In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



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Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp; Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries. Controlling the heart with light The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest. The external controller detects...

Most life on Earth depends on sunlight, yet some organisms flourish in the dark depths of the ocean where sunlight never reaches.&nbsp;



A study led by the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/who-we-are/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI) provides new details about the survival of foraminifera - tiny, single-celled eukaryotes found in diverse marine environments.



The experts investigated how a species of foraminifera thrives in an oxygen-free, lightless, deep-sea habitat by employing a remarkable metabolic strategy: chemoautotrophy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organisms-in-the-depths-of-the-ocean">Organisms in the depths of the ocean</h2>



Chemoautotrophy is a process where organisms harness energy from inorganic compounds, such as sulfide, to assimilate carbon and sustain life in the absence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-deep-ocean-microbes-survive-without-sunlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunlight</a>. 



While this metabolic pathway is common among prokaryotic bacteria and archaea (which have no nucleus in their cells), it is unusual in eukaryotes (organisms with a nucleus in each cell), that typically rely on sunlight or organic matter for their source of energy.&nbsp;



Foraminifera, though eukaryotic, have adapted to use chemoautotrophy to enable them to survive where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen</a> and sunlight are absent.



“Animals, plants, seaweed, and foraminifera are all eukaryotes. We were interested in studying this foraminiferan because it thrives in a very similar environment to [that present on] Earth during the Precambrian, a time before the evolution of animals,” explained Fatma Gomaa, a research associate in WHOI’s Geology &amp; Geophysics Department.&nbsp;



“During that time, there was very little to no available oxygen in the oceans and higher concentrations of toxic inorganic compounds; conditions similar to some modern environments found on the seafloor, especially within sediments.”



According to Gomaa, understanding the energy and carbon sources used by this foraminiferan helps to answer questions on how these species adapt to environmental changes, as well as advancing our knowledge on the evolution of eukaryotic life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-life-in-an-extreme-habitat">Investigating life in an extreme habitat</h2>



The research team collected sediment samples containing these foraminiferans approximately 570 meters (1,870 feet) beneath the ocean’s surface off the coast of California. For this, they used the remotely operated vehicle Hercules, which was deployed from the vessel E/V Nautilus.&nbsp;



To study these organisms in their natural state, scientists infused samples with a preservative containing red dye and preserved them in situ, which avoided the destructive changes that can occur when organisms are brought from depth to the surface.



Two primary techniques were used to understand the foraminiferan’s metabolic strategies. First, gene expression analyses were conducted on preserved samples to identify metabolic pathways.&nbsp;



Second, in situ incubations were carried out using an isotopic carbon tracer, which allowed researchers to track how the organisms incorporated carbon over a 24-hour period while still on the seafloor.



“When we analyzed the seafloor tracer incubations, we could see that the tracer moved from the water and was associated with the foraminifera biomass. This gave us an idea of where these organisms were getting their carbon,” said Daniel Rogers, an associate professor of chemistry and department chair at Stonehill College.&nbsp;



Professor Rogers noted that it was important to make these observations at depth, where these organisms are in their natural state.&nbsp;



“By bringing them to the surface, we expose them to light, increase the temperature of their environment, and change the amount of pressure they’re under. This in situ approach gives us a more accurate depiction of how these organisms survive in such harsh environments.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stealing-chloroplasts-in-the-dark">Stealing chloroplasts in the dark</h2>



Another intriguing discovery is the process of kleptoplasty observed in these foraminiferans. Despite living in complete darkness, this species sequesters <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chloroplasts-play-an-unexpected-role-in-plant-immunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chloroplasts</a> - organelles typically used for photosynthesis - from other organisms.&nbsp;



Although these stolen chloroplasts cannot perform photosynthesis without light, their presence may confer other advantages, aiding the foraminiferan in nutrient acquisition or other metabolic processes.



“Foraminifera are extremely abundant on earth. Most are only about 300 microns in diameter, so rather small. In a volume as small as a pencil eraser, there could be about 500 of this particular species in this dark, oxygen-free and sulfidic habitat,” explained Joan Bernhard, a senior scientist at WHOI, and an expert on foraminifera.&nbsp;



“This species takes up unrelated organism’s chloroplasts - organelles that perform photosynthesis if exposed to sunlight. This process is called kleptoplasty, in which an organism steals chloroplasts from another type of organism, even though these foraminifera are never exposed to sunlight.”&nbsp;



“We know kleptoplasty is happening here, but we needed more research to understand why this foraminiferan is so successful in the dark, without oxygen.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-science">Broader implications for science</h2>



The ability of foraminiferans to thrive in extreme environments not only expands our understanding of eukaryotic survival strategies but also has implications for climate change research and the search for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expanding-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extraterrestrial life</a>.&nbsp;



Foraminifera shells serve as important climate proxies, preserving a fossil record that spans over half a billion years. These fossils help scientists reconstruct past environmental conditions, but the discovery of chemoautotrophy prompts a reevaluation of how these organisms acquire energy and how their shells reflect ancient climates.



“By studying these fossils, we can see how their shells have responded to changes in the environment,” Bernhard noted.&nbsp;



The metabolic adaptations of deep-sea foraminifera may require scientists to reconsider interpretations of geochemical records in their shells, potentially revealing new insights into Earth’s history.



Additionally, the funding interest from NASA highlights the relevance of this research beyond Earth.&nbsp;



The deep-sea environment shares similarities with extraterrestrial settings - such as low temperatures, darkness, and an absence of oxygen - providing a model for how life might survive on other planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-foraminifera">Future research on foraminifera </h2>



The study preserved specimens of two other foraminiferan species, with preliminary results suggesting distinct biological differences in their energy and carbon acquisition strategies.&nbsp;



Ongoing research aims to compare these species, and to illuminate how various foraminifera thrive in diverse and extreme marine habitats.



As scientists continue to investigate these remarkable organisms, their findings not only advance our understanding of deep-sea life but also offer a glimpse into early eukaryotic evolution on a young, oxygen-poor Earth.&nbsp;



Through the study of foraminifera, researchers gain insights into life’s resilience under harsh conditions - a knowledge that could inform our search for life beyond our planet and deepen our comprehension of Earth’s complex biological history.



The study is published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ismejo/wrae248" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The ISME Journal</a>.



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Life in total darkness: Foraminifera survive with no light or oxygen

Most life on Earth depends on sunlight, yet some organisms...

The Met Office has issued a dire warning: global warming is accelerating beyond control, pushing Earth off-track from meeting the 1.5°C (2.7°F) target set in the Paris Agreement. 



The latest data shows a rapid rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels and record-breaking temperatures - raising serious concerns about the future of our planet.



Scientists warn that without immediate and drastic action, we are heading toward a climate crisis that will be difficult to reverse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-record-breaking-year-for-global-warming">Record-breaking year for global warming</h2>



The year 2024 officially became the hottest on record, with global average <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-the-world-is-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-level-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> exceeding 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels for the first time. This milestone highlights the increasing intensity of climate change and the urgent need for action. 



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"Last week, it was confirmed that 2024 was the warmest year on record, with annual average temperatures higher than 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels for the first time," stated Professor Richard Betts, who led the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Met Office</a>’s forecast.
</blockquote>



Although this single year does not yet represent a complete failure to meet the Paris Agreement’s target - since long-term warming trends are the true measure of success - scientists warn that this marks a dangerous turning point.



While 2025 may be slightly cooler due to natural climate variations, the overall warming trend will continue unless CO2 emissions decrease dramatically.



The data aligns with findings from the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S), which reported that global temperatures in 2024 were 0.12°C (0.22°F) higher than in 2023, the previous record-holding year. This confirms that humanity is now dangerously close to breaching the Paris Agreement’s long-term warming limit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-very-large-rise-in-co2-levels">Very large rise in CO2 levels </h2>



Perhaps even more concerning than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-confirmed-as-earths-hottest-year-in-recorded-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising temperatures</a> is the unprecedented increase in atmospheric CO2 levels. 



