Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A glass of wine with dinner or a beer at a party may seem harmless. But when drinking alcohol becomes regular and heavy, its effects on the brain can go far beyond a momentary buzz. 



A new study published in Neurology, the medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology, reveals that heavy alcohol consumption is linked to serious signs of brain damage. These changes could impair memory and thinking, especially as people grow older.



The researchers examined the brains of older individuals after death. The analysis linked consistent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-americans-now-link-alcohol-consumption-to-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heavy drinking</a> - defined as eight or more drinks per week - to a condition called hyaline arteriolosclerosis.



This condition damages small blood vessels in the brain, leading to lesions. Though the study does not prove that drinking directly causes these injuries, it shows a clear association.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-damages-brain-blood-vessels">Alcohol damages brain blood vessels</h2>



Hyaline arteriolosclerosis is a form of vascular damage in which small blood vessels become stiff and narrow. These damaged vessels struggle to carry enough blood to brain tissue.



Over time, this lack of proper blood flow leads to tissue damage, which appears as lesions in the brain. These lesions are associated with cognitive issues such as memory loss and difficulty concentrating.



Dr. Alberto Fernando Oliveira Justo of the <a href="https://fm.usp.br/en/institucional/the-fmusp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo Medical School</a> in Brazil is the study’s lead author.



“Heavy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-makes-fruit-flies-look-sexy-and-boosts-mating-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol consumption</a> is a major global health concern linked to increased health problems and death,” said Dr. Justo.



“We looked at how alcohol affects the brain as people get older. Our research shows that heavy alcohol consumption is damaging to the brain, which can lead to memory and thinking problems."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-autopsies-reveal-alcohol-s-effects">Brain autopsies reveal alcohol’s effects</h2>



The experts studied the brains of 1,781 individuals who died at an average age of 75. All participants had donated their brains for autopsy.



The team collected lifestyle information through interviews with family members, focusing on alcohol use. Each brain was assessed for vascular lesions, tau tangles, brain weight, and other physical indicators of cognitive health.



The participants were placed into four categories based on their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-has-a-hidden-impact-on-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol</a> habits: those who never drank, those who drank in moderation, current heavy drinkers, and former heavy drinkers who had quit.



A “standard drink” in the study contained 14 grams of alcohol. This amount equals about 350 milliliters of beer, 150 milliliters of wine, or 45 milliliters of distilled spirits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-brain-damage-behind-the-habit">Hidden brain damage behind the habit</h2>



Among those who never drank, 40% had vascular lesions in their brain tissue. That number rose to 45% for moderate drinkers and 44% for current heavy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-small-amounts-of-alcohol-increase-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinkers</a>. 



Former heavy drinkers had the highest percentage, with 50% showing signs of vascular damage.



After adjusting for other health factors such as age, smoking, and physical activity, the researchers found a strong association between heavy alcohol use and brain damage.



Heavy drinkers had 133% higher odds of developing vascular brain lesions compared to those who never drank. Former heavy drinkers had 89% higher odds, while moderate drinkers had 60% higher odds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-linked-to-brain-shrinkage">Alcohol linked to brain shrinkage</h2>



The experts also examined tau tangles -abnormal protein accumulations in the brain that are a key marker for Alzheimer’s disease.



The researchers found that current heavy drinkers had a 41% higher chance of having tau tangles. Former heavy drinkers had 31% higher odds. These tangles interfere with the brain’s ability to send and receive signals, contributing to cognitive decline.



Former heavy drinkers also showed a reduced brain mass ratio - the proportion of brain weight compared to body weight. This measure suggests physical shrinkage of the brain.



Lower brain mass has been associated with poorer cognitive abilities. Interestingly, this link was seen only in people who had stopped heavy drinking, not those who still drank heavily at the time of their death.



Justo noted that, in addition to brain injuries, impaired cognitive abilities were observed only in former drinkers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heavy-drinking-and-early-death">Heavy drinking and early death</h2>



Beyond brain health, the study revealed a striking trend in life expectancy. Heavy drinkers died an average of 13 years earlier than people who never drank. 



