinosaurs-scratching-ground-battling-with-horns-173015/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Magazine</a>.



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How did dinosaurs mate, have sex, and reproduce? Fossil evidence offers some clues

Dinosaurs left behind fossilized bones and footprints that offer vivid...

Record ocean heat has taken a devastating toll on one of the world’s greatest natural wonders, with coral bleaching on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef reaching “catastrophic” levels, a new study has found.&nbsp;



More than 50% of affected corals monitored near an island in the reef’s south were killed last year during the most severe and widespread bleaching to ever hit the area, according to a team of Australian scientists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-leading-to-coral-bleaching">Factors leading to coral bleaching</h2>



In 2024, the reef experienced its worst summer on record. Soaring ocean temperatures shattered previous highs, causing the reef’s seventh mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-coral-bleaching-event-is-now-underway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bleaching</a> event.&nbsp;



Corals are bleached white when marine heat waves put corals under stress, causing them to expel algae from their tissue, draining their color. This damaging process ultimately weakens the corals, leaving them vulnerable to disease and potential death.



The underlying cause is the ongoing combustion of planet-heating fossil fuels, which is driving global temperatures upward.&nbsp;



Coral damage was further accelerated last year by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-in-some-parts-of-the-world-actually-benefit-from-warming-el-nino-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a> weather pattern, known for raising ocean temperatures in this region. As a result, reef areas that had never endured such intense heat came under severe strain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extensive-coral-mortality-and-disease">Extensive coral mortality and disease</h2>



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> tracked 462 coral colonies at One Tree Island over five months, beginning in early February when the heat wave was at its peak.&nbsp;



By May, 370 of these colonies had bleached; by July, more than half of the bleached corals were gone. Some coral species suffered mortality rates of up to 95%, with researchers observing “colony collapse,” a phenomenon in which the coral skeleton detaches from the reef and disintegrates.



The Goniopora species encountered additional damage, contracting black band disease that invades the corals’ tissues and often proves fatal.



“Our findings underscore the urgent need for action to protect coral reefs, which are not only biodiversity hotspots but also crucial for food security and coastal protection,” said lead author Maria Byrne from the University of Sydney’s School of Life and Environmental Sciences.



Byrne noted that the region studied is in a remote, protected area of the reef, far from tourist and industrial influences. However, the reef, “despite its protected status, was not immune to the extreme heat stress that triggered this catastrophic bleaching event,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-great-barrier-reef-under-threat">Great Barrier Reef under threat</h2>



Spanning nearly 133,000 square miles (345,000 square kilometers), the Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest coral reef system, hosting over 1,500 species of fish and more than 400 types of hard corals. Its significant contribution to Australia’s economy, mainly through tourism, underscores its global importance and the urgency of protective measures.



Nevertheless, recent bleaching episodes illustrate a troubling trend of more frequent and intense heat waves, making it increasingly difficult for corals to recover. 



The study’s authors warn that mass bleaching has become “a biennial event,” which “reinforces the need for urgent global action now to adhere to ambitious climate and reduced emissions targets.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-spreads-to-previously-unaffected-areas">Impact spreads to previously unaffected areas</h2>



The latest bleaching event also hit parts of the reef previously spared from mass bleaching, indicating that the crisis is extending into new territories. Even coral species once deemed resilient have exhibited signs of disease and elevated mortality rates.



“Seeing the impacts on a reef that has largely avoided mass bleaching until now is devastating,” said marine scientist and co-author Shawna Foo. “The high rates of mortality and disease, particularly in such a remote and pristine area, highlight the severity of the situation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-climate-emergency-for-coral-reefs">A climate emergency for coral reefs</h2>



Severe bleaching events have occurred on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-barrier-reef-is-on-the-brink-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Barrier Reef</a> in 1998, 2002, 2016, 2017, 2020, and 2022. The 2022 episode was particularly concerning, as it coincided with a La Niña event - El Niño’s cooler counterpart - raising further doubts about the reef’s resilience to future climate extremes.



