Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

The Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) is a dwarf galaxy that sits about 200,000 light-years from Earth. This small galaxy orbits the Milky Way and astronomers think it experiences gravitational stress from multiple sources in its neighborhood.



Recent evidence shows that this galaxy’s stars exhibit two distinct, opposing flows. Dr. Kengo Tachihara from the Department of Physics at <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a> connects these findings to surprising outside influences from massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-milky-way-galaxys-magnetic-space-turbulence-captured-in-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neighbors</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-precise-distances-in-space">Measuring precise distances in space</h2>



Scientists rely on <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/320638" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cepheid variable stars</a> to pin down precise distances in space. These stars become brighter and dimmer at set intervals that act like a built-in yardstick.



Dr. Tachihara's team analyzed thousands of these objects using high-accuracy data from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Gaia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gaia mission</a>. The researchers noticed a curious trend: stars that sit nearer to us move one way, while those that lie farther away move in another.



Older approaches grouped all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxygen-detected-in-the-most-distant-and-primitive-galaxy-ever-analyzed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> at the same distance, which hid subtle differences. This new method helps uncover differences in movement that went unnoticed under past assumptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stretching-of-the-magellanic-cloud">Stretching of the Magellanic Cloud</h2>



The <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/large-magellanic-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Large</a> Magellanic Cloud exerts a strong pull on its smaller companion. Yet there seems to be a second factor stretching the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-black-hole-tde-caught-on-camera-stalking-and-eating-a-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> across another axis.



There is also a possibility that the gravitational influences from our own Milky Way or the effects from a past close encounter between the two Magellanic Clouds contribute to the stretching of the SMC, according to Dr. Tachihara. This idea points to a more intricate galactic tug than once imagined.



Such dueling forces may rearrange gas, dust, and stars. Researchers see them as prime examples of how dwarfs can get deformed by bigger systems that lie next door.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-dwarf-galaxies">The evolution of dwarf galaxies </h2>



Earlier models held that this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-confirm-lone-black-hole-wandering-through-our-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> might rotate like a spinning disk. Recent analyses found a lack of evidence of any significant rotation, suggesting instead that external pulls are shaping its overall behavior.



“Our discovery challenges previous theories of the galaxy’s structure and dynamics. New simulations that consider the SMC's non-rotating nature are needed to understand these complex relationships,” stated Ph.D. student Satoya Nakano, the study's lead author.&nbsp;



The research sheds new light on how dwarf galaxies evolve when they orbit near heavyweights like the Milky Way. A reevaluation of standard rotation-based interpretations could yield a clearer sense of what truly drives these stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-the-small-magellanic-cloud">Insights into the Small Magellanic Cloud</h2>



A better handle on these forces might explain how entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/35-years-of-hubble-the-telescope-that-changed-our-view-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> change. Collisions, close passes, and repeated pulls can stretch smaller objects so extensively that their original shapes vanish.



Understanding such extreme sculpting may also teach us about star-making activity, as disturbed gas clouds can either spark or suppress the formation of new stars. Observing these patterns may help researchers see where vital cosmic ingredients end up.



The interplay between smaller and larger galaxies remains a hot area of study. Insights into the Small Magellanic Cloud could shape our broader ideas about how clusters of stars grow and shift over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cosmic-balancing-act">A cosmic balancing act</h2>



Scientists plan to compare more data sets from advanced observatories to see if other local dwarfs show similar multi-axis strain. Future surveys could reveal hidden pockets of motion or extra star groups moving off-track.



Better maps of radial velocity will let astronomers confirm whether each part of the galaxy is truly pulled in opposing directions. That detail might clarify if something else lurks outside the known influences.



While more observations are on the horizon, the current picture already hints at a cosmic balancing act. Research groups worldwide aim to combine space-based imaging with ground-based radio studies to spot any missing puzzle pieces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-movement-in-the-magellanic-cloud">Star movement in the Magellanic Cloud</h2>



Large-scale computer models will be key in testing how the Small Magellanic Cloud ended up so twisted. Improved calculations may match the observed patterns of star flow without relying on major rotation for an explanation.



By bridging refined measurements with new theoretical work, astronomers plan to see if other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dwarf-galaxies-found-near-andromeda-form-a-cosmic-arrow-pointing-directly-at-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dwarf galaxies</a> share a similar fate. They suspect that a better grasp of these multi-directional pulls can shed light on interactions across the local group.



This approach might transform how we view smaller galaxies caught between gravitational behemoths. Future studies could reveal a dynamic universe where even modest-sized systems can face serious stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-questions-about-galaxy-families">Broader questions about galaxy families </h2>



Cosmologists often track dwarf galaxies because they can reveal how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-collision-may-change-everything-we-know-about-our-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collisions</a> sculpt entire star groups over cosmic timescales. Detailed motion studies might help us gauge whether gas streams or outflows also play a hidden part in reshaping these regions.



Some scientists are investigating if gravitational encounters in the early universe set the stage for dwarf galaxies like the Small Magellanic Cloud to undergo repeated contortions. That line of thought ties local observations to broader questions about galaxy families across space.



"Understanding the internal kinematics of the two Magellanic galaxies is crucial for reconstructing their interaction history with the Milky Way and their evolutionary pathways," noted the researchers.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/adce0b" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



Image Credit: NASA/CXC/JPL-Caltech/STScI



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Small Magellanic Cloud is being pulled apart by two galaxies

The Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) is a dwarf galaxy that...

High-sugar breakfast cereals are hugely popular among children. Families often see bright packaging and think the product is a fun way to start the day.



Experts are sounding the alarm about nutritional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-children-healthy-diets-can-be-very-challenging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes</a> in these cereals. According to Dr. Shuoli Zhao from the <a href="https://www.uky.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Kentucky</a> and Dr. Qingxiao Li from Louisiana State University (<a href="https://www.lsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LSU</a>), recent trends suggest that taste may be trumping nutritional value.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-children-s-cereal">Changes in children’s cereal </h2>



The cereals launched from 2010 to 2023 show an uptick in certain nutrients that might be considered less beneficial for growing children. This means that fats and sodium levels are climbing while the protein and fiber <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-baby-food-isnt-nutritious-despite-what-the-label-says/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">content</a> appears to be on a downswing.



Some cereals are loaded with extra sugar, raising concerns about the direct impact on childhood weight gain. 



Parents are often unaware that a single bowl can account for nearly half of the American Heart Association’s daily recommended <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192627" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sugar limit</a> for kids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-sugar-cereal-harms-children-s-health">High sugar cereal harms children’s health</h2>



<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/childhood-obesity-facts/childhood-obesity-facts.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Childhood obesity</a> has been linked to higher risk of heart problems later in life. Extra calories from sugary cereals may worsen the issue and put unnecessary strain on growing bodies.



Protein and fiber help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cutting-sugar-in-childhood-can-prevent-a-lifetime-of-health-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kids</a> feel fuller and maintain energy for active days. When those nutrients drop, children may experience mid-morning crashes or a constant need to snack on foods that lack balance.



The researchers reviewed new product launches, focusing on cereals aimed at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neighborhood-food-access-linked-to-childhood-obesity-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">children</a> between 5 and 12 years old. Many were repackaged versions of existing brands, but fresh flavors also entered the market.



The findings suggest that competition in the cereal aisle might drive companies to emphasize taste more than wholesome content. Manufacturers often rely on added sugar and salt to make products appealing, but that can come at the cost of nutritional integrity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cereal-packaging-is-misleading">Cereal packaging is misleading </h2>



Cereal boxes targeting kids often feature cartoons, bold fonts, and slogans that suggest health benefits. These visuals can lead parents to assume the product is both fun and nutritious, even if the nutrition facts suggest otherwise.



Many cereals also include terms like “whole grain” or “fortified with vitamins,” which may give the impression of a healthy choice. However, these labels can overshadow the actual sugar or sodium content, which isn’t always highlighted on the front.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-changes-went-unnoticed">Why these changes went unnoticed</h2>



Nutritional shifts happened gradually over more than a decade, making them harder for most people to spot. 



Without side-by-side comparisons, it’s tough for the average shopper to realize just how much sugar, fat, or sodium has crept into these products.



Packaging updates often draw more attention than ingredient lists. As long as the cereal looks familiar and tastes good, many consumers don’t think to check what might have changed inside the box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-companies-can-improve-cereal-for-children">How companies can improve cereal for children</h2>



Food companies could reformulate their products to include more protein and fiber, both of which are important for growing children. 



Small changes, like using whole grains or adding nuts and seeds, can make cereals more balanced without sacrificing taste.