This difference reflects alcohol’s wide impact on the body, including liver damage, increased risk of cancer, heart problems, and now, possible brain deterioration.



“We found heavy drinking is directly linked to signs of injury in the brain, and this can cause long-term effects on brain health, which may impact memory and thinking abilities,” said Dr. Justo.



"Understanding these effects is crucial for public health awareness and continuing to implement preventive measures to reduce heavy drinking."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-limitations-leave-some-questions">Study limitations leave some questions</h2>



Despite its scale, the study had some limitations. It did not follow participants while they were alive, so the researchers had to rely on reports from family members to estimate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-alcohol-in-moderation-does-not-prolong-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol</a> use.



Also, they had no data on how long people had consumed alcohol or how their cognition changed over time. These gaps make it harder to draw firm conclusions about cause and effect.



However, the findings carry an important message: the damage linked to alcohol - especially heavy use - can remain hidden for years. It can slowly alter the brain's structure and function, even if people quit drinking later in life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reliable-information-about-brain-health">Reliable information about brain health</h2>



This research was supported by <a href="https://fapesp.br/en/about?TSPD_101_R0=08fe110688ab2000baed373c08cc10b8cbb2d14ac157355685375b8621d6cfb977d251d840c8216808d0770047143000078e9f4cd6617498531a22feb2e530404bdf82fd28db1d38e99e0d72554ee716d4d47e894de789e9c727ffd09cc995b0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The São Paulo Research Foundation</a>. For those seeking reliable information about brain health, <a href="https://www.brainandlife.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BrainandLife.org</a> offers helpful resources. The site's magazine, podcast, and books connect the public with experts in neurology.



The American Academy of Neurology is the world’s largest association of neurologists and neuroscience professionals. With more than 40,000 members, the AAN works to improve brain health and patient care.



Neurologists diagnose and treat conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, stroke, epilepsy, and Parkinson’s disease, playing a key role in managing the aging brain.



This study reminds us that the choices we make today echo through the brain’s future. For those who drink alcohol regularly, it may be time to ask: is the cost to the brain worth the buzz?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000213555" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a>.



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Alcohol's hidden toll on the brain revealed

A glass of wine with dinner or a beer at...

Climate change is pushing pest insects and mites into new territories.&nbsp;Many pests are migrating from the equator to cooler regions that used to keep them at bay.



Global trade networks are also playing a big part in this shuffle. Ports and shipping channels create pathways for invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> to arrive in places that once seemed too distant to worry about.



Professor Dan Bebber from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a> is part of a research team that includes experts from the University of Hebei and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. 



The researchers are calling for swift action to protect key staple crops, including wheat and maize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warmer-climates-help-pests-multiply">Warmer climates help pests multiply</h2>



Temperatures are going up in regions that had cooler climates. This creates conditions where more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> and mites can survive winters and breed more often.



More generations in a year mean bigger populations. More bugs mean higher odds that pests will find, eat, and damage vital food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-practices-weaken-pest-control">Farming practices weaken pest control</h2>



Intensive agricultural <a href="https://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/2021/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">practices</a> can decrease biodiversity. When you have fewer predators around, pests multiply freely.



<a href="https://geopard.tech/blog/disadvantages-and-benefits-of-monocropping-in-the-context-of-the-environment/#:~:text=Monocrop%20agriculture%20is%20about%20sowing,field%2C%20commonly%20known%20as%20polyculture." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monocrops</a>, irrigation, and fertilizers support bigger yields, but these methods also give pests reliable food and shelter. This shift weakens the natural checks and balances once provided by a richer variety of species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropical-pests-invade-cooler-regions">Tropical pests invade cooler regions</h2>



Tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-are-more-vulnerable-to-climate-change-than-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> are advancing into temperate zones. Cold air once put a stop to major swarms, but warm spells that last longer allow insects to stay active.