The new findings underscore the fragile condition of the reef and the urgent necessity to curb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-carbon-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuel emissions</a> that contribute to global warming.&nbsp;



With bleaching now seemingly inevitable in many locations, the survival of coral reefs hinges on global efforts to limit temperature rises, offering hope that the reef’s vibrant ecosystems can still be preserved for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/lol2.10456" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Limnology and Oceanography Letters</a>.



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Coral bleaching has reached "catastrophic" levels on the Great Barrier Reef

Record ocean heat has taken a devastating toll on one...

Shell-dwelling cichlids are known for their remarkable parental care, raising their young in abandoned snail shells.&nbsp;



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a> have uncovered the intricate dynamics inside these shells using 3D-printed models.&nbsp;



The findings reveal synchronized but independent routines between mothers and their larvae, offering valuable insights into the species' brood care behaviors and innate biological processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delicate-balancing-act-of-cichilds">Delicate balancing act of cichilds</h2>



For many species, deciding when offspring leave the safety of home is a delicate balancing act. 



If the young depart too early, they risk being ill-equipped to survive; staying too long, however, can overstrain the parents’ resources. This pivotal moment can greatly impact the survival of both parents and offspring across the animal kingdom.



The team at Herwig Baier’s research department focused on Lamprologus ocellatus, a species of shell-dwelling cichlids found in Africa’s Lake Tanganyika. These fish exhibit highly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-of-cichlid-fish-boosts-biodiversity-in-lake-tanganyika/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social behavior</a> and devoted parental care, which is uncommon among many fish species. 



Raising their offspring within abandoned snail shells adds an intriguing layer to their parenting, but until now, the activities within these homes remained largely a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creative-solution-to-study-hidden-behaviors">Creative solution to study hidden behaviors</h2>



To investigate the hidden world inside the shells, lead researcher Ash Parker and her colleagues devised an ingenious method. They used 3D printers to create modified snail shells, designed to function as optimal homes for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> while leaving one side open.&nbsp;



When these shells were placed against the aquarium glass, researchers could capture videos and photos of the cichlids' behaviors.



Using AI-assisted image analysis, the team identified fascinating behaviors unfolding in a precise sequence.&nbsp;



After the mother lays the eggs in the upper chamber of the snail shell, the father fertilizes them. After two to three days, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-reef-sounds-inspire-coral-larvae-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larvae</a> hatch and the mother carries them with her mouth to the lowest chamber of the shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dedicated-maternal-care-of-cichlids-nbsp">Dedicated maternal care of cichlids&nbsp;</h2>



Throughout the early days of the larvae’s development, the mother remains vigilant. She not only guards the shell but actively tends to the eggs and larvae by cleaning them with her mouth.&nbsp;



Additionally, she uses rapid movements of her rear fins to ensure a steady flow of fresh water inside the shell, maintaining optimal conditions for her young.



By the seventh or eighth day, the larvae begin feeding independently and make tentative attempts at swimming. However, they remain in the darker, lower chambers of the shell until the ninth day, when their behavior undergoes a dramatic shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cichlids-ready-to-leave-the-shell">Cichlids ready to leave the shell</h2>



On the ninth day after fertilization, the larvae show a sudden preference for brighter areas. This intrinsic change in light sensitivity appears to signal their readiness to leave the shell for the first time.



The timing of their emergence, however, also relies on their mother’s brood-care efforts.&nbsp;



When the researchers removed the mother from the setup, the larvae left the shell earlier, likely due to deteriorating water quality caused by the absence of her fin fanning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-independent-but-synchronized-schedules">Independent but synchronized schedules</h2>



Interestingly, the mother’s behavior follows a separate internal schedule. When presented with an older clutch of larvae that swam out earlier than she anticipated, she actively pushed them back into the shell, disregarding their advanced development.



These observations show that both the mother and the offspring follow independent, innate schedules that are nevertheless perfectly synchronized. Both mother and juveniles seem to instinctively align their routines, agreeing that the ninth day marks the ideal time for the young to leave the shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-evolution-and-behavior">Implications for evolution and behavior</h2>



This study offers a rare glimpse into the intricate processes governing parental care in shell-dwelling cichlids. By identifying innate behavioral patterns and their coordination, the research lays the groundwork for exploring the evolutionary and neurological underpinnings of such complex behaviors.