They could also be more transparent about added sugars and sodium by placing clear, front-of-box warnings. This would make it easier for parents to spot less healthy options at a glance and choose better ones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture-for-public-health">The bigger picture for public health</h2>



Shifts in cereal nutrition aren’t just about breakfast, they reflect broader issues in how processed foods are made and marketed to children. 



When unhealthy patterns begin early, they can lead to lifelong habits that increase the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.12048" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">risk</a> of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and other chronic conditions.



These findings also raise questions about food policy. Stricter regulations on added sugars and clearer labeling might help curb childhood obesity rates and reduce future health care burdens.



Parents can help by reading labels and comparing nutrient profiles across options. If the sugar count looks high, it may be wise to switch brands or mix in cereals with more fiber to balance out the meal.



It also helps to round out breakfast with fruit, milk, or yogurt that adds protein and vitamins. Being <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23166346/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watchful</a> during grocery runs could be a simple way to reduce the risk of serious health issues for children.



The study is published in <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2834355" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Network Open</a>.



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Children's cereals now contain more sugar and fat than ever

High-sugar breakfast cereals are hugely popular among children. Families often...

Birds that embark on long, perilous journeys from the northern boreal forests to tropical destinations each winter gain more than just a warm escape. These songbirds may also carry a hidden advantage - greater genetic diversity.



This insight comes from researchers at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a>. The team compared the genomes of 35 songbird species that nest in boreal forests across the United States and Canada.



The study revealed that species migrating longer distances to overwinter in tropical regions had more genetic diversity than species staying closer to home. 



These birds also showed distinct genetic patterns linked to their breeding sites, suggesting a faithful return to the same nesting grounds year after year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbird-migration-and-genetic-variation">Songbird migration and genetic variation </h2>



The researchers found a strong connection between how far birds migrate and the level of genetic variation they carry. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polygamous-birds-carry-fewer-harmful-genetic-mutations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genetic diversity</a> reflects how many different versions of genes are present within a population. A higher level of diversity often points to a more stable population over evolutionary time.



"Long distance migration has evolved to be a very successful strategy for birds because even though it's difficult and requires extraordinary physiology, it allows them to spend the northern winter in a place where they enjoy a higher survival rate," said Benjamin Winger, lead author of the study. 



"What our genetic diversity results likely mean is that these really long-distance migrants have had more stable populations over evolutionary history, which is amazing because they're undergoing these phenomenal, risky migrations."



This stability in the face of extreme effort was unexpected. Researchers had long wondered about the relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-migration-is-influenced-by-social-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> and bird genetics, but until recently, analyzing large sets of bird genomes wasn’t feasible due to cost and technical limitations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-flow-and-songbird-migration">Gene flow and songbird migration</h2>



The research team started collecting samples over 15 years ago. They tapped into multiple museum collections - including the University of Michigan’s Museum of Zoology - to gather enough data for their analysis.



Many of the songbird species were closely related, with different migration behaviors, offering a unique way to isolate the impact of distance traveled.



Take the hermit thrush and the Swainson’s thrush. These birds breed in the same boreal regions. But while the hermit thrush winters in the southern U.S., the Swainson’s thrush ventures all the way to South America.



The goal was to understand gene flow - the transfer of genetic material between populations - and how it’s affected by migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strong-ties-to-breeding-sites">Strong ties to breeding sites</h2>



In theory, if birds frequently move across the continent and breed with distant groups, their genes should be well-mixed. That would make it harder to detect distinct genetic patterns tied to breeding locations. But the study revealed something different. 



"We specifically designed this study to look at this vast area that functions as a single population, meaning that there's no barriers across it," said Teresa Pegan, a postdoctoral researcher at Harvard University. 



"If a bird is born in Ontario, there's not much preventing it from moving to Manitoba if it wanted."



Still, the genetic analysis told a different story. Pegan sequenced 1,700 genomes and developed a computational method to identify genetic patterns within each species. 



Some long-distance migrants, it turns out, showed clear genetic ties to specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/murrelets-rely-on-each-other-to-find-breeding-sites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding sites</a> - evidence that they return to the same location each year, despite flying thousands of miles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unexpected-genetic-surprise">An unexpected genetic surprise</h2>



Initially, the team wasn’t expecting songbird migrations to strongly affect genetic diversity. But the data proved otherwise.



"But to our surprise - I almost fell out of my chair when I found it - there's actually a really remarkably strong relationship between migration distance and the amount of genetic diversity in the population," said Pegan.



"It's such a strong influence that there's even a strong relationship between individual birds from different species."



"For example, if you consider an individual in a species that migrates a longer distance, then in this particular comparison, that bird has more diversity within its own genome than an individual that doesn't migrate or migrates a shorter distance."



This means that species traveling farther tend to carry more genetic tools to adapt and survive - an evolutionary advantage in a world of changing environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-right-places">Protecting the right places</h2>



The findings carry important implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-birds-diving-petrels-return-home-island-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a>. If long-distance migrants are faithful to specific breeding sites, then those areas are critical to protect - especially as forests face threats from logging and development.



"The boreal forest throughout Canada and the United States experiences substantial pressure, not just from climate change, but from resource extraction," said Winger. "Deforestation of boreal forest throughout the US and Canada is more severe than many people realize."



Some bird populations seem flexible, moving freely across breeding territories. But others return to the same forest patch every year. These site-loyal birds are especially vulnerable if their nesting areas are destroyed. 



"They may be less able to fly 10 miles away if they come back and their nesting site has been clear cut," Winger explained.



Understanding how birds migrate and maintain their genetic health helps scientists make smarter decisions about which habitats to preserve and how to manage growing environmental stressors. 



The research highlights that the incredible journeys of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-migratory-birds-navigate-with-such-accuracy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a> aren't just feats of endurance - they're deeply tied to the survival and resilience of their species.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02699-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Songbirds with longer migrations have greater genetic diversity

Birds that embark on long, perilous journeys from the northern...

Forests have long stood as symbols of hope in climate battles. Towering pines, lush rainforests, and dense boreal woodlands seemed to hold the answer to our rising emissions. Their leaves breathed in carbon dioxide. Their roots locked carbon in the soil. Their presence offered comfort in a warming world.



But this story is quickly unraveling. Climate change, once held at bay by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-forests-2024-new-solutions-for-a-better-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature’s resilience</a>, is now overwhelming the very systems built to contain it. Fires rage through continents. Smoke blots out skies. And the forests we once trusted as guardians have begun releasing more carbon than they store.



A recent policy brief by the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health (<a href="https://unu.edu/inweh" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNU‑INWEH</a>) confronts this urgent shift. 



The report delivers a stark warning. Forests, especially in fire-prone zones, are not guaranteed allies anymore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-are-releasing-more-carbon">Forests are releasing more carbon</h2>



The brief reveals how some forests are now “super‑emitters.” This term refers to landscapes that release massive amounts of carbon due to intense, frequent wildfires. These include boreal forests in the Arctic, stretches of the Amazon, and woodlands across Australia.



Despite this shift, many global carbon policies remain stuck in the past. Voluntary carbon markets still reward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-orangutan-day-2024-protecting-the-people-of-the-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> planting without considering how heat, drought, and pests are reshaping forest dynamics



“Planting trees is no longer enough - warming, drought‑stressed forests can flip into vast carbon sources when they burn. Forest policy must move from static protection to dynamic risk management,” noted Dr. Ju Hyoung Lee, lead author of the report.



Tree planting, once considered a reliable fix, can now backfire. In regions suffering from water stress, planting more trees might create dense fuel loads. These become dangerous when combined with dry soil, hot temperatures, and wind.



A spark in such an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> can undo years of carbon reduction in a matter of days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-planting-programs-ignore-wildfire-risks">Tree planting programs ignore wildfire risks</h2>



The scientists emphasized that carbon-offset programs need to evolve. It's not enough to reward the act of planting. These programs must assess forest longevity and vulnerability. Drought, heatwaves, and pest infestations make it harder for forests to thrive, and easier for them to ignite.



Right now, many policies operate on fixed assumptions. They treat forests as stable, slow-changing entities. But reality no longer matches these models. A tree that grows in 2025 might burn before 2035. Without dynamic monitoring, carbon markets risk crediting projects that increase emissions.



According to the brief, more localized assessments are crucial. Hydrological factors like rainfall levels and soil conditions should guide decisions. So should projections of future droughts and temperature <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-face-rising-damage-risks-as-their-diversity-dwindles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extremes</a>. 