High latitudes are especially vulnerable. Wheat, rice, and soybean fields in these areas can become prime feeding grounds for new and old invaders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trade-accelerates-invasion">Trade accelerates invasion</h2>



Globalization of trade networks is fueling pest invasions worldwide, with damage surpassing $423 billion in <a href="https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/wtr24_e/wtr24_e.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2019</a>.



Goods move around in a matter of days. That opens doors for species to hitch rides in shipping containers, seed batches, and any organic packaging not strictly monitored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pests-and-climate-risks-threaten-food">Pests and climate risks threaten food </h2>



“About 40% of global crop production is currently lost to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-effect-in-reverse-climate-change-turns-havens-into-traps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a> and diseases, creating a major challenge for global food security,” said co-author Professor Dan Bebber. Farmers already struggling with unpredictable weather are on edge with each new pest report.



Beyond economic impacts, these losses can aggravate hunger in vulnerable regions. Reduced output raises prices, and entire communities face shortages of staple crops like rice or maize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-extremes-trigger-pest-outbreaks">Climate extremes trigger pest outbreaks</h2>



Periods of drought or heatwaves can set off surprising outbreaks. Plants under stress become easy targets, since <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/neurotoxin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurotoxins</a> that some pests produce can flourish in warm, dry conditions.



In certain cases, intense rainfall might wash smaller pests away. Still, overall shifts in humidity and temperature can boost pest populations that prefer wet fields over parched ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-push-for-better-pest-tracking">Scientists push for better pest tracking</h2>



Researchers see promise in pest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasshopper-size-changes-in-response-to-shifting-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monitoring</a>. Early-warning systems can track insects as they migrate north and uphill. Predictive models can also factor in shifting climates to pinpoint future hot zones. 



“We need better pest monitoring, predictive models, and climate-smart management strategies to safeguard staple crops such as wheat, rice, maize and soybean from increasing pest risks,” said Bebber.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmland-changes-can-reduce-infestations">Farmland changes can reduce infestations</h2>



Many experts suggest landscape diversity and planting non-crop species near fields. These habitats can support natural enemies of pests, like ladybugs for aphids.



Strategies that add conservation biocontrol might help growers reduce pesticides. This lowers the risk of insects developing resistance and cuts down on harmful chemicals reaching waterways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-needed-for-climate-driven-pests">Action needed for climate-driven pests</h2>



Cooperative efforts across borders could limit the entry of new pests. Tighter inspection of exports and imports can help identify and quarantine risky arrivals.



Teams focused on integrated pest management can set protocols in regions at highest risk. That plan might combine crop rotation, beneficial insects, and more resilient plant varieties.



The agricultural world is shifting. As pest insects spread to cooler regions, farmland faces challenges nobody expected even a few decades ago.



Innovation in planting decisions, pest prediction, and trade rules can bring hope. Action now can keep dinner tables stocked and protect farmers from devastating infestations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-025-00652-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Pests are moving to cooler regions due to climate change

Climate change is pushing pest insects and mites into new...

In the final era of the Cretaceous, giant reptiles were not the only ones navigating a changing planet. Tiny fossils suggest that many small mammals embraced ground-based living long before the arrival of the asteroid that ended the dinosaur age.



Researchers say these creatures were already exploring terrestrial spaces several million years ahead of that cosmic event. 



This challenges the idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-the-cultural-legacy-of-wild-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> only moved down from the trees to the ground after dinosaurs were out of the picture.



<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Christine-Janis-450fb945-9d7d-4004-a540-2524be359b3e/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Christine Janis</a> from the University of Bristol’s <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/earthsciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Earth Sciences</a> has contributed to this idea. She and her team analyzed the ends of small mammal limbs and found structures suited to movement on solid ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-before-the-dinosaurs-died">Before the dinosaurs died</h2>



The Maastrichtian Age was the last chapter of the Late Cretaceous, running from about 72 to 66 million years ago. 



During this time, Earth looked very different from today - sea levels were high, and warm shallow seas covered large parts of the continents. 