The findings also highlight the role of environmental conditions, maternal intervention, and innate biological timing in ensuring the successful transition of offspring to independence.&nbsp;



With 3D-printed technology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-reveals-hidden-climate-extremes-in-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a>-driven analysis, the researchers have provided an unprecedented view into the hidden dynamics of these fascinating fish.&nbsp;



Image Credit: MPI for Biological Intelligence/ Axel Griesch



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Fish leaving home: How cichlids perfectly time independence

Shell-dwelling cichlids are known for their remarkable parental care, raising...

Picture this: You're a male bird trying to get lucky. Traditional wisdom says pump up those testosterone levels, fight off the competition, and strut your stuff. But some clever birds have figured out a totally different game plan - one that involves producing more testosterone than their macho counterparts, only to destroy it moments later.



Researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, in collaboration with international colleagues, have discovered that these birds produce a super enzyme that rapidly breaks down testosterone. 



The findings reveal that a single gene drives this process and that it happens in the blood, a tissue previously overlooked in hormone regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-testosterone-in-male-behavior">Role of testosterone in male behavior</h2>



Testosterone is a key hormone in male physiology. It plays an essential role in sexual development, aggression, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-moving-north-and-breeding-earlier-in-a-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive behavior</a>. 



Most testosterone is produced in the testes, where it supports sperm production and influences secondary sexual characteristics. The blood then carries the hormone to other parts of the body, including the brain, where it affects aggression and courtship behavior.



Traditionally, scientists have viewed high testosterone levels as advantageous for male animals, helping them compete for mates and establish dominance. However, recent research led by Clemens Küpper challenges this notion in ruffs. 



The researchers found that some males actively eliminate testosterone from their bloodstream, raising an important question: why would a sexually competitive bird species reduce a hormone typically linked to mating success?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-morphs-with-distinct-mating-strategies">Three morphs with distinct mating strategies</h2>



Male ruffs are unique because they exist in three different morphs, each with a distinct appearance and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-wild-bird-is-expecting-again-at-74/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive strategy</a>. The majority of males belong to the "Independent" morph, characterized by darker plumage and territorial behavior. 



These males compete aggressively in mating arenas known as leks, where they defend small territories and display for females. Their high testosterone levels support this assertive and dominant approach.



The second morph, known as "Satellites," is slightly smaller and has lighter-colored plumage. Unlike Independents, Satellites do not defend territories. Instead, they form alliances with Independents, peacefully positioning themselves within the lek to increase their chances of attracting a mate. 



Their mating success does not depend on aggression, making high testosterone levels unnecessary.



The rarest morph, "Faeders," takes an entirely different approach. These males mimic females in both size and appearance, allowing them to slip into the lek unnoticed. 



Disguised as females, they avoid direct competition while still managing to mate. For both Satellites and Faeders, excess testosterone could be a disadvantage, as it promotes aggressive behaviors that conflict with their alternative strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-basis-of-testosterone-regulation-in-birds">Basis of testosterone regulation in birds</h2>



Until recently, little was known about the genetic mechanisms that regulate testosterone in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-blue-tits-have-a-mating-advantage-that-involves-cheating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>. 



The study of ruffs has provided key insights, as the three male morphs differ due to a single "supergene" - a section of DNA containing approximately 100 genes.



This genetic variation emerged around four million years ago when a chromosome fragment broke off and reinserted itself in the opposite direction, leading to the evolution of distinct morphs.



As researchers analyzed gene expression, they identified a crucial gene within the supergene that codes for an enzyme responsible for breaking down testosterone. This enzyme was produced in high quantities in Satellites and Faeders but was absent in Independents.



Surprisingly, when the team measured testosterone levels in the testes, they found that Satellites and Faeders actually produced more testosterone there than Independents. 



This finding raised another question: if these males produce more testosterone in their testes, how do they maintain significantly lower levels of the hormone in their blood?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-super-enzyme-in-the-blood">Super enzyme in the blood</h2>



The answer lies in an exceptionally powerful enzyme - what researchers call a "super enzyme" - that rapidly degrades testosterone.