Measurements taken at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, revealed that CO2 concentrations rose by 3.58 parts per million (ppm) in 2024 - the fastest annual increase since records began in 1958. This increase far exceeded the Met Office’s prediction of 2.84 ppm, highlighting that emissions are outpacing even the worst-case scenarios.



Satellite data further confirmed a "very large rise" in CO2 levels globally. This increase is partly attributed to the El Niño phenomenon, which created widespread hot and dry conditions, reducing the ability of forests and ecosystems to absorb CO2. 



However, human activities - particularly the burning of fossil fuels - remain the primary driver of rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-surge-in-global-warming-may-have-an-unexpected-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a> and global warming.



To meet the 1.5°C goal, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPCC</a>) has stated that CO2 emissions must be reduced by 1.8 ppm per year. Instead, we are seeing an accelerating rise, making it increasingly difficult to stay within safe climate limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-natural-climate-patterns">Role of natural climate patterns</h2>



Looking ahead, scientists predict that CO2 levels will continue to rise in 2025, though at a slightly slower rate. 



The Met Office estimates an increase of 2.26 ± 0.56 ppm, which is lower than the extreme rise seen in 2024. This expected decrease is linked to the transition from El Niño to La Niña conditions, which will help ecosystems absorb more CO2.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"La Niña conditions are expected to cause forests and other ecosystems to soak up more carbon than last year, temporarily slowing the atmospheric CO2 rise," explained Professor Richard Betts.
</blockquote>



While this temporary relief may slightly reduce the speed of warming, it is not nearly enough to counteract the long-term accumulation of greenhouse gases. As Betts warns, stabilizing global temperatures will require emissions to not only stop increasing but to reverse entirely.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"Stopping global warming needs the build-up of greenhouse gases in the air to come to a complete halt and then start to reduce. Large, rapid emissions cuts could limit the extent to which global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> exceeds 1.5°C. But this needs urgent action internationally," said Betts.
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-global-warming-and-temperature-rise">Long-term global warming and temperature rise</h2>



Although natural climate variations like El Niño contribute to short-term temperature fluctuations, scientists overwhelmingly agree that human activities are the main force behind long-term global warming. 



The continued burning of coal, oil, and gas is releasing vast amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere, pushing the planet toward more extreme and unpredictable weather events.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"This record needs to be a reality check. The climate is heating to levels we've spent years trying to avoid because countries are still burning huge amounts of oil, gas and coal," noted Dr. Friederike Otto, a climate policy expert from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a>.
</blockquote>



This statement highlights the failure of global leaders to take sufficient action to reduce emissions. While renewable energy sources like wind and solar are expanding, they are not replacing fossil fuels quickly enough to prevent further warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dire-consequences-of-inaction">Dire consequences of inaction</h2>



If global warming continues at its current pace, the consequences will be severe. 



Rising temperatures contribute to more frequent and intense natural disasters, including heatwaves, wildfires, hurricanes, and flooding. In 2024 alone, extreme weather events linked to climate change caused devastation worldwide.



For example, the ongoing wildfires in Los Angeles serve as a grim reminder of what the future could hold if global temperatures continue to rise unchecked. Higher temperatures dry out vegetation, creating the perfect conditions for large, uncontrollable fires.



The rise of global warming also threatens food security, water supplies, and human health. Crops struggle to grow in extreme heat, while changing weather patterns lead to droughts and flooding.



Additionally, air pollution from fossil fuel combustion contributes to respiratory illnesses and premature deaths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-needs-to-happen-now">What needs to happen now?</h2>



Scientists warn that immediate action is necessary to cut greenhouse gas emissions. The shift to renewable energy is happening, but it must accelerate significantly. 



Governments, businesses, and individuals all have a crucial role to play in addressing climate change. Countries must phase out fossil fuels while expanding clean energy sources.



Protecting and restoring forests, wetlands, and oceans will help absorb more CO2. Reducing energy waste in industries, buildings, and transportation can lower emissions. 



Governments must enforce stricter regulations, support sustainable development, and invest in green technology. Public awareness is essential, as people must understand their impact and choose more sustainable lifestyles.



The world is running out of time to prevent catastrophic global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/co2-has-regulated-earths-climate-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. The warnings from scientists are louder than ever, and the evidence is undeniable. The question remains - will humanity rise to the challenge before it’s too late?



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Global warming is accelerating beyond control as CO2 levels rise

The Met Office has issued a dire warning: global warming...

When the rain pours after a long, harsh drought, there is often a sudden influx of mosquitoes buzzing around and seemingly appearing out of nowhere. 



Despite grueling dry spells that last for weeks, mosquitoes manage to survive and bounce back quickly once the rain arrives. But how do these tiny creatures manage to make such a rapid comeback?



In a recent study, scientists at the<a href="https://www.uc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> University of Cincinnati</a> have unraveled some fascinating answers to this puzzling phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquitoes-bite-for-recovery">Mosquitoes bite for recovery</h2>



Mosquitoes are hardy insects - some of which are infamous for spreading diseases like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-leaders-call-for-urgent-action-on-malaria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">malaria</a> to humans.



While you might imagine that the mosquito population would dwindle during a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-borne-diseases-are-a-growing-threat-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> as water sources dry up, the reality is quite the opposite. 



Mosquitoes have a unique survival strategy that entails quenching their thirst with blood. They <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-biting-season-extended-by-light-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bite more</a> frequently to keep up their hydration levels.



"We're finding that mosquitoes bite people more than we imagined, unfortunately," said Christopher Holmes, the study's lead author.



Climate change only adds to the challenge, as milder winters are advantageous to mosquito populations, noted Holmes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hungry-for-more-the-mosquito-s-lifeline">Hungry for more: The mosquito’s lifeline</h2>



Typically, female mosquitoes feed on a blood meal to produce eggs. Within four days of a blood feast, they lay their eggs and seek another blood target to repeat the cycle. However, when faced with a drought, they tweak this cycle.



Instead of waiting to lay their eggs after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitos-use-unbreakable-system-to-track-human-blood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood</a> meal, drought-prompted mosquitoes feed more frequently to stay hydrated. This, in turn, increases the likelihood of spreading diseases like dengue, Zika, or malaria. It is a fascinating yet worrisome survival technique.



According to the researchers, people have assumed drought reduces mosquito populations and the spread of diseases. However, their study finds otherwise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-of-the-fittest">Survival of the fittest</h2>



To investigate how mosquitoes survive during droughts, the team studied genetically-altered individuals in which certain senses, such as the detection of carbon dioxide, were impaired. Mosquitoes use the presence of carbon dioxide to detect their prey.



The researchers made an interesting observation. If mosquitoes couldn't sense carbon dioxide, they couldn't locate a host to bite and consequently succumbed to the dry spell.



Furthermore, UC doctoral student Souvik Chakraborty pointed out a remarkable survival trait in mosquito eggs.



"The Aedes aegypti mosquito is resistant to drying out. Its eggs can survive, sometimes for as long as a year," said Chakraborty, adding that the mosquito eggs hatch instantly when touched by rainwater.



The researchers also found that some mosquito species can tolerate cold temperatures. They engorge themselves on nectar before winter, store huge lipid deposits, and lay eggs as soon as it gets warm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-survivors-with-a-deadly-bite">Ancient survivors with a deadly bite</h2>



The oldest known mosquitoes date back to the early Cretaceous period, about 125 million years ago.



Over this impressively long period, the mosquito's survival mechanisms have evolved to ensure its continued existence in the food chain - where it is food for a range of creatures including fish, birds and bats.



However, their survival comes at a cost to humans. Each year, diseases spread by mosquitoes claim more than 700,000 lives.



According to Benoit, understanding the biology of mosquitoes is crucial in comprehending their survival and reproduction mechanics.



As we progress in understanding the resilience of these insects, we move closer to taming the significant health challenges they present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-the-mosquito-threat">Mitigating the mosquito threat</h2>



The University of Cincinnati research emphasizes the need to act on mosquito-borne diseases in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing climate</a>.