Forest health isn't just about what we plant, but where and how it's maintained over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellites-help-detect-at-risk-forests">Satellites help detect at-risk forests</h2>



Technology offers a path forward. The authors call for better integration of satellite data in forest management. Earth observation tools can detect shifts in tree health, soil moisture, and canopy density. This data, collected in near real-time, provides an early warning system for fire risk.



“Forests are our powerful allies against climate change - but only if we manage them as living, dynamic systems. By coupling satellite data with proactive management, we can prevent fires from erasing decades of carbon‑reduction progress,” noted Professor Kaveh Madani, Director of UNU‑INWEH.



This isn’t just about prevention. It’s about transparency and smart policy design. If a forested area faces rising fire threats, it shouldn’t earn carbon credits the same way a more resilient area does. 



Policies must reflect changing realities. With satellite monitoring, decisions can stay rooted in evidence, not assumptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-fire-risks-and-carbon-storage">Forest fire risks and carbon storage</h2>



The UNU-INWEH policy brief identifies a dangerous mismatch. On one side, global warming is accelerating wildfire risks. On the other, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forests-which-tree-species-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> markets act as if forests are immune to change.



This disconnect has serious consequences. Carbon pricing models and credit verification systems often fail to account for fire-related emissions. 



Even the Paris Agreement and voluntary carbon initiatives continue to rely on static forest data. They rarely measure how likely a forest is to survive the next decade without burning.



Tree-planting campaigns in arid regions, especially those with degraded soil, often overlook this. In such environments, forestation might offer little carbon benefit and even invite disaster. When trees dry out, they become fuel. 



Fires that sweep through them don’t just burn wood - they release all the carbon those trees once held.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptive-strategies-for-a-warming-climate">Adaptive strategies for a warming climate</h2>



The policy brief recommends more than just updated monitoring. It suggests rethinking which actions count as carbon mitigation. In certain regions, the best approach may involve less planting and more managing.



Controlled harvesting can reduce tree density and remove dry biomass. In some cases, carefully managed grazing helps maintain soil moisture and stops flammable shrubs from spreading. These methods may seem counterintuitive, but under certain conditions, they prevent bigger losses.



This isn't a call to abandon forests. It’s a call to respect their complexity. When managed well, they can still absorb carbon and support biodiversity. But when misunderstood or left vulnerable, they can undo climate progress in weeks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-global-monitoring-platform">Creating a global monitoring platform</h2>



To support better decision-making, UNU-INWEH urges the creation of a dedicated global platform. This system would channel near-real-time satellite data into both voluntary carbon markets and fire management programs.



Such a platform would allow stakeholders - governments, corporations, and NGOs - to adapt strategies as conditions change. It would also bring much-needed accountability. Projects could be evaluated not just at the start, but throughout their lifespan.



The report envisions a future where carbon finance aligns with ecosystem health. To reach that future, we need to move from static carbon accounting to dynamic, informed planning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-need-smarter-carbon-policies">Forests need smarter carbon policies</h2>



The climate era has changed the rules. Forests cannot be treated as unshakable allies. They are living systems, shaped by drought, pests, and fire. 



If we continue using outdated assumptions, we risk turning climate solutions into climate threats.



As the UNU-INWEH report makes clear, real progress depends on embracing complexity. With better data, smarter policies, and an adaptive mindset, forests can still help us fight climate change. But we must protect them as much from policy failures as from flames.



Read the entire study <a href="https://collections.unu.edu/view/UNU:10167" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>.



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Some forests are now releasing more carbon than they store

Forests have long stood as symbols of hope in climate...

Life on Earth often gets portrayed as a masterclass in efficiency. From the hexagonal wax chambers in a honeybee hive to the slow, energy-sipping heartbeat of a blue whale, living systems seem built to stretch every calorie and atom. 



Yet a closer look shows that biology sometimes plays fast and loose with permanence. 



Some parts of a cell, an organism, or even a family line are designed to wear out, fall apart, or switch off long before they “should.” Far from a design flaw, that planned fragility can keep the larger system nimble and alive.



That idea has a name - selectively advantageous instability (SAI) - and it argues that short-lived components offer long-term payoffs. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-and-wasps-use-the-same-nest-building-tricks-despite-independent-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hexagons</a> may be efficient, but a dash of instability can be just as essential when conditions turn harsh, new challenges appear, or evolution needs fresh material to work with.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-aging-and-sai">Life, aging, and SAI</h2>



Inside every cell, countless molecules flicker in and out of existence within minutes. Transcription factors, the proteins that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biological-age-or-chronological-age-which-is-more-important/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flip genes on</a>, top the list of short-timers. They appear, do their job, and are broken down almost immediately. 



Such turnover means a heat-stressed cell can swap its entire control panel faster than a summer thunderclap passes overhead. The same rule helps remove <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/main-cause-of-sunburn-finally-identified-is-rna-damage-not-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">damaged proteins</a> before they jam vital processes. 



Even the simplest bacteria stock enzymes whose sole task is to shred mistakes. Energy is spent, sure, but the reward is a toolbox that always works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grandmothers-and-telomeres">Grandmothers and telomeres</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-caloric-restriction-help-you-live-longer-its-complicated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Telomeres</a> - the shoelace tips on chromosomes - offer another twist. With each cell division, telomeres shorten until the cell either retires or self-destructs. 



It sounds grim, yet those built-in countdowns help stop runaway mutations that lead to cancer. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-suggests-menopause-can-be-delayed-or-even-eliminated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human menopause</a> shows the pattern at the organism level. Women typically stop bearing children years before they stop living. 



The “grandmother effect,” in which elders boost the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grandchildren-are-a-source-of-joy-and-well-being-for-older-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival of grandchildren</a>, hints that ending fertility early can spread family genes more effectively than another late-life birth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sai-in-the-lab">SAI in the lab</h2>



After years of tracing such patterns, molecular biologist John Tower at <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USC Dornsife College of Letters</a>, Arts and Sciences has argued that SAI deserves promotion to a rule of biology. 



He published the proposal in Frontiers in Aging, joining the short list of principles that describe universal patterns in life. 



“Even the simplest cells contain proteases and nucleases and regularly degrade and replace their proteins and RNAs, indicating that SAI is essential for life,” he explains. 



Like Allen’s 19th-century observation that cold-climate mammals carry stockier limbs, Tower’s idea highlights a trade-off that shows up again and again across species and scales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-states-one-advantage">Two states, one advantage</h2>



“Science has been fascinated lately with concepts such as chaos theory, criticality, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laundry-cleaning-may-explain-the-formation-of-animal-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Turing patterns</a>, and ‘cellular consciousness,’” Tower explains. “Research in the field suggests that SAI plays an important role in producing each of these phenomena.” 



At the core lies a simple switch. When a cell builds an unstable part, it exists in one state; once that part is destroyed, it flips to another. 



“This can favor the maintenance of both a normal gene and a gene mutation in the same cell population, if the normal gene is favorable in one cell state and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-gene-explains-why-some-people-can-thrive-on-less-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene mutation</a> is favorable in the other cell state,” he says. 



The arrangement keeps a reservoir of variety on hand without committing all resources to one genetic bet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-evolution-and-energy-cost">Aging, evolution, and energy cost</h2>



Turnover has a price. Making and breaking molecules burns energy and raw materials. Over decades, the bill may appear as aging. If a harmful mutation slips into the “on” state too often, tissues falter. 



On the flip side, the same seesaw fuels evolution. In populations where environments swing - day to night, drought to flood - cells that toggle between states adapt faster than rigid rivals. 



The hint is clear: perfect stability can become a liability when the ground keeps shifting.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/rule-of-biology_aging_organized-principles_credit-Smith-Science_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/rule-of-biology_aging_organized-principles_credit-Smith-Science_1s.webp" alt="Examples of organizing principles observed across multiple levels of biological organization. Photo credit John Tower. (A–C) Hexagons. (A) Drosophila eggshell. (B) Honeycomb. (C) Glycogen. (D–F) Logarithmic spirals and self-repeating patterns. (D) Ammonite fossil. (E) Pinecone. (F) Romanesco broccoli. (G) Power cone model. Credit: White et al. Science" class="wp-image-1970999"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of organizing principles observed across multiple levels of biological organization. Photo credit John Tower. (A–C) Hexagons. (A) Drosophila eggshell. (B) Honeycomb. (C) Glycogen. (D–F) Logarithmic spirals and self-repeating patterns. (D) Ammonite fossil. (E) Pinecone. (F) Romanesco broccoli. (G) Power cone model. Click image to enlarge. Credit: White et al. Science</figcaption></figure>



SAI appears to scale beyond biology. Human social networks constantly form and dissolve ties. Friend groups change, companies reorganize, and online communities blink in and out. 