This enzyme is present in large amounts in the blood of Satellites and Faeders, breaking down the hormone before it can circulate through the body. 



In contrast, Independents completely lack this enzyme in their bloodstream, allowing them to maintain high testosterone levels that fuel their aggressive territorial behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-breaking-down-testosterone">Birds breaking down testosterone </h2>



Before this discovery, scientists assumed that testosterone breakdown occurred primarily in the liver and other organs, with little to no regulation occurring directly in the blood. 



"Based on previous research in other animals, we had assumed that this enzyme plays no role in the blood," explained Alex Zemella, one of the first authors of the study from <a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a>.



"But our results revealed a previously unknown site there that the enzyme acts on. This means that the amount of circulating testosterone can be regulated directly in the blood – something that had previously been overlooked."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-single-gene-shapes-complex-behavior">A single gene shapes complex behavior</h2>



This discovery highlights the sophisticated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/island-bird-communities-are-changing-in-unexpected-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a> male ruffs have evolved to maximize their reproductive success. Instead of relying solely on aggression, Satellites and Faeders have adapted a biochemical mechanism to regulate their behavior in a way that benefits their unique mating tactics.



"All males need testosterone in their testes for producing sperm," noted Jasmine Loveland, a lead author of the study.



"But the hormone also has other effects, for example in the brain, where it can promote aggressive and courtship behavior. It is interesting that the non-aggressive ruffs seem to have increased levels of the super enzyme throughout the brain too, especially in the hypothalamus." 



"These results, along with the low testosterone levels in the blood, likely play an important role in shaping their mating strategies."



The ability to control testosterone levels so precisely allows Satellites and Faeders to optimize their reproductive success without the drawbacks of excessive aggression. 



By modifying the way testosterone circulates in the body, they have developed a more subtle but equally effective way to compete for mates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-birds-and-testosterone">Future research on birds and testosterone</h2>



The finding that a single gene can significantly influence testosterone regulation opens up new possibilities for research. Understanding how hormone levels shape complex social behaviors in ruffs may provide broader insights into other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-struggle-to-survive-spring-migration-after-bad-winters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, including mammals.



Going forward, the research team aims to explore how these genetic mechanisms affect brain function and social interactions in ruffs. They also plan to investigate how similar processes might influence reproductive strategies in other animals. 



By continuing to study the genetic basis of behavioral diversity, scientists hope to uncover new details about the intricate relationship between hormones, genes, and mating success.



This study challenges conventional wisdom about testosterone and aggression, showing that high testosterone is not always an advantage. 



In ruffs, a well-adapted enzyme allows some males to take a completely different route to reproductive success - proving that in evolution, strategy matters just as much as strength.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp5936" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Some birds trick their way into mating by removing testosterone from their bodies

Picture this: You're a male bird trying to get lucky....

A species of free-living coral, Cycloseris cyclolites, defies traditional coral behavior by actively migrating toward light using a movement strategy reminiscent of jellyfish.



A new study from Queensland University of Technology (<a href="https://www.qut.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">QUT</a>) sheds light on the coral’s sophisticated navigation and mobility mechanisms, with implications for understanding its survival strategies amid changing environmental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-free-living-corals-that-migrate">Free-living corals that migrate</h2>



Unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/isolated-coral-reefs-survive-with-the-help-of-their-local-network/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most corals</a> that remain anchored to the reef substrate, Cycloseris cyclolites is a solitary, free-living mushroom coral capable of migrating in search of better habitats. 



Dr. Brett Lewis, the lead author from QUT’s School of Atmospheric and Earth Sciences and the <a href="https://gbrrestoration.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reef Restoration and Adaptation Program</a>, emphasized the unique lifestyle of these mobile corals.



“Not all corals are attached to the substrate; some are solitary and free-living, allowing them to migrate into preferred habitats,” Lewis explained. 