As mosquitoes adapt to harsher conditions and expand their territories due to milder winters, public health strategies must evolve in tandem. 



New methods of mosquito control, such as eco-friendly repellents or genetic interventions, could reduce their population and disease transmission rates. 



Moreover, advanced surveillance systems that predict mosquito outbreaks based on climate patterns can empower communities to take preventive measures before the diseases spread. 



With continued research, scientists hope to come up with innovative solutions to protect human health while gaining a better understanding of how these durable insects remain so resilient.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)00019-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



-----



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Mosquitoes bite more often during droughts to stay hydrated

When the rain pours after a long, harsh drought, there...

Every 40 seconds, someone in the United States suffers a stroke. Among survivors of ischemic strokes - the most common type - only about 5% fully recover. The rest often experience long-term problems such as weakness, chronic pain, or epilepsy.



Now, a recent study from Gladstone Institutes and the regenerative medicine company SanBio offers new hope. Scientists have shown that a stem cell-derived therapy can restore normal brain activity after a stroke - even when administered a month later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-approach-to-stroke-recovery">Revolutionary approach to stroke recovery</h2>



Most current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eyes-serve-as-an-early-warning-system-for-stroke-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke</a> treatments must be given within hours to be effective. However, the new stem cell therapy showed benefits in rats long after the initial stroke.



“There are currently no treatments that can be given weeks or months after a stroke to prevent long-term symptoms, so this is incredibly exciting,” said Dr.&nbsp;Jeanne Paz, the lead investigator of the study.



“Our findings suggest that this timepoint is not too late to intervene and make a difference.”



For over a decade, researchers have explored modified stem cells to treat stroke and traumatic brain injuries. Clinical trials indicated that these cells helped some patients regain movement. However, scientists were unsure how these improvements occurred in the brain.



This new study is the first to document the direct effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-stem-cells-grown-in-the-lab-for-first-time-ever-leukemia-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stem cells</a> on brain activity. It paves the way for refining cell therapy and developing other brain-targeting treatments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-brain-hyper-excitability">Addressing brain hyper-excitability</h2>



Ischemic strokes block blood flow to the brain, depriving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plant-stem-cells-could-support-human-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> of oxygen and nutrients. This results in cell death and altered brain activity. 



Researchers, including Paz, have studied how strokes cause lasting damage, such as epilepsy. They found that damaged brain areas become hyperexcitable - sending excessive signals to other parts of the brain.



“This hyperexcitability has been linked to movement problems and seizures, but no therapies have been developed to effectively reverse it,” said Paz, who is also an associate professor at <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Francisco</a> and a member of the International Post-Stroke Epilepsy Consortium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stem-cells-in-stroke-affected-brains">Stem cells in stroke-affected brains</h2>



For the investigation, the researchers injected modified human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-mouse-created-with-stem-cells-that-predate-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stem cells</a> into the brains of stroke-affected rats a month after their stroke. They then monitored brain activity and analyzed cellular responses.



The results were remarkable. The stem cell treatment reduced hyperexcitability and restored normal neural function. It also increased proteins and cells essential for brain repair. 



Surprisingly, even though fewer than 1% of the transplanted cells remained in the rats’ brains after a week, their effects persisted.



“It seems these cells are essentially jump-starting the brain’s own repair processes,” said Dr.&nbsp;Barbara Klein, a principal scientist at <a href="https://www.sanbio.com/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SanBio</a> and first author of the study. “This may open a new window of opportunity for the brain to recover, even in the chronic phase after a stroke.”



Blood tests revealed another key finding. Stroke changes blood chemistry, increasing molecules linked to inflammation and poor brain health. The stem cell therapy restored these levels to normal.



“These effects were so striking that we repeated the experiments over and over because we didn’t quite believe them,” said Dr.&nbsp;Paz.



“It’s incredible that you can inject something short-lived into the brain and have lasting effects - not only on brain hyperexcitability, but also in the rest of the body.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stem-cell-therapy-and-stroke-recovery">Stem cell therapy and stroke recovery </h2>



The study suggests that stroke survivors - even those in the chronic phase - may still have hope for recovery because of stem cell therapy.



“This tells us there may be hope for chronic brain injury patients who, until now, did not have any treatment options,” said Dr.&nbsp;Agnieszka Ciesielska, a postdoctoral researcher in Paz’s lab and co-first author of the study.



However, more research is needed to confirm that reducing hyperexcitability translates to symptom relief in patients. If so, scientists could develop drugs that replicate the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-lampreys-help-scientists-decode-stem-cell-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stem cells</a>.



The specific cells used in the study, known as SB623, were developed by SanBio for treating neurological motor deficits caused by stroke and traumatic brain injury. 



Japan recently approved the therapy for chronic motor paralysis following traumatic brain injury. SanBio is also seeking FDA approval for broader use.



This study from <a href="https://gladstone.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gladstone Institutes</a> marks a significant step in understanding and treating post-stroke brain damage. If further research confirms the findings, stem cell therapy could transform stroke recovery - offering hope to millions who currently face lifelong disabilities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/molecular-therapy-family/molecular-therapy/fulltext/S1525-0016(24)00807-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Therapy</a>.



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Stem cell therapy improves brain activity after stroke

Every 40 seconds, someone in the United States suffers a...

Alaska's northern pike, long thought to be confined to freshwater, are now crossing saltwater to invade new areas in Southcentral Alaska. 



Scientists previously believed that marine barriers, like the Cook Inlet, prevented their spread. However, new research shows that pike are using estuaries to move between watersheds.



This discovery is significant because it means northern pike can reinvade lakes and rivers where they were previously removed. It also challenges long-held beliefs about how these invasive fish spread, forcing scientists to rethink their strategies for controlling their expansion. 



The finding highlights the urgent need for new measures to protect native fish species, like salmon, from the growing threat of northern pike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-pike-are-traveling">Northern pike are traveling</h2>



Researchers from the University of Alaska Fairbanks (<a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UAF</a>) and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (<a href="https://www.adfg.alaska.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ADFG</a>) made this finding by analyzing otoliths - tiny ear stones from pike.



These structures record the chemical composition of the water where a fish has lived, offering a timeline of its movements.



“Strontium varies according to geology and location,” said Matthew Wooller, a UAF fisheries professor and the study’s lead author. “If pike are moving between watersheds, you can pick it up by analyzing strontium in the otoliths.”



By comparing otolith samples collected since 2019, the team found three pike with chemical signatures matching upper Cook Inlet. These fish were caught in freshwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-there-enough-prey-for-beluga-whales-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> connected to the inlet, including Campbell Lake, Westchester Lagoon, and Vogel Lake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formidable-invasive-species">Formidable invasive species</h2>



Northern pike naturally belong in Interior and Western Alaska, where they have lived for thousands of years. However, in the 1950s, people illegally introduced them to the Susitna River basin in Southcentral Alaska. 



Since then, these highly efficient predators have spread rapidly, establishing themselves in more than 150 lakes and rivers. Their presence has had a major impact on native fish populations, particularly salmon, which they hunt and eat.



For a long time, scientists believed that northern pike could only spread through connected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater systems</a> or by human introduction. 



Many thought Cook Inlet - a large body of saltwater separating different watersheds - would act as a natural barrier, preventing the fish from moving between river systems.



However, the latest study has proven otherwise, showing that pike are capable of traveling through estuaries, where freshwater and saltwater mix, to invade new areas. This challenges previous assumptions and makes controlling their spread even more difficult.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-pike-use-estuaries-to-spread">Northern pike use estuaries to spread</h2>



This new information raises concerns that waterways previously cleared of pike could be reinvaded through ocean-connected routes.



“The newfound realization that the fish are moving through estuaries is just one more reason that northern pike are a poster child of what makes a formidable invasive species,” said Peter Westley, a UAF fisheries associate professor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-management">Implications for management</h2>



Although the discovery is concerning, it provides scientists and resource managers with a clearer understanding of how northern pike spread. 