Dinosaurs still ruled the land, with massive herbivores like Triceratops and duck-billed hadrosaurs grazing in herds, while predators like Tyrannosaurus rex stalked them. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-extinction-influenced-fruit-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flowering plants</a> had spread widely by this point, shaping new ecosystems, and early birds and mammals were quietly evolving in the background.



But beneath the surface, change was brewing. Volcanic activity in what's now India was ramping up, pumping gases into the atmosphere. The climate started to shift, and ecosystems became more fragile.



Then came the asteroid. It triggered wildfires, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-extinction-of-dinosaurs-was-not-caused-by-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate chaos</a>, and the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event that wiped out around 75% of all species, including the non-avian dinosaurs. 



Thankfully, mammals were part of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-led-to-the-emergence-of-ant-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surviving group</a>, which is the reason that we're all here today and able to read this article.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flowers-helped-mammals-move-to-ground">Flowers helped mammals move to ground</h2>



Mammals were not just contending with large reptiles. They also inhabited landscapes that were rapidly filling with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">angiosperms</a>, or flowering plants, that provided rich understory habitats in which to live.



“The vegetational habitat was more important for the course of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982206002454">Cretaceous mammalian evolution</a> than any influence from dinosaurs,” said Professor Janis. 



This idea emphasizes how expanded ground-level plant cover created new opportunities for smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-new-plants-reshaped-habitats">How new plants reshaped habitats</h2>



Beneath prehistoric canopies, modestly sized creatures needed spaces to hide, and diverse food sources to keep them going. 



Old forests dominated by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/gymnosperm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gymnosperms</a> had provided fewer ground-based feeding options, but flowering plants added more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-mixodectes-pungens-prehistoric-mammal-and-relative-of-primates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variety</a>.



Experts link the diversification of flowering plants to changes in habitat structure. The vegetation supported denser undergrowth at lower levels, which let many small mammals roam freely without competing for the treetops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fossil-fragments-matter">Why fossil fragments matter</h2>



Most early studies of mammal locomotion relied on full or partial skeletons. Scientists had a hard time finding enough complete specimens to reconstruct how prehistoric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-molecule-tells-starfish-and-humans-when-to-stop-eating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> moved around.



By examining partial bones, known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/epiphysis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epiphyses</a>, researchers overcame that hurdle. Subtle features on these limb ends can hint at whether an animal spent more time on the ground or clinging to branches.



Some epiphyses revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammal</a> limbs were built for sturdy footing rather than gripping bark.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mammals_first-ground-dwellers_Dryolestes_Credit-James-Brown_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mammals_first-ground-dwellers_Dryolestes_Credit-James-Brown_1s.webp" alt="Dryolestes, a Late Jurassic relative of the Cretaceous therians. Credit: Artist James Brown. Pamela Gill" class="wp-image-1964794"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dryolestes, a Late Jurassic relative of the Cretaceous therians. Click imaeg to enlarge. Credit: Artist James Brown. Pamela Gill</figcaption></figure>



Prior thinking painted a picture of mostly arboreal lifestyles, but these fossils suggest that a gradual transition to the ground began sooner than once believed.



This method let scientists track a broader range of species. They no longer had to rely on the rare jackpot of finding an intact skeleton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ground-living-mammals-fared-better">Ground-living mammals fared better</h2>



Experts have suggested that non-arboreal species were more likely to endure the impact that devastated life at the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0458" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">K-Pg boundary</a>. 



This event may have dealt a harsher blow to treetop animals, as forests took a serious hit.



Many <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/therian" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therian groups</a>, which include marsupials and placentals, showed signs of a terrestrial lifestyle long before disaster struck. 



Researchers propose that ground-based behaviors opened new diets and protective nooks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-evolved-features-suited-for-ground">Mammals evolved features suited for ground</h2>



In Western North America, there is a rich record of small fossils that span the late Cretaceous and earliest Paleogene periods. 



By comparing these remains with modern-day mammals of similar size, scientists noticed a slow but steady upswing in the presence of terrestrial forms.