Despite their remarkable behavior, the mechanisms underlying their movement and navigation have largely remained a mystery - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-strategy-of-corals">Migration strategy of corals</h2>



Using high-resolution time-lapse imaging, the research team discovered that Cycloseris cyclolites moves through a process called pulsed inflation. 



This mechanism involves rhythmic inflating and deflating of the coral’s tissue, propelling it forward in a manner strikingly similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-more-than-just-a-snack-for-predatory-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jellyfish</a> locomotion.



“Our findings suggest that pulsed inflation is not just a survival strategy but a critical mechanism for migration and navigation,” Lewis noted.



This movement enables the coral to perform several essential functions, including righting itself when flipped upside down, expelling sediment that might bury it during storms, and migrating toward optimal environmental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corals-move-to-optimal-depths-nbsp">Corals move to optimal depths&nbsp;</h2>



One of the study’s key findings was the coral’s strong preference for blue light. When exposed to various light sources, 86.7% of the corals migrated toward blue light, compared to only 20% for white light. 



This behavior aligns with the coral’s preference for deeper water habitats, where blue wavelengths dominate.



“The ability of Cycloseris cyclolites to move towards specific light sources is a fascinating parallel to other marine species like jellyfish, which suggests they are more neurologically sophisticated than previously thought,” Lewis said.



This light sensitivity likely helps the corals navigate to optimal depths, where conditions are better suited for survival, reproduction, and dispersal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sgnificance-of-coral-migration">Sgnificance of coral migration</h2>



The discovery of such advanced mobility and light sensitivity in Cycloseris cyclolites offers new insights into the evolution of nervous systems.&nbsp;



The study draws parallels between the coral’s behavior and the movement strategies of jellyfish, a key evolutionary point in the development of centralized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-arms-function-with-unparalleled-precision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nervous systems</a>, which humans also possess.



But the findings aren’t just an evolutionary curiosity - they carry important ecological implications. 



By understanding how these migratory corals navigate their environment, scientists can better predict how they might adapt to the escalating challenges posed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-may-not-adapt-quickly-enough-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-reefs-and-climate-change-the-basics">Coral reefs and climate change - the basics</h2>



As ocean temperatures rise, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-coral-reefs-deeper-zones-currently-safe-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corals become stressed</a> and expel the tiny algae that give them their vibrant colors and provide them with essential nutrients. 



This process, known as coral bleaching, leaves the corals pale and weak, making it harder for them to survive and grow. 



Without these algae, the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-coral-transplants-could-revolutionize-reef-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef ecosystem</a> struggles, affecting countless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine species</a> that rely on the reefs for shelter and food.



On top of the warming waters, ocean acidification is another major threat corals are facing. 



Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are being absorbed by the oceans, lowering the pH levels and making it harder for corals to build their calcium carbonate skeletons. 



This not only slows their growth but also makes them more vulnerable to erosion and breakage from storms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corals-migrate-to-survive">Corals migrate to survive</h2>



As sea surface temperatures rise and other climate-driven changes impact coral habitats, the ability of Cycloseris cyclolites to migrate toward more favorable conditions could be crucial.&nbsp;



By moving to deeper waters dominated by blue wavelengths, these corals may escape the warming and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/60-percent-global-coral-reefs-face-bleaching-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bleaching</a> events that devastate many other reef species.



“Understanding their movement strategies could help scientists predict how migratory corals might resist, survive, or adapt to changes in environmental conditions,” Lewis explained. “With these climate-driven factors increasing, the faster the migration, the higher the chance of survival.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-climate-change-and-the-future">Coral, climate change, and the future</h2>



This research highlights the remarkable adaptability of Cycloseris cyclolites, offering a new perspective on coral resilience and survival.&nbsp;



As climate change continues to threaten coral reefs worldwide, these insights provide a foundation for further studies on coral behavior and potential conservation strategies.&nbsp;



By unraveling the mechanisms that allow corals to thrive in dynamic and challenging environments, scientists hope to uncover new ways to protect these vital marine ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315623" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Corals that walk and migrate? Fascinating climate change survival strategy discovered

A species of free-living coral, Cycloseris cyclolites, defies traditional coral...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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