With this knowledge, they can develop more targeted strategies to monitor high-risk areas, block migration pathways, and prevent re-invasion. 



This focused approach will help protect native fish species and limit the long-term impact of this invasive predator on Alaska’s freshwater ecosystems.



“Confirming northern pike can use this pathway gave us the information we needed to now focus on preventing this spread and protecting valuable habitats,” said Parker Bradley, an ADFG invasive species biologist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Kristine Dunker, who coordinates ADFG’s invasive pike management program, emphasized the importance of directing resources to high-risk areas.



“This discovery has been a step forward, both scientifically with our understanding of northern pike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-seas-lakes-are-losing-their-ability-to-support-most-types-of-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecology</a> in North America and also for our invasive northern pike management here at home,” Dunker said.



The fact that pike can use estuaries to travel between watersheds means they are far more adaptable than scientists previously believed. 



This creates new challenges for resource managers, who must now account for saltwater pathways in their efforts to contain and remove pike from vulnerable freshwater systems. 



If left unchecked, these invasive fish could continue to spread and threaten <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harbor-porpoises-are-severely-threatened-by-fishing-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">native species</a>, like salmon, making effective management strategies more urgent than ever.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0315320" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Northern pike are sneaking through the ocean to invade new lakes

Alaska's northern pike, long thought to be confined to freshwater,...

Deep in Brazil's semi-arid Caatinga region, capuchin monkeys are teaching scientists valuable lessons about social learning and group dynamics. 



Recent research has uncovered that these remarkable primates don't just learn new skills by watching others - the social bonds and tolerance levels within their groups play a crucial role in knowledge transmission.



The remarkable study was led by Camila Galheigo Coelho during her doctoral research at the University of São Paulo's Institute of Psychology, alongside Professor Eduardo Ottoni and collaborators from Durham University in the UK. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-influence-of-social-tolerance">The influence of social tolerance </h2>



The findings shed new light on how social relationships shape learning patterns in primate communities.



"The influence of social tolerance in animal social learning has been scarcely investigated empirically. Social tolerance determines who is allowed in proximity to whom and granted access to resources such as food or social information," wrote the researchers.



"Therefore, tolerance toward others in proximity is necessary for the spread of social information, linking theories of cultural transmission and animal traditions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-tolerance-in-monkeys">Social tolerance in monkeys</h2>



The study from <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a> and <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> highlights that monkeys engaged in collective activities, such as parasite grooming and playful interactions, are more likely to acquire new skills from their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bonds-drive-learning-in-monkeys-and-humans-alike/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companions</a>. 



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“Our observations fed into a mathematical model that showed that monkeys learn from others mainly through direct observation, by looking closely at another individual doing the task,” explained Camila Galheigo Coelho, one of the study’s lead authors.
</blockquote>



The research team found that younger monkeys who had not yet mastered a task tended to learn from skilled adult males. Social tolerance, particularly within close-knit groups, significantly influenced who learned from whom.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“The most important aspect was to prove, using network-based diffusion analysis [NBDA], that the diffusion of a new technique for obtaining a resource spread through socially-mediated learning, and not simply through gradual individual learning by new individuals,” noted Professor Eduardo Ottoni, who supervised the study.
</blockquote>



This means that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-changes-social-behavior-in-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monkeys</a> don’t just figure things out on their own; they actively learn from their peers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-tool-use-and-social-learning">Evolution of tool use and social learning</h2>



The study is part of a larger project investigating how social dynamics influence behavior in capuchin monkeys. Professor Ottoni has been studying these primates since the late 1990s, particularly their use of tools. 



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“The discovery of tool use and social learning among capuchin monkeys was a fluke for us that turned into the discovery of a series of non-human cultural processes,” noted Ottoni.
</blockquote>



Over the years, researchers have observed capuchins using stones to crack nuts, dig roots, and even catch small animals with sticks. These behaviors vary between populations, suggesting distinct cultural traditions among different groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-learning-spreads-in-monkeys">How learning spreads in monkeys</h2>



Researchers studied two groups of capuchin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkeys-with-greater-social-tolerance-have-more-self-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monkeys</a> living eight kilometers apart. They introduced a special box designed to test learning and problem-solving. The box had two different mechanisms for releasing food: a blue door that required pushing and a green lever that required pulling.



To test how knowledge spreads, the researchers trained one monkey in each group to use only one of the methods. After the trained monkeys learned how to retrieve food, the box was introduced to the rest of the group. 



The researchers carefully observed how other monkeys reacted and whether they would adopt the demonstrated technique.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monkey-s-dynamic-social-learning">Monkey's dynamic social learning</h2>



Initially, scientists expected that each group would stick to the method they first observed, leading to the development of distinct traditions within the two groups. However, the results showed a surprising outcome. Instead of sticking to one method, the monkeys in both groups learned to use both techniques.



“Our expectation was that one group would learn to push and the other to pull, creating two different traditions. But in both groups, they learned to release the reward in both ways,” said Coelho.



This finding highlights the adaptability of capuchin monkeys and their ability to learn in a dynamic, social way rather than rigidly following one approach. Their ability to observe and experiment suggests a level of intelligence that supports problem-solving and social learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-group-structure-and-learning-success">Group structure and learning success</h2>



The study showed that social structure affects how capuchin monkeys learn. In a larger, fragmented group, 57.5% of monkeys quickly learned the task because knowledge spread easily between subgroups. 



In contrast, only 36.7% of monkeys in a smaller, tightly bonded group learned the skill. A dominant male restricted access, preventing others from observing and practicing. This highlights the importance of social tolerance in learning. 



When group members can freely interact and observe skilled individuals, knowledge spreads faster. However, in restrictive environments, learning is limited. This finding emphasizes how social dynamics shape learning in both animals and human societies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-window-into-cultural-evolution">Window into cultural evolution</h2>



This research provides valuable insights into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkeys-use-names-for-each-other-in-their-communication-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">non-human primates</a> develop traditions and pass knowledge across generations. 



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“The more we study, the more we realize that cultural evolution is part of something bigger in the context of biological evolution itself,” said Ottoni.
</blockquote>



By studying capuchin monkeys, scientists continue to uncover the deep-rooted nature of social learning and cultural transmission in the animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2322884121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.</a>



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Social tolerance helps monkeys pass along new skills

Deep in Brazil's semi-arid Caatinga region, capuchin monkeys are teaching...

Elasmosaurus,,Group,Of,Long-necked,Plesiosaurs,From,The,Late,Cretaceous,Period,

Scientists have pieced together evidence that ancient marine reptiles once swam in what is now central Colombia, and these creatures appear to have been more formidable predators than today’s mighty killer whales.&nbsp;



Their presence at an unexpectedly high level in the food chain has raised new questions about how ocean ecosystems evolve.&nbsp;



Paleontologists reconstructed the lives of giant reptiles and invertebrates that flourished in a lush environment roughly 130 million years ago, and uncovered a glimpse of life that sits outside what is considered standard for our modern seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-reptiles-ruled-over-killer-whales-nbsp">Marine reptiles ruled over killer whales&nbsp;</h2>



Experts discovered that some of these reptiles could exceed 33 feet (10 meters) in length, hinting at a way of life that appears to have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remarkably powerful</a>.&nbsp;



According to their research, these creatures ruled the seventh level in a reconstructed Cretaceous food web, while present-day killer whales and great white sharks rarely pass the sixth.&nbsp;



At the heart of these findings is work by McGill University’s <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Biology</a>, led by doctoral student Dirley Cortés and co-author Hans Larsson, who is a professor in the same department.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-reptiles-reached-the-pinnacle">Marine reptiles reached the pinnacle</h2>



Large predators typically dominate the top ranks in any oceanic food chain. Scientists often call these ranks "<a href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/06%3A_Ecology/6.05%3A_Trophic_Levels" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic levels</a>." 



Modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> systems reach a natural limit around the sixth trophic (or feeding) level, where species like orcas hover at the pinnacle of the energy pyramid.&nbsp;



“Our study is the first to examine these possible ecological interactions,” said Cortés, who is lead author on the publication. 