While the churn may feel chaotic, it helps fresh ideas leap between clusters, spreading innovation the way a transcription factor sparks a gene. 



Whale pods, elephant herds, and even ant colonies show similar patterns of bond-building and pruning that keep group knowledge current and defenses flexible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-sai-for-synthetic-biology">Implications of SAI for synthetic biology</h2>



Engineers hunting for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-identifies-new-anti-aging-compounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial cells</a> or self-replicating robots have started to embrace instability on purpose. 



Digital models that include expendable modules evolve more resourceful behaviors than versions where every line of code is built to last forever. 



In the lab, molecular circuits programmed with timed self-destruct sequences adjust to new substrates faster than locked-in designs. 



If Tower’s rule holds, future bioreactors and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nanorobots-built-with-folded-dna-could-revolutionize-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapeutic nanomachines</a> may need parts scheduled to break, ensuring the whole system can reboot when surprises arise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-it-all-mean">What does it all mean?</h2>



No single principle captures the full sweep of life’s ingenuity, yet SAI offers a fresh lens. It suggests that fragility, when placed just right, provides room for repair, experimentation, and growth, turning vulnerability into a super-power



Honeycomb hexagons still matter; so does the slow heartbeat of a whale. Cells jettison worn-out parts, families trade late-life births for grandmother wisdom, and entire societies thrive on the churn of ideas that come from bonds forming and fading. 



Selectively advantageous instability reminds us that lasting strength often springs from pieces designed to break and renew. 



Whether you’re engineering a molecular circuit or steering a team through change, embrace the well-timed teardown - because the systems that outlive the unexpected are the ones nimble enough to rebuild on the fly.



Beside all of these examples stands a quieter truth: sometimes the best way to stay alive is to let a few pieces fall apart, again and again, on purpose.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/aging/articles/10.3389/fragi.2024.1376060/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Aging</a>.



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Universal 'rule of biology' reveals and explains patterns in aging and longevity

Life on Earth often gets portrayed as a masterclass in...

Kirlian,Effect,Of,Electric,Current,Passed,Through,Five,Different,Types

In recent years, Kirlian photography has drawn considerable attention for its dramatic images that seem to show the "aura" of people and plants. 



Many enthusiasts claim these vibrant outlines capture the life force or aura of plants, animals, and people.



Much of this fascination began with photos that appeared to show glowing silhouettes around organic objects. These images sparked debates about hidden energies and unseen spiritual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-3d-map-of-the-universe-lets-us-travel-back-11-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">qualities</a>.



“No, Kirlian photographs do not show the soul of an organism,” said Christopher S. Baird, associate professor of physics at <a href="https://www.wtamu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">West Texas A&amp;M University</a>. 



Baird has scrutinized Kirlian photography's claims with a scientific lens. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kirlian-auras-and-electricity">Kirlian auras and electricity</h2>



Kirlian photography involves sending high-frequency electricity through an object, which is often placed on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photographic</a> plate. The energized air around the object glows, forming the bright outlines that some have called “auras.”



This process relies on a well-known effect called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/corona-discharge" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corona discharge</a>, where electrified air molecules emit light as they gain and lose electrons. 



Neon signs and fluorescent bulbs work in a similar way, although they typically rely on specific gases at lower pressures.



Researchers often highlight that living leaves and metal objects can produce comparable glows under similar conditions. 



That fact challenges any claim that the glow comes from an invisible soul, since even coins and nails can generate the same luminous borders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-parts-of-leaves-show-an-aura">Why parts of leaves show an aura</h2>



Some experiments drew attention to a curious event called the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24080008" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phantom leaf effect</a>, where part of a leaf is removed but still shows up in a Kirlian image. This was perplexing to observers back in the day.



“It is clearly a real phenomenon in need of explanation,” observed William A. Tiller of <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> in 1976. Reputable voices within academia called for investigation.&nbsp;



“A normally undetected phantom ‘structure,’ possibly evidence of the biological field, can persist in the area of an amputated leaf section,” wrote <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25603488/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">John Hubacher</a> in 2015, resurfacing the topic for the scientific world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moisture-and-ions">Moisture and ions</h2>



Some argued that residual moisture and <a href="https://www.chemicool.com/definition/ion.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ions</a> on the glass cause these partial outlines. Others point out that local humidity or temperature changes can set off new electrical pathways that trace the leaf’s original shape.



Kirlian photography <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1975-28921-001" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pioneers</a> Semyon D. Kirlian and his wife Valentina K. Kirlian found that non-electrical features of a subject can sometimes be converted into electrical signals under high-frequency currents. 



This transformation may give leaf remnants or moisture traces a chance to appear as hazy extensions in the final photograph.



Electrical experts say the discharge can get influenced by minuscule <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-magnetic-fields-leave-marks-on-nuclear-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variations in conductivity</a>. If a leaf’s torn edge retains fluid, those molecules might continue conducting electricity in the missing region, at least for a short time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-proof">Searching for proof</h2>



Researchers who study these images confirm that small adjustments in voltage, humidity, or temperature can alter the glow. Shapes and brightness hinge on physical factors, not on an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-have-a-communications-system-that-closely-resembles-mental-telepathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unseen essence</a>.



Investigations with coins and nails that produce similar glows underline the purely electrical roots of Kirlian images. The photos do not differentiate between living and non-living materials when it comes to bright outlines.



Some have tried connecting these outlines to ideas about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/qi" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">qi or other energy fields</a>, but repeated tests show that the effects vanish if the conditions change. 



That leads scientists to emphasize that the glow is not tied to any emotional or mystical energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-still-remain">Questions still remain</h2>



Even though many see Kirlian photography auras as a sign of hidden forces, critics remain cautious. Researchers note that rigorous protocols are crucial because contamination or leftover ions can create misleading outlines.



“The phantom leaf effect seen in Kirlian photography may help researchers better understand near-death and out-of-body experience,” wrote James Pace and Debora Drumm in 1992. 



Some investigators still find the phantom leaf effect intriguing because it has been linked to questions about near-death or out-of-body <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01074166" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiences</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-tests-suggest-the-aura-is-physical">New tests suggest the aura is physical</h2>



Discussions continue on whether something more than raw physics might cause these faint outlines. A few researchers have speculated about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1550830721000781" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">morphogenetic field</a> concepts as proposed by <a href="https://www.sheldrake.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rupert Sheldrake</a>, though that remains controversial.



Many modern studies lean toward purely physical explanations, such as conduction pathways formed by torn leaf sap or subtle air ionization. 



The complexity of the effect suggests that even the smallest variables, like how fast the leaf was cut or how the glass was cleaned, can influence results.



Scientists who test phantom leaves often repeat the experiment under different settings to confirm that consistent outcomes are not guaranteed. 



Some get the faint outline, while others see nothing, hinting that it might be a fleeting alignment of conditions rather than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proof of a life force</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kirlian-auras-linked-to-electricity">Kirlian auras linked to electricity</h2>



Kirlian photography creates striking visuals by using high voltage and electrified air. 



Although some believe these colorful borders reveal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-power-plants-impact-climate-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hidden energies</a>, most evidence points to well-known electrical discharges that rely on moisture, conductivity, and the environment.



In cut-leaf images, the missing segment sometimes lights up because of leftover liquids or temporary conduction bridges. Yet this effect does not happen every time, highlighting the unpredictable nature of electrical microcurrents.



Critics have repeatedly shown that coins and other non-living items produce a similar glow, which means there is no special link to an organism’s vitality. 



If a so-called aura depended on a living essence, inanimate objects would not create the same effect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kirlian-photography-nature-and-auras">Kirlian photography, nature, and auras</h2>



Researchers across physics, biology, and alternative medicine still test new hypotheses about Kirlian photography. Many focus on how voltage pulses, moisture, and gases shape these images, rather than invoking a spirit or soul.



Evidence to date favors the idea that these glowing outlines arise from physical forces. The sparks, arcs, and discharges are fascinating, but they do not confirm the presence of a spiritual aura. Kirlian photographs show us how easily human perception can mistake natural effects for supernatural ones. They remind us why careful science still matters when beauty and mystery collide.



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Scientific proof that auras exist? Examining the "phantom leaf effect"

In recent years, Kirlian photography has drawn considerable attention for...

Scenery,Of,The,Ice,Floe,Area,Of,The,Arctic,Ocean,

For years, climate scientists have struggled to explain the warming of the Arctic and why it is heating up three to four times faster than the planet as a whole. 