Bone shapes from different intervals, such as the <a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/89230" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Judithian</a> and <a href="https://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/periodicals/nmg/6/n4/nmg_v6_n4_p72.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lancian</a>, reflect shifts in locomotion strategies. By the dawn of the Paleogene, ground-adapted features appeared more commonly than once imagined.



Observations of these ancient bone fragments suggest that mammals responded to plant-driven changes by easing out of the treetops and onto solid ground. 



Ecology and environment often act in tandem, and this scenario might be a prime example.



Before the asteroid struck, these animals had been fine-tuning a flexible approach to living. That choice may have helped them weather the harsh aftermath of an altered planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Some scientists plan to explore whether similar patterns can be found in other regions. 



There is also an interest in refining techniques that deduce locomotion strategies from small bones, so that scientists can determine whether these terrestrial traits show up worldwide.



Future work may confirm whether this early move to the ground played a big role in mammal survival. For now, these small fossils highlight how living things can shift gears in response to changes in habitat availability. 



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pala.70004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



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How mammals survived the asteroid impact that killed the dinosaurs

In the final era of the Cretaceous, giant reptiles were...

Romulus and Remus are the names on everyone’s lips right now. These large, pale-furred canines, described by some as dire wolf lookalikes, have been heralded as living pieces of prehistory. 



But some scientists say the hype is running far ahead of the facts.



<a href="https://tamu.academia.edu/AngelaPerri" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Angela Perri</a> from the Department of Archaeology at <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> is urging caution about what these animals truly represent. 



The pups in question may carry a handful of edits derived from ancient dire wolf DNA, but some researchers argue that’s not enough to call them real dire wolves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dire-wolves-were-not-true-wolves">Dire wolves were not true wolves</h2>



The dire <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00072-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wolf</a> was a formidable carnivore that roamed parts of North and South America, eventually vanishing more than 10,000 years ago. 



A 2021 <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03082-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> suggested it shared a common ancestor with wolves nearly 5.7 million years ago, which means <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04824-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern gray wolves</a> and dire wolves might be far less related than many believed.



Questions swirl around the label “wolf” itself. That older research hints that dire wolves were possibly closer to a giant form of coyote than to present-day gray wolves; challenging the idea that a few visual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-inspire-a-safer-method-of-editing-human-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a> can define an animal’s species or evolutionary place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-edited-pups-resemble-legends">Gene-edited pups resemble legends</h2>



Scientists at <a href="https://colossal.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colossal Biosciences</a> used genetic editing to produce large canines resembling the old legends. 



They extracted cells from gray wolves, modified certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-modification-can-create-better-tomatoes-eggplants-but-should-we-do-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a>, then implanted the resulting embryos into dog surrogates.



Romulus and Remus are big, display lighter fur, and exhibit some behaviors many associate with wild wolves. 



Yet a growing chorus of experts wonders if these animals can truly fit the category of a species that split from living canids so long ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-question-dire-wolf-claims">Scientists question dire wolf claims</h2>



Some observers claim the entire project creates a spectacle rather than a legitimate conservation tool. They see the repeated references to popular culture as a clever publicity move more than a scientific milestone.



Others question whether the presence of just 20 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modified genes</a> is enough to replicate all the key traits that made dire wolves unique. 



One scientist famously asked if tinkering with a few genetic differences in a chimpanzee could ever make it human.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-edited-pups-aren-t-dire-wolves">Edited pups aren’t dire wolves</h2>



Colossal’s announcement triggered debate over what it means to bring back a species. The company's pups may look the part, but leading experts argue they fall short of true <a href="https://colossal.com/de-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">de-extinction</a>. 



According to <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7484015/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paleogenomic</a> data, the real dire wolf was so genetically distinct it may not have been a wolf at all - belonging instead to a now-extinct American lineage far removed from modern canids.



This raises serious doubts about whether editing a few dozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boosting-crop-colors-with-gene-editing-can-improve-weed-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> can recreate an organism with such a unique evolutionary history. 