By <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/202/1/zlad092/7275647?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studying</a> fossil evidence in the <a href="https://www2.sgc.gov.co/LibroGeologiaColombia/tgc/sgcpubesp36201913.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paja Formation</a>, the team determined that Mesozoic reptiles had apparently gone one level higher. 



These ancient animals likely feasted on anything in their path, which explains how their food web stacked up so high.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-a-lost-food-web">Reconstructing a lost food web</h2>



This investigation on ancient marine reptiles used body size, possible feeding tools, and comparisons with existing marine species to build a detailed framework for who ate whom in that vanished Colombian sea, where the warm climates of the Early Cretaceous allowed a surge in ocean diversity.&nbsp;



The Paja Formation’s fossil record reveals predators with robust jaws and swift movement, alongside an assortment of invertebrates that thrived in trophic levels beneath them.&nbsp;



Researchers drew upon modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-disease-is-pushing-caribbean-reefs-toward-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caribbean reef</a> networks to cross-check their results. 



By comparing these fossils to present-day communities, the study uncovered what one of the paper’s authors described as "intricate links among prehistoric animals" that pushed the boundaries of the marine hierarchy.



“Understanding this complexity helps us trace how ecosystems evolve over time,” said Cortés.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-competition-shaped-the-seas">How competition shaped the seas</h2>



Marine food webs do not form overnight. Competition for resources tends to bring about new evolutionary strategies and unique feeding habits. 



During parts of the Mesozoic, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0501562102" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pressure</a> from marine predators and their potential prey made survival an ongoing challenge. 



A known surge in shell-crushing snails and other predatory invertebrates during this era has been labeled by paleontologists as the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesozoic Marine Revolution</a>.&nbsp;



Ancient marine reptiles from the Paja Formation existed in this tense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/looking-to-earths-ancient-climate-to-predict-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> of changing prey, leading them to develop massive body sizes and formidable hunting styles.&nbsp;



“These findings illuminate how marine ecosystems developed through intense trophic competition and shaped the diversity we see today,” said <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/202/1/zlad092/7275647?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Larsson</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-today">Why this matters today</h2>



The close study of creatures that roamed the ocean so long ago is not just about cataloging exciting fossils. Discoveries like this tell us that life’s history is packed with surprising adaptations.&nbsp;



Paleontologists see a chance to compare these ancient networks with modern ones, thus providing fresh insights into how ecosystems recover from challenges such as climate change or habitat loss.&nbsp;



Researchers also note that these fossil communities remind us of how species at the top of the food chain can alter their entire environment, often making space for additional biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-evolution">A window into evolution</h2>



One important lesson from this work is that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dramatic shifts</a> in ocean biodiversity occurred long before humans entered the picture. 



Marine reptiles vanished near the end of the Mesozoic, but the legacy of their top-heavy food webs is imprinted in the fossil record. 



Each puzzle piece from that record, from large jaws to specialized teeth, helps paint a more accurate picture of how Earth’s seas matured. 



The high trophic levels in the Paja Formation suggest that new habitats were emerging, allowing marine reptiles to reach body sizes and predatory niches that are rarely matched in modern times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-marine-reptiles-and-ecosystems">Ancient marine reptiles and ecosystems</h2>



Researchers plan to keep building models for other fossil sites. This work may reveal whether seventh-level predators were uncommon or if there were other pockets in Earth’s history where they thrived. 



In many regions, marine formations remain poorly understood, so there is every chance that the Paja Formation was not the only site containing marine reptiles with astonishing hunting powers.&nbsp;



More studies may show that, over millions of years, seas can produce predators more fearsome than anything we know today.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-abstract/202/1/zlad092/7275647?redirectedFrom=fulltext&amp;login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>.&nbsp;



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Prehistoric ocean monsters would have eaten killer whales as snacks

Scientists have pieced together evidence that ancient marine reptiles once...

Arctic,Region,And,Greenland,Viewed,From,A,Satellite.,Physical,Map

Ecological warning lights have flashed across the Arctic for decades. New research on climate warming reveals that some of the most extreme shifts are happening in Siberia, Canada’s Northwest Territories, and Alaska.



The study, published in&nbsp;Geophysical Research Letters, offers a detailed look at how Arctic and boreal ecosystems are experiencing rapid and alarming transformations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-warming-hotspots">Arctic warming 'hotspots'</h2>



The research team - comprising scientists from Woodwell Climate Research Center, the <a href="https://www.uio.no/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oslo</a>, the <a href="https://www.umt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Montana</a>, Esri, and the <a href="https://www.udl.cat/ca/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lleida</a> - analyzed over 30 years of geospatial data.



The experts assessed temperature, moisture, and vegetation changes to pinpoint regions facing severe climate stress.



“Climate warming has put a great deal of stress on ecosystems in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rock-weathering-drives-further-warming-in-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high latitudes</a>, but the stress looks very different from place to place and we wanted to quantify those differences,” said Dr. Jennifer Watts, Arctic program director at <a href="https://www.woodwellclimate.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woodwell Climate</a> and lead author of the study.



Using spatial statistics, the team detected regions of intense change, known as “hotspots.” These areas have experienced substantial shifts in recent decades, with permafrost being a common denominator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-permafrost-levels-indicate-vulnerability">Permafrost levels indicate vulnerability</h2>



Permafrost, ground that remains frozen year-round, is crucial for stabilizing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-melting-arctic-sea-ice-could-disrupt-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> ecosystems. However, in the last few decades, these frozen landscapes have seen rapid warming and drying. The study found that all 20 of the most vulnerable regions contained permafrost.



“The Arctic and boreal regions are made up of diverse ecosystems, and this study reveals some of the complex ways they are responding to climate warming,” said Dr. Sue Natali, who leads the Permafrost Pathways project at Woodwell Climate.



“However, permafrost was a common denominator - the most climate-stressed regions all contained permafrost, which is vulnerable to thaw as temperatures rise. That’s a really concerning signal.”



The study revealed stark contrasts in climate impacts across different regions. While parts of Siberia and the Canadian Northwest Territories experienced drying, areas like Alaska’s Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta saw rising surface water and flooding. 



These changes are likely linked to thawing permafrost, which can destabilize ecosystems and release stored carbon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-localized-data">Importance of localized data</h2>



Rather than relying on broad regional averages, the research team emphasized the need for localized data to guide climate adaptation strategies.



“This study is exactly why we have developed these kinds of spatial statistic tools in our technology," said Dr. Dawn Wright, chief scientist at <a href="https://www.esri.com/en-us/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Esri</a>.



"We are so proud to be working closely with Woodwell Climate on identifying and publishing these kinds of vulnerability hotspots that require effective and immediate climate adaptation action and long-term policy. This is essentially what we mean by the ‘Science of Where.’”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/arctic-hotspots_ecosystem-stress_map_credit-Christina-Shintani_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/arctic-hotspots_ecosystem-stress_map_credit-Christina-Shintani_1s.webp" alt="Map of areas that experienced ecosystem climate stress in the Arctic-boreal region between 1997-2020 as detected by multiple variables including satellite data and long-term temperature records. Credit: Christina Shintani/Woodwell" class="wp-image-1957096"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Map of areas that experienced ecosystem climate stress in the Arctic-boreal region between 1997-2020 as detected by multiple variables including satellite data and long-term temperature records. Credit: Christina Shintani/Woodwell</figcaption></figure>



Using detailed mapping, the researchers hope to provide land managers with more precise information, much like Covid-19 tracking data, which varies across communities. 



By focusing on localized climate patterns, decision-makers can implement targeted adaptation and conservation strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-the-arctic-from-rapid-warming">Saving the Arctic from rapid warming</h2>



One of the most alarming findings of the study was the significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-warming-four-times-faster-than-global-average/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> across the Siberian boreal forest region. 



These forests, which have historically absorbed and stored carbon dioxide, are now under severe climate stress. This increases the risk of wildfires and carbon release, compounding global climate challenges.