Traditional climate models capture some of that “Arctic amplification,” but they still fall short of the temperature spikes involving clouds which have been recorded in recent decades.



A new study from Kyushu University points the finger at an unlikely culprit: mixed-phase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-and-arctic-ice-clouds-an-unexpected-connection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clouds</a> that behave like a thermal blanket during the polar night, trapping more heat than most models assume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-arctic-s-thermal-blanket-matters"><a></a>Why the Arctic’s thermal blanket matters</h2>



Mixed-phase clouds - low-lying decks that contain both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-dust-plays-a-hidden-role-in-accelerating-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice crystals</a> and supercooled liquid droplets - dominate Arctic skies. 



In summer, when the sun never sets, they act like a parasol, reflecting incoming sunlight back into space and slowing surface warming.



In winter, when sunlight fades for weeks, those same clouds flip their role. With no solar rays to reflect, they trap long-wave radiation emitted by the ice and ocean below and reradiate it downward, warming the surface.



“However, how well these mixed-phase clouds trap heat depends on their ratio of ice to liquid,” explained lead author Momoka Nakanishi, a graduate researcher at <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a>.



“The more liquid water the clouds contain, the better they are at trapping heat. But many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperature-increase-2023-blew-past-all-climate-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate models</a> have a large bias in representing this ratio, causing incorrect predictions.”



Nakanishi and her adviser, associate professor Takuro Michibata of Kyushu University’s Research Institute for Applied Mechanics, suspected that inaccurate cloud physics might be hiding a large chunk of the Arctic’s missing heat.



To test the idea, they examined 30 leading climate models and compared their simulated wintertime cloud properties with a decade of satellite observations over the polar seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-heavy-models-miss-today-s-heat"><a></a>Ice-heavy models miss today’s heat</h2>



The comparison yielded a stark result: 21 of the 30 models over-predicted the proportion of ice crystals relative to liquid droplets in Arctic winter clouds. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-new-class-of-ice-called-ice-0/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice-heavy clouds</a> emit less infrared radiation back to the surface than liquid-rich ones, so models with too much ice systematically underestimate the present-day greenhouse effect of clouds.



“These ice-dominant models are not properly accounting for the present-day warming potential of the clouds during the winter. That’s why they cannot account for the rapid warming we are currently seeing,” Nakanishi said.



By adjusting the models to match observed ice-to-liquid ratios, the researchers closed much of the gap between simulated and observed warming. 



The finding suggests that fine-scale cloud microphysics - droplet nucleation, crystal growth, and the freezing of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-beauty-revealed-in-ice-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super-cooled water</a> - hold outsized influence over regional climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-arctic-clouds-on-the-ceiling">Warming Arctic: Clouds on the ceiling</h2>



Paradoxically, the same modeling error means many simulations may overstate future warming. In a warmer Arctic, mixed-phase clouds naturally shift toward higher liquid content, enhancing their heat-trapping ability in a mechanism known as cloud emissivity feedback.



But there is a ceiling: once a cloud becomes mostly liquid, it behaves like a near-perfect blackbody, fully absorbing and re-emitting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthcare-reveals-the-power-of-clouds-and-aerosols/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thermal radiation</a>. Beyond that point, additional warming does not greatly increase its greenhouse effect.



Many of the surveyed models, because they start out too icy, anticipate a larger future shift toward liquid content than observations justify. 



They therefore project a stronger, longer-lasting emissivity feedback and exaggerate the Arctic’s eventual temperature rise. Correcting present-day biases narrows that projection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-climate-prediction"><a></a>Implications for global climate prediction</h2>



Cloud processes remain one of the largest uncertainties in climate science. “The biggest uncertainty in our forecasts is due to clouds,” Michibata said. 



“Fixing these models is essential not just for the Arctic, but for understanding its impact on weather and climate change across the globe.”



The stakes extend well beyond the high latitudes. A warmer Arctic can warp the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-accelerate-jet-stream-winds-and-airplane-turbulence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jet stream</a>, influencing extreme weather events in North America, Europe, and Asia - involving much more than clouds.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-loss-alters-the-color-of-ocean-light-and-life-struggles-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sea-ice losses</a> accelerate, opening shipping routes but also exposing darker ocean water that absorbs more heat. 



Permafrost thaws, releasing carbon and methane that further amplify warming. Getting cloud physics right will sharpen projections for all these knock-on effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cloud-radar-helps-prevent-arctic-warming">Cloud radar helps prevent Arctic warming</h2>



The team drew on satellite data from NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/cloudsat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CloudSat</a> and <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/calipso/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CALIPSO</a> missions, which use radar and lidar to distinguish ice and liquid layers inside clouds.



They then compared these observations with outputs from models participating in the <a href="https://wcrp-cmip.org/cmip-phases/cmip6/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6</a> (CMIP6), the same ensemble that informs the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> reports.



By ranking models according to their liquid-fraction bias, the researchers could quantify how that bias translated into temperature error.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-toward-better-microphysics"><a></a>Next steps: Toward better microphysics</h2>



Fixing the problem will require both new observations and refined parameterizations of microphysical processes inside model grid cells.



Small-scale experiments using aircraft and ground-based lidar could reveal how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-small-aerosols-influence-cloud-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a>, humidity, and temperature cooperate to keep droplets liquid at −20 °C or colder - a common state in the Arctic. 



Incorporating those insights into global models could, in turn, tighten projections for mid-latitude storm tracks and even tropical rainfall.



For now, the study delivers a clear message: the Arctic’s runaway warming cannot be understood - or slowed - without an accurate account of what happens inside its low, grey winter clouds. Addressing that microscopic uncertainty could make a macroscopic difference for the entire planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/olar.0089" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Research</a>.



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Clouds also fuel Arctic warming, not just carbon emissions

For years, climate scientists have struggled to explain the warming...

After leafy vegetables and fruits are picked from the ground, they start to go bad pretty quickly, unless they’re kept cold. That’s a big reason why roughly 30% of our food ends up wasted and thrown in the garbage to rot. 



This equates to approximately 1.3 billion tons of food annually - enough to feed more than one billion people each year.



While refrigeration helps, it isn’t always available. Many parts of the world lack the infrastructure to keep crops fresh during transport and storage. This reality makes reducing food waste a global challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-crops-fresh-longer">Keeping crops fresh longer</h2>



Researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>) and the Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (<a href="https://smart.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMART</a>) have come up with a unique way to address this issue.



The experts use biodegradable microneedles made from silk to deliver <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharp-increase-in-melatonin-use-among-children-raises-concerns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melatonin</a> - yes, the same compound that helps us sleep - into crops after harvest. These microneedles can pierce the tough outer layer of plants without triggering stress.



Benedetto Marelli is the study’s senior author and an associate professor of civil and environmental engineering at MIT. 



“This is the first time that we’ve been able to apply these microneedles to extend the shelf life of a fresh-cut crop,” he said.



The team targeted pak choy, a popular and highly perishable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leafy-green-vegetables-improve-muscle-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leafy green</a>. Injecting melatonin at the plant base extended shelf life by four days at room temperature and ten days when refrigerated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melatonin-s-plant-power">Melatonin's plant power</h2>



Melatonin isn’t just for sleep - it plays a role in plant growth and aging too. The researchers tested whether introducing small doses of the hormone could slow the plant’s natural senescence, or aging process.



“The dose of melatonin we’re delivering is so low that it’s fully metabolized by the crops, so it would not significantly increase the amount of melatonin normally present in the food,” Marelli said. 



“We chose pak choy because it's a very important crop in Asia, and also because pak choy is very perishable.”



The researchers used fluorescent dye to show that substances delivered at the plant base reached all tissues. They then applied melatonin using sprays and dips but found no impact. That’s when the microneedles came in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treated-fresh-crops-last-longer">Treated fresh crops last longer</h2>



When researchers applied the melatonin-loaded patches by hand to the shoot base of pak choy and monitored changes over time, the results were clear.



Untreated plants started yellowing within two to three days. By day four, they were no longer suitable for sale. Treated plants stayed green longer - still looking fresh on day five and even into day eight at room temperature.



“We clearly saw we could enhance the shelf life of pak choy without the cold chain,” Marelli said.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/produce_microneedles_melatonin_extends-shelf-life_credit-Yangyang-Han_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/produce_microneedles_melatonin_extends-shelf-life_credit-Yangyang-Han_1s.webp" alt="MIT and SMART researchers developed a way to extend the shelf life of vegetables by injecting them with melatonin using biodegradable microneedles. Credit: Yangyang Han" class="wp-image-1970982"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">MIT and SMART researchers developed a way to extend the shelf life of vegetables by injecting them with melatonin using biodegradable microneedles. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Yangyang Han</figcaption></figure>



Refrigeration made the results even more dramatic. The treated vegetables maintained their color and quality up to day 25 - about five days longer than untreated ones.