The physical similarities between gray wolves and dire wolves may come down to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/convergent-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convergent evolution</a>, not close ancestry.



Without addressing the deeper <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3233720/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genomic divergence</a>, the result may be more of a hybrid impersonation than a faithful revival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-new-animals-raises-concerns">Making new animals raises concerns</h2>



Beyond taxonomy, the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3078015/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ethics</a> of creating new animals in the lab weigh heavily on critics. Cloning and genetic editing can lead to unpredictable results, including suffering for both offspring and surrogates. 



Even with no miscarriages reported in this case, concerns remain about scaling the process, especially if it’s applied to more complex or sensitive species like elephants.



There’s also the matter of consent and quality of life. Romulus, Remus, and Khaleesi may be healthy now, but their entire lives will be monitored, confined, and shaped by humans. 



As more animals are created using similar methods, society will need to grapple with what responsibilities come with reviving dire wolf-like creatures that never asked to return.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-ecosystems-may-not-cope">Modern ecosystems may not cope</h2>



Raising a handful of designer canines in an enclosure might be more of a display than an ecological intervention. 



The real dire wolf thrived in ancient environments that no longer exist. Releasing them into today’s ecosystems could cause more disruption than restoration.



Predators need large, stable territories and abundant prey. It’s unclear how modern habitats would handle a canine unlike current wolf species in size and hunting style. 



Even in controlled reserves, their natural instincts might clash with confined, human-managed spaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-vs-resurrecting">Preserving vs resurrecting</h2>



Some conservationists push back on “bringing back” lost creatures like the dire wolf when existing species face urgent threats. 



Many large predators are on the brink right now, which raises priorities about saving them first.



“We are an evolutionary force at this point,” stated <a href="https://colossal.com/team/beth-shapiro-ph-d/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Beth Shapiro</a>, Colossal’s chief science officer, pointing to the importance of innovative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/novel-gene-editing-tool-analyzes-sperm-health-in-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetics</a>. 



She sees these methods as tools for protecting endangered populations rather than only a means of revival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-commercial-angle">The commercial angle</h2>



Colossal Biosciences is valued at over ten billion dollars, and it’s branching into other genetic ventures. Observers note that money-making spinoffs could overshadow concerns about animal welfare or ecological impacts.



Related startups have tried to harness genetic advances to solve modern problems such as plastic breakdown or livestock breeding. 



Critics say that resurrecting extinct species feels like a flashy sideshow that might distract from immediate biodiversity issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-risks-outpacing-ethics">Science risks outpacing ethics</h2>



Skeptics acknowledge that advanced cloning or gene editing methods can sometimes boost endangered species by broadening the gene pool. But they also point out that no species is restored in a vacuum.



Legal, ecological, and ethical hurdles arise if these animals ever leave controlled facilities. Modern landscapes differ dramatically from ancient times, and artificially created predators might not fit comfortably into today’s ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-gene-edited-species-unclear">Future of gene-edited species unclear</h2>



The question of how to manage animals engineered from partial ancient genes remains a knotty one. 



Colossal’s approach might evolve as more data emerges and more voices join the conversation. But for now, the line between innovation and overreach remains blurry.



Scientists like Angela Perri emphasize the need for deeper DNA analysis, more rigorous peer review, and a realistic look at ecological dynamics. 



Only then can we decide if a newly minted wolf-like pup is truly close to the original dire wolf that once reigned.



Until then, calling it a resurrection might be more fiction than fact.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03082-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Scientists: No, those are definitely not 'resurrected' dire wolves

Romulus and Remus are the names on everyone’s lips right...

The new season of “<a href="https://www.hbo.com/the-last-of-us" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Last of Us</a>” arrives on April 13. In the show, a fictional fungus infects humans and spreads through the air. This idea feels unsettlingly real because some actual fungi spread through airborne spores, causing fungal infections.



Scientists have long known about fungi that invade organisms in surprising ways. One of these is <a href="https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cordyceps" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cordyceps</a>, which can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-may-fuel-the-spread-of-diseases-by-unleashing-frozen-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infect</a> ants and influence their behavior until the fungus extends and scatters spores onto unsuspecting targets on the forest floor.