“These forested regions, which have been helping take up and store carbon dioxide, are now showing major climate stresses and increasing risk of fire,” said Dr. Watts.



“We need to work as a global community to protect these important and vulnerable boreal ecosystems, while also reining in fossil fuel emissions.”



This research highlights an urgent need for action. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-sea-ice-is-headed-toward-a-historic-low/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> ecosystems are rapidly transforming, and their stability is crucial for the planet’s climate balance. 



Monitoring these changes with precision will help shape effective policies and conservation efforts. However, without global cooperation and immediate action, these warning lights may soon signal irreversible damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-if-we-do-nothing">What happens if we do nothing?</h2>



If Arctic warming continues unchecked, the consequences will be severe. Melting permafrost will release massive amounts of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, accelerating global warming. 



Rising temperatures will cause more wildfires, destroying boreal forests and releasing stored carbon. Flooding and coastal erosion will threaten <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-ocean-warming-in-2024-is-a-warning-for-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> communities, forcing people to relocate. 



Beyond the physical changes, Arctic warming has serious implications for wildlife and indigenous communities. 



Iconic animals like polar bears, seals, and walruses rely on ice for hunting, breeding, and protection. As their habitats shrink, these species struggle to survive, leading to declining populations and even extinction in some cases. 



Indigenous peoples who have lived in harmony with the Arctic environment for generations face challenges as their traditional ways of life are disrupted.



Scientists warn that ignoring these changes could push the planet past a tipping point, making climate recovery nearly impossible.



Doing nothing is not an option.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023GL108081" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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New Arctic map shows alarming changes in rapidly warming "hotspots"

Ecological warning lights have flashed across the Arctic for decades....

Underwater,Photo,Of,Octopus,Swimming,In,Tropical,Exotic,Sandy,Bay

Octopus arms display incredible dexterity, bending and twisting with near-infinite freedom. These movements help octopuses explore their environments, manipulate objects, and catch prey. 



Recent research reveals a fascinating secret behind this flexibility: segmented nervous system circuitry.



“If you're going to have a nervous system that's controlling such dynamic movement, that's a good way to set it up,” said Dr. Clifton Ragsdale, professor of neurobiology at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>.



This segmentation appears to be an evolutionary adaptation specific to soft-bodied cephalopods like octopuses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-neural-architecture">Unique neural architecture</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Octopus</a> arms are equipped with a remarkably complex nervous system, containing more neurons collectively in their eight arms than in their brain. 



This extensive network of neurons is concentrated in a structure called the axial nerve cord (ANC), which runs along the length of each arm.



The ANC is segmented, with each segment corresponding to one of the suckers on the arm. These segments act like local control hubs, with nerves branching out to nearby muscles and sensory structures associated with each sucker. 



The segmented organization of the ANC allows the octopus to manage the movement and sensory functions of each sucker independently, enabling precise control over their arms. 



This unique design supports the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopus's extraordinary ability to explore</a>, manipulate, and interact with its environment with unparalleled dexterity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structures-in-octopus-arms">Structures in octopus arms</h2>



Graduate students Cassady Olson and Grace Schulz made this discovery while studying the arms of the California two-spot octopus (Octopus bimaculoides). 



Using imaging tools, they found that the ANC features columns of neuronal cell bodies separated by gaps, or septa. These septa allow nerves and blood vessels to connect to the muscles and suckers. 



“The best way to set up a control system for this very long, flexible arm would be to divide it into segments,” Olson noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-sucker-control">Complex sucker control</h2>



The study revealed that octopus arms have a "sucker map" in their nervous system - a layout that helps control each sucker with great precision.



This map organizes nerves in a way that allows the octopus to coordinate the movement and sensory input of every sucker individually. Each sucker can move on its own, changing its shape and even functioning as a sensory tool. 



When an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-octopus-day-the-intelligent-creatures-of-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopus</a> touches something, it can "taste" and "smell" through receptors in the suckers, much like combining a hand, tongue, and nose into one. 



This specialized nervous system design is what enables octopuses to perform complex tasks like manipulating objects, exploring their surroundings, and capturing prey with exceptional dexterity and precision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopus-and-squid-arms">Octopus and squid arms</h2>



The researchers also studied the longfin inshore squid (Doryteuthis pealeii), another type of soft-bodied cephalopod, to compare its nervous system to that of octopuses.



While squid and octopuses share some structural similarities, the study revealed key differences reflecting their unique evolutionary paths. 



In squid, the long stalks of their tentacles - used to shoot out and grab prey - do not have segmented nerve structures.



However, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-suckers-the-future-of-underwater-adhesives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sucker-equipped clubs</a> at the end of these tentacles do show segmentation in their axial nerve cord (ANC), similar to octopus arms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specific-evolutionary-adaptations">Specific evolutionary adaptations</h2>



This suggests that segmentation in the nervous system is specifically adapted to control precise, dexterous movements in appendages with suckers.



The lifestyles of these animals explain the differences. Squid primarily hunt in open water, relying heavily on their vision to locate prey and using their streamlined tentacles to grab it. 



In contrast, octopuses explore the ocean floor, using their highly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-arms-inspire-more-human-like-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensitive arms</a> to touch, taste, and manipulate their environment. 



These differences highlight how evolution modifies neural designs to meet the unique demands of an animal’s habitat and hunting style.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-octopus-arms-use-their-eight-brains">How octopus arms use their eight brains</h2>



Each of their eight arms operates almost like a separate brain, packed with its own set of neurons that allow them to perform complex tasks independently. 



This means an octopus can explore a crevice with one arm while another is unscrewing a jar or playing with a toy. 



Their arms are incredibly flexible and strong, covered in suction cups that can taste, touch, and grip objects with amazing precision.



What’s even more mind-blowing is how octopuses use their arms to solve problems and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-garden-thermal-springs-accelerate-octopus-egg-hatching-by-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interact with their environment</a>. 



They can manipulate objects, open containers, and even escape from tight spots, showcasing their problem-solving skills and adaptability. 



Scientists believe this arm intelligence is one of the reasons octopuses are such skilled hunters and escape artists. 



Additionally, their ability to coordinate their arms seamlessly allows them to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-ringed-octopus-a-master-of-deception-inspires-new-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">camouflage themselves</a> by changing color and texture, blending perfectly into their surroundings to avoid predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-s-ingenious-solutions">Evolution's ingenious solutions</h2>



“Organisms with these sucker-laden appendages that have worm-like movements need the right kind of nervous system,” Ragsdale explained. 



The segmented ANC in octopuses and squid highlights how evolution optimizes neural designs to meet unique demands. 



Despite diverging over 270 million years ago, these cephalopods developed similar neural architectures to control their sucker-laden appendages effectively.



This UChicago research sheds light on how octopuses achieve their unparalleled flexibility and dexterity, offering insights into the intricate relationship between structure, function, and evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-55475-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Each octopus arm has its own massive nervous system similar to a brain

Octopus arms display incredible dexterity, bending and twisting with near-infinite...

Prolonged multi-year droughts, increasingly common since 1980, are set to intensify with ongoing climate warming, according to a new global study..&nbsp;



Led by the <a href="https://www.wsl.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow, and Landscape Research</a> (WSL) in collaboration with the Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA), this study presents a forty-year quantitative inventory of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megadrought-in-the-western-u-s-is-the-worst-in-at-least-1200-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">megadroughts</a>.



The goal is to better inform policy on human-induced climate change and uncover previously unnoticed drought events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-frequent-severe-megadroughts">More frequent severe megadroughts </h2>



The study reveals a worrying trend: megadroughts are becoming longer, more frequent, and more severe, affecting larger areas worldwide.&nbsp;



On average, since 1980, drought-stricken regions have expanded by an additional 50,000 square kilometers each year - roughly the combined area of Slovakia or the US states of Vermont and New Hampshire. This expansion has caused enormous damage to ecosystems, agriculture, and energy production.