Monika Jangir is&nbsp;co-first author and a former postdoc&nbsp;at&nbsp;the Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory.



“Spectrophotometric analysis of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> indicated the treated plants had higher antioxidant activity," she said. 



"While gene analysis showed the melatonin set off a protective chain reaction inside the plants, preserving chlorophyll and adjusting hormones to slow senescence."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-stress-less-waste">Less stress, less waste</h2>



By helping the plant cope with the stress of being cut, melatonin keeps it alive and fresh longer.



Yangyang Han is co-first author and a research scientist&nbsp;at the Disruptive and Sustainable Technologies for Agricultural Precision (DiSTAP) interdisciplinary research group at SMART.



“We studied melatonin’s effects and saw it improves the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-new-way-to-measure-stress-in-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress response of the plant</a> after it’s been cut, so it’s basically decreasing the stress that plants experience, and that extends its shelf life,” she said.



This method could be a game-changer in regions that don’t have reliable refrigeration. It may also open new doors in food logistics and global supply chains, where every extra day of freshness counts.



Sarojam Rajani, co-senior author of the study, is a principal investigator at the Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory in Singapore.&nbsp;



“Post-harvest waste is a huge issue. This problem is extremely important in emerging markets around Africa and Southeast Asia, where many crops are produced but can't be maintained in the journey from farms to markets,” said Rajani.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-to-other-produce">Expanding to other produce</h2>



Although the current method is manual, researchers aim to use tractors, drones, or other machines for more efficient patch application in the future.



“For this to be widely adopted, we’d need to reach a performance versus cost threshold to justify its use,” Marelli explains. “This method would need to become cheap enough to be used by farmers regularly.”



The team is also planning to test other plant hormones and different fresh crops. Their goal is to not only extend shelf life, but possibly even improve texture, shape, and nutritional value.



“We’re going to continue to analyze how we can increase the impact this can have on the value and quality of crops,” said Marelli. 



“For example, could this let us modulate the nutritional values of the crop, how it’s shaped, its texture, etc.? We're also going to continue looking into scaling up the technology so this can be used in the field.”



With more research and development, these tiny silk needles could be a big step toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-food-waste-greater-food-security-less-environmental-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reducing food waste</a> and getting more fresh produce to more people. One patch at a time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5c00487" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nano Letters</a>.



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Food tech: Microneedles injections of a sleep hormone keeps fruits and veggies fresh much longer

After leafy vegetables and fruits are picked from the ground,...

A set of preserved footprints has shaken up what we know about large predators from the Early Cretaceous period. Scientists uncovered a trackway of 80 footprints that stretches about 230 feet (70 meters) in southwestern China, and shows an ancient dinosaur’s sudden burst of energy before settling into a calmer pace.



A digital analysis of the footprints was conducted by Dr. Anthony Romilio at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a>'s Dinosaur Lab. This digital approach helped to recreate the animal’s movements in a series of swift steps.



Joining him on the project was Dr. Lida Xing from the <a href="https://en.cug.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">China University of Geosciences</a>, whose expertise helped bring the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-oldest-known-rebbachisaur-has-been-found-dating-back-94-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient</a> footprints into sharp focus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-identify-a-dinosaur-trackway">Scientists identify a dinosaur trackway</h2>



Local folklore in the region once claimed the footprints were left by a mythical phoenix. Scientists investigated the site, now named the Phoenix Trackway, and identified it as a track left by a theropod during the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/the-cretaceous-period.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Early Cretaceous</a>.



The team used advanced computer modeling to map each of the 80 impressions. This level of detail offered new insight into the locomotion of an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-femur-is-from-the-worlds-oldest-cerapodan-dinosaur/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> that traveled on two legs with a purposeful stride.



“The footprints show this dinosaur moved at a steady 5.3 km/h (2.2 m/h) which is equivalent to a brisk human walk, and then briefly accelerated into a light trot before returning to its regular pace,” explained Dr. Romilio. One of the big takeaways was the predator’s walking rhythm. 



This finding suggests a more varied movement pattern than many standard track analyses might reveal. The evidence hints that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-sized-baby-dinosaur-unearthed-after-166-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> adjusted its speed in small but noticeable bursts, possibly in response to terrain or other natural factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digital-tools-recreate-dinosaur-steps">Digital tools recreate dinosaur steps</h2>



“For the first time this dinosaur’s movements have been reconstructed step by step, revealing how it walked, changed pace and responded to its environment,” said Dr. Romilio. The prints follow an almost arrow-straight path, which might mean the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> had a clear plan rather than meandering aimlessly.



Some dinosaur footprints are shallow and harder to interpret, yet the overall trackway is distinct enough for researchers to confirm its authenticity. This set of tracks is considered one of the longest discovered in East Asia for a two-legged carnivore.



Theropods often feature shorter arms and robust hind legs. Yutyrannus, a feathered dinosaur from China’s Cretaceous deposits, has been suggested as a possible size match for the tracks.



Scientists estimate it was large enough to weigh several hundred pounds, which fits with calculations referencing mass and track length. Body fossil <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29046579/">data</a> hint that these animals could run faster if needed, a point supported by studies that connect leg proportions to potential speed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-s-stride-revealed-in-its-footprints">Dinosaur's stride revealed in its footprints </h2>



“Trackways can reveal behavioral information and stories that fossilized bones alone cannot provide,” said Dr. Romilio. An 80-step sequence covers more ground than many shorter track finds, which adds to its value for understanding how these dinosaurs moved over distance.



This site’s narrative includes a brief change in pace, a stable direction, and a clear sense that the dinosaur maintained control of its stride. Each clue offers a peek at real-time actions in a world that no longer exists.



“Our entirely digital approach allows us to capture, interpret and preserve all the measurements and calculations of fossil track sites on computer to provide a glimpse into the dynamic life of an ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jaw-fossil-reveals-fruit-eating-mammal-from-the-dinosaur-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creature</a>,” explained Dr. Romilio.



Modern technology helped offset the challenges of measuring so many footprints, which often spread across rugged or partially eroded ground.



Compared to older methods that rely on drawings or physical molds, digital reconstructions enable precise calculations of track width, stride length, and the possible hip height of the dinosaur. Such accuracy means paleontologists can propose more reliable theories about the dinosaur’s biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-look-at-ancient-footprints">A new look at ancient footprints</h2>



Long theropod trackways like this do not show up often, yet they can redefine assumptions about dinosaur energy use and movement. Some older <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236970138_New_Data_on_Two_Large_Dinosaur_Tracksites_from_the_Upper_Jurassic_of_Eastern_Turkmenistan_Central_Asia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sites</a> worldwide have reported extensive trails, but detailed measurements are limited.



With more advanced modeling, paleontologists can also simulate how these creatures’ limbs flexed or how their weight shifted from step to step. 



These extra dinosaur footprint details can sharpen our view of dinosaurs as living animals, rather than static skeletons.



Digital tools can even flag oddities like slightly longer strides or unexpected turns. These quirks might point to small behavioral shifts, substrate changes, or fleeting reactions to local features.



Though it might seem a simple set of prints, every footfall holds clues to muscle dynamics and the dinosaur’s life on Cretaceous soil. The chance to examine each impression in high resolution is priceless for refining speed estimates, stance angles, and body mass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-studies-on-dinosaur-footprints">Future studies on dinosaur footprints</h2>



Scientists remain eager to apply similar techniques to other trackways around the globe. 



The combination of 3D modeling, thorough measurement, and cross-referencing with known skeletal fossils opens more avenues for studying dinosaur locomotion.



The Phoenix Trackway highlights how footprints can deliver a snapshot of an animal in action. They freeze a brief interaction with ancient mud, leaving behind a trail that modern technology can decode for fresh insights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3263/15/5/165" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geosciences</a>.



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Ancient footprints reveal a dinosaur that changed pace while walking

A set of preserved footprints has shaken up what we...

The woolly mammoth once trudged across what is now Colorado, its shaggy bulk casting long shadows on windswept steppe. Saber-toothed cats prowled the edges, and herds of giant bison kicked up dust that settled on early human camps. 



These outsized creatures, known collectively as megafauna, vanished roughly 13,000 years ago, leaving researchers with a puzzle and a patchwork of broken bones.



The mystery of their disappearance still drives debates at conferences and around lab benches. After all, settling whether people, climate, disease, or some mix of forces pushed the giants over the edge may refine our understanding of extinction in a warming world.



Scientists at the Smithsonian <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of Natural History</a> decided to tackle the problem from a fresh angle - by revisiting the museum’s own drawers.



Now, molecular clues from collagen in old bones are teaching us about the lives, movements, and demise of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-americans-relied-on-mammoths-for-food-and-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice Age megafauna</a> like mammoths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-forgotten-bone-fragments">Analyzing forgotten bone fragments</h2>



Natural history museums curate millions of bones, but much of the stock never makes it into glass cases. The less glamorous bits - bleached splinters, edge-rounded chips, weather-pocked shards - sit in boxes that smell faintly of old cardboard. 



Many were dug up in Colorado between 1934 and 1981 and later tagged as "unidentifiable." Conventional methods could not assign them to species, genus, or sometimes even family.



That anonymity holds the investigation back. If a chipped tibia could belong to a mammoth or a camel, its position in a layer tells us little about which creature lumbered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-used-interesting-technique-hunt-big-animals-clovis-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">through that campsite</a>. 



Multiply that confusion across thousands of samples, and the result is a grainy timeline that keeps any theory on shaky ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collagen-in-mammoth-bones">Collagen in mammoth bones</h2>



Enter Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry, or <a href="https://iaas.gea.mpg.de/2021/07/27/zooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZooMS</a>. The technique treats collagen - the tough protein that lingers in bone long after DNA degrades - as a kind of barcode. 



By clipping a pea-sized sample, dissolving it in acid, and running the solution through a mass spectrometer, researchers read the unique pattern of collagen fragments that distinguishes bison from mammoth, camel, or ground sloth. 



Unlike ancient-DNA sequencing, ZooMS works on heavily weathered specimens and leaves only a light scar.



The whole procedure takes hours, not weeks, and costs a fraction of full genomic workups. 



That speed means entire boxes of fragments can be run through the pipeline, turning a hodgepodge of "bone" into a spreadsheet of animal names ready for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-data-analysis-reshapes-climate-future-lowers-warming-estimates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological analysis</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bits-of-collagen-on-mammoth-ribs">Bits of collagen on mammoth ribs</h2>



The Smithsonian team sampled material from five late-Pleistocene sites. Some fragments looked hopeless: sun-bleached surfaces, river-rolled edges, even hints of chemical decay. Yet collagen hung on in most of them. 



"A remarkable 80 percent of the bones sampled yielded sufficient collagen for ZooMS identifications," they report. Of those, "Seventy-three percent could be identified to genus level." 



The method flagged Bison, Mammuthus, Camelidae, and a probable mastodon among the scraps. Tiny clues, big payoff.



Those identifications already sharpen maps of ancient ranges. A camelid shard in a layer dated to 11,500 years ago suggests the lanky browsers survived later in the Rockies than some models predict. 



Collagen found on a mammoth rib beside early human tools hints at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting or scavenging</a> rather than harmless coexistence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-cracked-bones-hold-big-clues">Tiny cracked bones hold big clues</h2>



Those microscopic barcodes do more than tidy up a catalog. Knowing exactly which animals turned up at each layer lets archaeologists map when the giants retreated and whether people followed in lockstep. 



If mammoth remains vanish from a site just as spear points appear, that strengthens a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-hunted-woolly-rhinoceros-to-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting hypothesis</a>. 



If camel bones persist well into a warmer interval, that weakens an argument centered on rapid climate swings.



Protein identifications also feed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-climate-shifts-changed-early-human-migration-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate models</a>. By matching dated layers to animal presence, ecologists can test how temperature or vegetation shifts tracked population declines. 



The work acts like a time-lapse film stitched from static photos, revealing whether the megafauna fade-out was an abrupt crash or a slow, uneven ebb.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The study underlines the value of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeopteryx-fossil-soft-tissue-flight-evolution-proves-darwin-right/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-term collection care</a>. Old excavation notes may be scant and storage boxes may sag, but the bones inside still whisper. 



Throwing them out because they look unpromising would erase information we have yet to imagine. 



Museums need stable humidity, proper labeling, and, yes, funding, to keep those whispers audible for future scientists armed with tools we have not yet invented.



There is a broader moral, too: data security is not only digital. 



A chipped mammoth molar cradled in acid-free tissue is a data point that could change the way children learn prehistory. Discard it, and that future chapter of the story is gone for good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zooms-mammoth-fossils-and-collagen">ZooMS, mammoth fossils, and collagen</h2>



Reference libraries for North American species remain thin, so some collagen signatures remain unnamed. 



Expanding those databases could let ZooMS sort <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-in-america-coexisted-with-giant-sloths-and-mastodons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mastodon from mammoth</a> at a glance, or differentiate ancient camel from its llama cousins. 



Couple that with emerging protein-sequencing techniques and the story of Ice Age extinction may finally gain the clarity of a high-definition photo - one chipped rib at a time.



Museum shelves, once considered quiet archives of yesterday’s digs, are turning into active laboratories. 



The next breakthrough in Paleo-American research may not come from a windswept canyon but from a gray archival box, opened under fluorescent lights and examined with a tool that sees information hidden for millennia.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/mammal-science/articles/10.3389/fmamm.2024.1399358/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers</a>.



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North America was ruled by large mammals 50,000 years ago, now we know why they vanished

The woolly mammoth once trudged across what is now Colorado,...

Antidepressants are commonly associated with improving mood and mental health. But recent research suggests they may also have an unexpected effect: helping the immune system fight cancer.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA) found that a class of antidepressants known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) significantly boost the cancer-fighting abilities of T cells.



In both mouse and human tumor models, SSRIs were shown to suppress tumor growth across multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-is-linked-to-32-cancer-types-that-could-drive-40-of-cases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">types of cancer</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-serotonin-s-cancer-fighting-role">Serotonin's cancer-fighting role</h2>



“It turns out SSRIs don’t just make our brains happier; they also make our T cells happier - even while they’re fighting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cancer-research-ai-will-change-the-way-we-see-tumors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tumors</a>,” said Dr. Lili Yang, UCLA professor of Microbiology, Immunology &amp; Molecular Genetics. 



“These drugs have been widely and safely used to treat depression for decades, so repurposing them for cancer would be a lot easier than developing an entirely new therapy.”



SSRIs, which include well-known medications like Prozac and Celexa, work by blocking a protein called serotonin transporter (SERT). This action increases levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-dance-of-dopamine-and-serotonin-influences-social-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serotonin</a>, often called the “happiness hormone,” in the brain. However, serotonin also plays a vital role in other bodily functions, including digestion, metabolism, and immune responses.



The team began exploring serotonin’s connection to cancer after noticing that immune cells from tumors had more serotonin-regulating molecules than expected. Their attention turned to an enzyme called MAO-A, which breaks down serotonin and other neurotransmitters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-depression-drugs-to-tumor-fighters">Depression drugs to tumor fighters</h2>



Back in 2021, the team discovered that when T cells detect tumors, they produce MAO-A, which limits their effectiveness. 



In mouse models with melanoma and colon cancer, treating with MAO inhibitors (MAOIs) - another class of antidepressants - improved the T cells’ cancer-fighting abilities.



But MAOIs come with risks. They can cause severe side effects and interact dangerously with certain foods and medications. That concern led the team to explore SERT, a molecule with a simpler role - transporting serotonin.



“Unlike MAO-A, which breaks down multiple neurotransmitters, SERT has one job - to transport serotonin,” explained Dr. Bo Li, assistant researcher at UCLA. “SERT made for an especially attractive target because the drugs that act on it - SSRIs - are widely used with minimal side effects.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antidepressants-tested-on-cancer">Antidepressants tested on cancer</h2>



To test the theory, the researchers used SSRIs in models of melanoma, breast, prostate, colon, and bladder cancer. 



The results were promising. Tumors shrank by more than 50% on average. At the same time, T cells became more efficient at killing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-each-day-at-any-speed-lowers-the-risk-of-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer cells</a>.



“SSRIs made the killer T cells happier in the otherwise oppressive tumor environment by increasing their access to serotonin signals, reinvigorating them to fight and kill cancer cells,” Yang said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mood-drugs-aid-immunotherapy">Mood drugs aid immunotherapy</h2>



The study didn’t stop there. The researchers also wanted to see if SSRIs could improve the effects of existing cancer treatments. 



The experts combined an SSRI with an immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy -specifically, an anti-PD-1 antibody. ICB therapies remove the brakes from immune cells, helping them target tumors more aggressively.