“Each year since 1980, drought-stricken areas have spread by an additional fifty thousand square kilometers on average - that’s roughly the area of Slovakia, or the US states of Vermont and New Hampshire put together - causing enormous damage to ecosystems, agriculture, and energy production,” said Professor Francesca Pellicciotti, the principal investigator of the WSL-funded EMERGE Project.



One stark example of these trends is the fifteen-year megadrought in Chile, the longest in a thousand years. It has nearly depleted the country’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-reservoirs-are-shrinking-and-becoming-less-reliable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water reserves</a>, severely impacting agriculture and vital mining operations.&nbsp;



Despite their devastating effects, many droughts only gain attention when they visibly harm agriculture or forests, meaning subtler yet severe events often go unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-hidden-droughts">Identifying hidden droughts</h2>



To address the challenge of consistently identifying extreme multi-year droughts, the researchers analyzed global meteorological data from 1980 to 2018, using <a href="https://envidat.ch/#/metadata/global-standardized-drought-indicies" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CHELSA climate data</a> dating back to 1979 provided by WSL.&nbsp;



By calculating anomalies in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-is-increasingly-unpredictable-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> and evapotranspiration - the combined evaporation and plant transpiration - they were able to map the occurrence of megadroughts across the planet, even in remote areas like tropical forests and the Andes.



“Our method not only mapped well-documented droughts but also shed light on extreme droughts that flew under the radar, such as the one that affected the Congo rainforest from 2010 to 2018,” explained Dirk Karger, a senior researcher at WSL and co-author of the study.



This approach allowed the team to detect droughts in less accessible regions, where limited observational data often left events unrecorded.&nbsp;



The findings highlight how ecosystems respond differently to drought, with temperate grasslands being most severely affected, while boreal and tropical forests initially showing resilience or unexpected responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varied-impact-on-ecosystems">Varied impact on ecosystems</h2>



Megadroughts have contrasting effects on different ecosystems. Temperate grasslands have borne the brunt, suffering immediate impacts from prolonged dryness. 



The analysis identified hotspots including the western USA, southeastern Australia, and central Mongolia, where severe ecological droughts have been well-documented.



In tropical and boreal forests, responses are more complex. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-have-strategies-to-survive-in-nutrient-poor-soils/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tropical forests</a> may temporarily buffer drought effects if they hold sufficient water reserves, but prolonged shortages can lead to tree death and long-lasting damage.&nbsp;



Boreal forests, on the other hand, have experienced paradoxical effects during drought onset due to warmer temperatures lengthening their growing season, though extended droughts could eventually overwhelm these systems.



“In the event of long-term extreme water shortages, trees in tropical and boreal regions can die, leading to long-lasting damage to these ecosystems. Especially, the boreal vegetation will likely take the longest to recover from such a climate disaster,” Karger noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-trends-of-intensification">Clear trends of intensification </h2>



The researchers produced the first globally consistent, high-resolution map of megadroughts and their vegetation impacts, capturing clear trends of intensification over the past forty years.&nbsp;



However, the long-term consequences of these events on the planet’s ecosystems are still largely unknown. While some areas, like the pan-Arctic, show increased greening, persistent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-has-caused-crisis-levels-of-food-and-water-scarcity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water shortages</a> could lead to irreversible damage.



“Currently, mitigation strategies largely consider droughts as yearly or seasonal events, which stands in stark contrast to the longer and more severe megadroughts we will face in the future,” Pellicciotti said.&nbsp;



“We hope that the publicly available inventory of droughts we are putting out will help orient policymakers toward more realistic preparation and prevention measures.”



By making their inventory publicly available, the team aims to guide policymakers in developing more accurate and effective drought mitigation and prevention strategies.&nbsp;



As part of this effort, Pellicciotti is also examining how mountain glaciers might buffer megadrought impacts through her <a href="https://data.snf.ch/grants/grant/216710" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">project</a> “MegaWat - Megadroughts in the Water Towers of Europe - From Process Understanding to Strategies for Management and Adaptation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-frequent-megadroughts">Preparing for frequent megadroughts </h2>



This comprehensive inventory of megadroughts serves as a vital tool for understanding the evolving nature of drought in a warming climate. The findings emphasize the urgent need to reevaluate current drought mitigation strategies, which often fail to account for the prolonged and severe nature of future megadroughts.



The study not only changes our perception of drought but also highlights the critical need for improved preparation and policy measures to cope with increasingly severe and persistent drought conditions.&nbsp;



As climate change progresses, the insights gained from this research will be crucial in shaping a resilient future for ecosystems, agriculture, and water management worldwide.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.ado4245" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.&nbsp;



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Megadroughts are becoming more frequent and severe

Prolonged multi-year droughts, increasingly common since 1980, are set to...

From childhood spats to shared memories and cherished traditions, there's a unique bond that ties siblings together. But there's one topic that's a perennial cause for discussion: who's the favorite child?



Alex Jensen, a professor from BYU School of Family Life, shed some valuable insights on this playful contest in his recent research, which examines the subtle displays of parental favoritism influenced by birth order, personality, and gender.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-younger-siblings-vs-older-siblings">Younger siblings vs. older siblings</h2>



According to Professor Jensen, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parent-children-relationships-are-key-to-lifelong-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parents</a> generally treat their children differently based on birth order, often having a favorite.



Younger siblings often receive more attention, warmth, and support from parents. This could be because parents have more experience raising children by the time the younger ones arrive, making them more relaxed and affectionate.



On the other hand, older siblings tend to gain more independence as they grow up. Parents are usually stricter with their firstborns but gradually become less controlling over time. 



Since older siblings are the first to experience different stages of life, parents may place higher expectations on them to be responsible and self-sufficient.



In short, younger siblings may get more emotional support, while older ones receive more freedom. This difference in treatment can shape sibling relationships and influence how children perceive fairness in their families.



“It is helpful to take the findings from this study and be aware of the patterns that could be happening in your family,” Jensen said. “When parents are aware, they can make small adjustments that benefit everyone.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-parents-favor-daughters">Do parents favor daughters?</h2>



The researchers found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-who-use-humor-have-better-relationships-with-their-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parents</a> tend to favor daughters slightly more than sons, often seeing them as the favorite child.



This preference appears in different ways, such as how parents interact with their children and how they distribute resources like money, time, and attention. Interestingly, while parents are aware of this bias, children themselves do not seem to notice it.



The researchers analyzed data from 19,469 participants. The results showed that both mothers and fathers are more likely to treat daughters with warmth, engage in more positive interactions with them, and provide them with more resources compared to sons.



This could be due to cultural expectations, emotional closeness, or the perception that daughters require more protection and support.



Even though this favoritism is subtle, it can still influence how children perceive their relationships with their parents and siblings. Understanding these tendencies can help parents ensure fairness and strengthen family bonds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-of-favorite-child-matters">Personality of favorite child matters</h2>



It’s not just birth order or gender that matters - personality also influences favoritism. The study revealed that children who are more conscientious and agreeable receive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-parents-use-threats-to-discipline-children-but-its-not-effective-in-the-long-run/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">better treatment</a>, regardless of whether they are the eldest or youngest.



“Most parents probably connect more easily with one child over another, whether that be due to personality, birth order, gender or other things like shared interests,” Jensen said. 



“Watch for those patterns within yourself. Pay attention to how your children react to things that could be perceived as favoritism.”



One surprising finding? Extraversion didn’t seem to impact favoritism. “Americans seem to particularly value extraverted people, but within families it may matter less,” Jensen noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-being-the-favorite-child-matters">Why being the favorite child matters</h2>



Favoritism in families goes beyond small privileges like getting the biggest slice of cake - it can have serious emotional and psychological effects on children.



When a child feels less favored by their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-often-feel-lonely-burnt-out-parenting-demands/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parents</a>, they may struggle with low self-esteem, anxiety, or feelings of rejection. This emotional distress can lead to changes in their behavior, such as acting out, withdrawing socially, or experiencing difficulty in school.



Research suggests that children who perceive themselves as less favored are more likely to develop mental health challenges, including depression and behavioral issues. 



They may seek attention through rebellious actions or disengage from family interactions altogether. This dynamic can also create resentment toward siblings, weakening family relationships over time.



Parents may not always be aware of these effects, but favoritism can leave a lasting impact. 



“Keep an eye out for things that seem unfair. Your children will let you know if they think something is unfair,” Jensen said. “Either they are missing perspective and understanding, or you need to make some changes in your parenting. Make sure you are open to the latter.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-parents-do">What can parents do?</h2>



Parents don’t need to feel guilty, but they should be mindful of these patterns. Jensen emphasizes that favoritism isn’t always intentional - it often happens naturally based on personality and circumstances.



“Sometimes parents get so concerned about treating their kids the same that they may overlook individual needs,” he said. 



“We’re not suggesting parents feel guilty; instead, parents can look at this research and use it as encouragement to look at places where they can improve, without going to extremes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strengthening-family-bonds">Strengthening family bonds</h2>



Favoritism can impact sibling relationships, but awareness can help parents make positive changes. The study from <a href="https://familylife.byu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BYU School of Family Life</a> encourages families to focus on connection rather than comparison.



“The simple answers are perhaps the best. Be patient with yourself and with your children,” Jensen said. 



“Spend time together. Do things together that you like to do. Do things together that your children like to do. Work together, serve others together, worship together. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-spend-the-most-time-on-devices-but-nature-offers-a-solution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Relationships</a> take time and time together doing a variety of things will have many positive benefits.”



So, if you’re wondering whether your sibling really is the “golden child,” the answer might not be so simple. It’s not just about being the oldest, the youngest, or even the most charming - it’s about personality, responsibility, and sometimes, just how easy you are to deal with.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/bul-bul0000458.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Psychological Bulletin</a>.



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Parents treat their children differently - but do they have a favorite?

From childhood spats to shared memories and cherished traditions, there's...

Volcanic eruptions have profoundly impacted human societies throughout history, causing cold weather, reduced sunlight, and crop failures. In 43 BC, for instance, a volcanic eruption in Alaska ejected vast amounts of sulfur into the stratosphere, leading to poor harvests, famine, and disease around the Mediterranean.&nbsp;



While written records from ancient Greece and Rome document these events, no such records exist from the Neolithic period. 



However, climate scientists and archaeologists have uncovered evidence of a similar catastrophic volcanic eruption around 2,900 BC, shedding light on its devastating effects on Neolithic communities in Northern Europe.



This discovery, made by researchers from the <a href="https://nbi.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Niels Bohr Institute</a> at the University of Copenhagen, has led archaeologists to reevaluate findings from the Neolithic Vasagård site on Bornholm, Denmark.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-next-big-volcano-eruption-will-cause-global-chaos-climate-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruption</a> and its aftermath appear to have influenced the ritual practices of these early agricultural societies, particularly their reverence for the sun.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harsh-climate-conditions-after-massive-eruption-nbsp">Harsh climate conditions after massive eruption&nbsp;</h2>



By analyzing ice cores from Greenland, researchers detected significant sulfur deposits indicative of a massive volcanic eruption around 2,900 BC. This event caused reduced solar radiation and a subsequent drop in temperatures across Europe and the United States, leading to prolonged cooling.&nbsp;



Evidence from dendrochronological studies of fossilized wood reveals signs of frost during the spring and summer months before and after the eruption, emphasizing its harsh climatic consequences.



Such conditions would have been devastating for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-neolithic-mountain-settlers-used-complex-farming-methods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neolithic communities</a> that depended on agriculture. With shorter growing seasons and failed harvests, the people of Northern Europe likely faced widespread food shortages and societal strain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-stones-of-vasagard">Sun stones of Vasagård</h2>



The volcanic eruption and its climatic impact have recontextualized archaeological findings from Vasagård on Bornholm, a site known for its unique “sun stones.”&nbsp;



These engraved flat shale pieces, featuring sun motifs and patterns, are believed to have symbolized fertility and been used in rituals to ensure agricultural success.



Archaeologist Rune Iversen of the University of Copenhagen, who has participated in excavations at Vasagård, explained the significance of these artifacts.



“One type of find that is completely unique to Bornholm is the so-called sun stones, which are flat shale pieces with engraved patterns and sun motifs. They symbolized fertility and were probably sacrificed to ensure sun and growth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-stones-in-sacrificial-ditches">Sun stones in sacrificial ditches </h2>



Large quantities of sun stones were discovered in sacrificial ditches alongside animal bones, broken clay vessels, and flint objects, suggesting they were part of elaborate rituals.&nbsp;



These sacrifices likely aimed to appease forces believed to control the sun, especially during a time of diminished sunlight caused by the volcanic eruption.



“It is reasonable to believe that the Neolithic people on Bornholm wanted to protect themselves from further deterioration of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> by sacrificing sun stones - or perhaps they wanted to show their gratitude that the sun had returned again,” Iversen added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-cultural-transformation">Climate change and cultural transformation</h2>



The Neolithic period around 2,900 BC was marked not only by climate-related challenges but also by other crises. DNA analysis of human remains from this time reveals widespread and deadly outbreaks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-farming-population-decimated-by-plague-dna-skull/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plague</a>.&nbsp;



These dual pressures - climate instability and disease - likely contributed to major cultural changes in Northern Europe.



For instance, the once-dominant Funnel Beaker Culture, known for its distinct ceramics and passage graves, began to fade. At Vasagård, the rituals involving sun stones gave way to new practices, including the construction of extensive palisades and circular cult houses.



“At the causewayed enclosure we have excavated on Bornholm, we can also see that, after the sacrifice of the sun stones, the residents changed the structure of the site so that instead of sacrificial ditches, it was provided with extensive rows of palisades and circular cult houses,” Iversen said.&nbsp;



“We do not know why, but it is reasonable to believe that the dramatic climatic changes they had been exposed to would have played a role in some way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-worship-across-eras">Sun worship across eras</h2>



The sun stones from Vasagård provide an early example of a sun cult in Northern Europe, predating similar practices seen in the Nordic Bronze Age, such as the Sun Chariot, and even echoing henge structures like Stonehenge in England.



“The sun stones are completely unique, also in a European context,” noted Lasse Vilien Sørensen, a senior researcher at the <a href="https://en.natmus.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of Denmark</a> and co-author of the study.&nbsp;



“The closest we get to a similar sun-cult in the Neolithic is some passage graves in southern Scandinavia or henge structures like Stonehenge in England, which some researchers associate with the sun. With the sun stones, there is in my mind no doubt.”



The discovery underscores how early agricultural societies revered the sun as a vital force, closely tied to survival and fertility. This reverence persisted even into later periods, such as the volcanic disaster of 536 AD, when Scandinavian societies deposited large gold hoards as sacrifices during another significant climate crisis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-neolithic-life">A window into Neolithic life</h2>



The evidence of volcanic activity from ice cores, coupled with the archaeological findings at Vasagård, provides a vivid picture of how Neolithic communities responded to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-disasters-like-tsunamis-cause-lasting-health-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental disasters</a>.&nbsp;



The sacrifices of sun stones and subsequent cultural shifts demonstrate both the adaptability and the ritual practices of these early societies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legacy-of-the-sun-stones">Legacy of the sun stones</h2>



Four of the sun stones from Vasagård will be displayed at the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen, offering a glimpse into the lives of Neolithic communities and their response to one of history’s earliest documented climate disasters.



These artifacts, tied to the earliest known sun-cults in Scandinavia, illuminate how deeply ancient societies were connected to their environment and how they sought to influence or understand natural forces during times of crisis.&nbsp;



The Vasagård sun stones serve as a testament to humanity’s enduring relationship with the sun - a source of life and a beacon of survival in the face of nature’s extremes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2024.217" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antiquity</a>.



Image Credit: National Museum of Denmark



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Sun stones and sacrifice: How ancient farmers faced climate chaos

Volcanic eruptions have profoundly impacted human societies throughout history, causing...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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