The combination had dramatic results. Tumor size was significantly reduced in all test cases, and some mice went into complete remission.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reprogramming-the-immune-system-to-attack-cancer-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Immune</a> checkpoint blockades are effective in fewer than 25% of patients,” said James Elsten-Brown, a researcher and PhD student at UCLA. “If a safe, widely available drug like an SSRI could make these therapies more effective, it would be hugely impactful.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-antidepressant-side-benefit">Rethinking antidepressant side benefit</h2>



The researchers now plan to study cancer patients who are already taking SSRIs, especially those undergoing ICB therapy. The goal is to determine whether these patients show improved outcomes.



“Since around 20% of cancer patients take antidepressants - most commonly SSRIs - we see a unique opportunity to explore how these drugs might improve cancer outcomes,” Yang said. “Our goal is to design a clinical trial to compare treatment outcomes between cancer patients who take these medications and those who do not.”



This approach could also lower the cost and speed up the development of cancer treatments. Because SSRIs are already FDA-approved, they don’t need the same rigorous testing as new drugs.



“Studies estimate the bench-to-bedside pipeline for new cancer therapies costs an average of $1.5 billion,” Yang added. “When you compare this to the estimated $300 million cost to repurpose FDA-approved drugs, it’s clear why this approach has so much potential.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)00502-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Antidepressants may help the immune system fight cancer

Antidepressants are commonly associated with improving mood and mental health....

In the wild heart of Yosemite National Park, nights once echoed with the loud, unrelenting calls of American bullfrogs. Their voices were more than just noise. They were a sign of imbalance, an invasive species overpowering native life. 



These frogs, introduced decades ago, spread widely and disrupted delicate ecosystems. Hidden beneath their croaks was a much quieter story: the disappearance of California’s only native freshwater turtle.



The northwestern pond turtle, a shy and ancient species, once thrived in these waters. But it began to vanish silently. Scientists at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, led by Ph.D. candidate Sidney Woodruff, set out to understand why. 



The researchers uncovered a powerful link between the invasive frogs and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-2025-ancient-creatures-with-modern-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtle</a> decline. What followed was a years-long effort to remove the intruders and give the native species room to breathe again.



“At night, you could look out over the pond and see a constellation of eyes blinking back at you,” said Woodruff. “Their honking noise is iconic, and it drowns out native species’ calls.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-native-turtles-declined-as-bullfrogs-invaded">Native turtles declined as bullfrogs invaded</h2>



The northwestern pond turtle is one of two subspecies of the western pond turtle. The other, the southwestern pond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-protecting-turtles-tortoises-and-their-vanishing-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtle</a>, shares similar challenges. 



Together, they represent the only native freshwater turtles in California. Historically, these turtles inhabited areas from Baja California to Washington state. But over the last century, they have lost more than half their habitat.



The decline is not random. It correlates closely with the introduction of American bullfrogs, voracious predators native to the eastern United States.



Introduced across the West in the 20th century, often as food or fishing bait, bullfrogs adapted quickly. They preyed on insects, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-celebrating-100-million-years-of-majesty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>, small birds, rodents, and critically, young turtles.



“One reason American bullfrogs are among the top worst globally introduced pests is because they eat everything - anything that fits into their mouth,” said Brian Todd, senior author and UC Davis professor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bullfrogs-wiped-out-young-turtles">Bullfrogs wiped out young turtles </h2>



To investigate the turtles’ disappearance, the researchers focused on four pond sites in Yosemite from 2016 to 2022.



Two sites hosted bullfrogs. Two did not. What they found was striking: where bullfrogs thrived, turtle populations were older and significantly larger, while young turtles were almost entirely absent.



Scientists captured 12,317 bullfrogs from one site and 4,067 from another. Inside their stomachs, they discovered a disturbing menu. They found six young pond turtles, newts, garter snakes, birds, rodents, and dozens of frogs. Hatchlings were the most common turtle victims.



Bullfrogs, being gape-limited predators, cannot eat adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtles-have-genomes-unlike-any-other-animal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a>. But hatchlings and juveniles, with shells as small as 25 mm, remained at risk for years. Their slow growth and high hatchling mortality made them especially vulnerable. 



This prolonged pressure explained the eerie silence of turtle recruitment in bullfrog territories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-of-coexistence">The cost of coexistence</h2>



Even in sites where adult turtles persisted, their populations skewed older and top-heavy. Researchers noted that young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-show-signs-of-recovery-but-conservation-issues-remain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> simply did not survive long enough to join the population. Their absence indicated a collapsing system.



In bullfrog-infested areas, adult turtles were 26 to 36 percent longer and 75 to 97 percent heavier than their counterparts elsewhere. These metrics painted a picture of isolated, aging groups. The researchers referred to this as the “perception of persistence” where adults linger for decades while juveniles quietly disappear.



Without intervention, such populations face local extinction. Though they seem stable, their future hinges on the survival of the next generation. That generation, in bullfrog-occupied waters, never arrived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtles-returned-after-bullfrog-removal">Turtles returned after bullfrog removal</h2>



The team’s multi-year effort to remove bullfrogs reached its peak between 2017 and 2019. By 2019, the team had achieved near-complete eradication at the two bullfrog-present sites. And then, something changed. They began to see young turtles again.



“We captured the first juvenile turtles at bullfrog present sites only after reaching near complete bullfrog eradication in 2019,” noted the researchers. These were not the doomed hatchlings found in stomachs. They were alive, active, and growing. Their presence was a hopeful sign that turtle recruitment had resumed.



The absence of bullfrogs did not just benefit turtles. Other native species began to reappear. Salamanders, native frogs, and aquatic insects became visible and audible again.



“As bullfrog presence declined, we started to hear other native frogs call and see native salamanders walking around,” said Woodruff. “It’s nice to be able to go back to these sites and hear a chorus of native frogs calling again that previously would not have been heard.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-removing-bullfrogs">Challenges of removing bullfrogs</h2>



Removing invasive species is never easy. It demands time, manpower, and patience. In this case, the work included day and night field efforts, capturing frogs with nets, spears, and sometimes even pellet rifles. Egg masses were collected by hand. Adult frogs were humanely euthanized under approved protocols.



Despite logistical hurdles - including remote locations, changing weather, and the COVID-19 pandemic - the team remained committed.



Their removal of more than 16,000 bullfrogs represents one of the largest such efforts documented in a national park setting. The biomass removed, over 300 kilograms, was immense and redirected energy back into native food webs.



At one site, over 6,000 bullfrogs were removed in a single year. Compared to similar efforts across North America, Yosemite’s project stands out not only in scale but in success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rebuilding-what-was-lost">Rebuilding what was lost</h2>



Western pond turtles have long lifespans and low reproductive rates. They lay just a few eggs each year. Hatchlings face predation from fish, mammals, and other reptiles. Add bullfrogs to the mix, and very few survive to adulthood.



This makes each successful recruitment, each young turtle, deeply significant. It signals not only a reduction in predation but also the possibility of future generations. 



The data show clear demographic differences. At bullfrog-free sites, juvenile turtles made up 19 to 35 percent of captures. At bullfrog sites, there were virtually none before 2020.



Their recovery will not be instant. But the return of young turtles proves that the system, once unbalanced, is stabilizing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-beyond-yosemite">Lessons beyond Yosemite</h2>



The implications go far beyond this one park. Bullfrogs have been introduced across the globe. Their impact on freshwater systems, especially turtles, frogs, and salamanders, is widespread and severe. 



The Yosemite project shows that where reinvasion risk is low, sustained removal can work.



“Our study shows the potential benefit of reversing species declines and restoring freshwater ecosystems,” concluded the researchers.



Other efforts, like reintroducing California red-legged frogs after bullfrog removal, further support this strategy. Yosemite’s experience can guide similar actions elsewhere and offer hope for beleaguered native species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quiet-victories-and-new-beginnings">Quiet victories and new beginnings</h2>



Thanks to years of effort, the ponds of Yosemite now sing a different song. Bullfrogs no longer dominate the soundscape. In their place are the quiet rustlings and chirps of species that belong.



“All across the state we have one native freshwater turtle, and it’s the western pond turtle,” said Todd. “If it disappears, we have no other freshwater turtles that are supposed to be here. It’s part of our natural heritage.”



The battle is not over, but it is no longer silent. With vigilance and care, the ripples of this recovery can spread beyond Yosemite and bring back what was nearly lost.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320725001272?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Conservation</a>.



Image Credit: UC Davis



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Scientists save native turtles by removing thousands of bullfrogs

In the wild heart of Yosemite National Park, nights once...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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