Mention of the show’s new spore angle has also spotlighted research by <a href="https://www.msl.ubc.ca/people/dr-jim-kronstad/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Jim Kronstad</a>, a microbiologist at the Michael Smith Laboratories at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a>. 



He is among those who study fungi that can adapt to warming climates, raising concerns that certain species might become more harmful to humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-worries">Climate worries</h2>



One fungus called <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/valley-fever/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coccidioides</a> causes valley fever. It can trigger serious lung <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-infectious-disease-landscape-is-changing-and-we-must-prepare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infections</a>, and scientists suspect that hotter temperatures could expand its range.



Another pathogen, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/candida-auris/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Candida auris</a>, is making headlines for its ability to spread in hospital settings. Many available antifungal drugs do not work against it, and some fear it could thrive more widely in a hotter environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-spores-and-deadly-infections">Fungal spores and deadly infections</h2>



“Fungi love to make spores,” remarked <a href="https://kronstadlab.msl.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Kronstad</a>. Microscopic spores can lodge in the lungs of people who breathe them in, setting off infections.



In real life, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/cryptococcosis/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cryptococcus neoformans</a> offers an example of a fungus that enters the body through inhalation of spores. It sometimes leads to meningitis, particularly in individuals who have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-infection-equips-the-body-to-fight-off-the-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weakened immune systems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-are-jumping-from-soil-to-humans">Fungi are jumping from soil to humans</h2>



Researchers recently found <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38898217/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhodosporidiobolus fluvialis</a> in humans after previously detecting it only in soil. Some see this as more proof that fungi can shift hosts and environments in unexpected ways.



Climate change might encourage certain fungal species to adapt to higher temperatures. Experts are looking into whether these organisms can learn to thrive inside human bodies more easily as global temperatures climb.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-also-help-humans-and-the-planet">Fungi also help humans and the planet</h2>



“Fungi are super important, it’s phenomenal what they’ve done for humans,” added Dr. Kronstad. Fungi are not all threats. They break down waste into nutrients, help store carbon in soils, and have long served as food sources.&nbsp;



Scientists have experimented with fungal-based materials in various fields, from eco-friendly packaging to potential construction elements. These unique fibers can be sturdy yet light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fiction-highlights-real-fungal-infection-threats">Fiction highlights real fungal infection threats</h2>



The show’s creators might have chosen to highlight spores to reflect real-world research that suggests airborne fungal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antimicrobial-resistance-could-cause-39-million-deaths-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transmission</a> can be perilous. 



While an actual fungus controlling human minds is far-fetched, the idea of sneaky microscopic travelers is not so outlandish.



Recent <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08419-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> details how fungal infections in wildlife and humans can intensify with more frequent travel and shifting climate patterns. Scientists hope that exploring fungal biology now will give us the upper hand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-and-beyond">Food and beyond</h2>



People often associate fungi with mushrooms or yeasts. Beyond these, numerous species serve crucial roles in producing bread, cheese, and even alternative meat.



They also offer lifesaving benefits. Penicillin emerged from fungi, sparking a medical revolution that continues to save countless lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-infection-threats-are-rising">Fungal infection threats are rising</h2>



Some fans of “The Last of Us” may wonder if the storyline signals a future fungal threat to humanity. Others feel it simply underscores how versatile and surprising nature can be.



Experts point out that while caution is wise, maintaining perspective is equally important. Practices such as infection control in hospitals and consistent monitoring of emerging pathogens could help address these concerns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-change">Preparing for change</h2>



Environmental scientists encourage efforts to track fungal populations and observe how rising temperatures affect them. They hope to predict potential risks before serious outbreaks happen.



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8962932/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> also emphasize developing new antifungals to tackle resistant infections. This preventive approach could stop the spread of challenging species in healthcare settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-with-knowledge">Adapting with knowledge</h2>



Fungal biology remains a lively area of study. More advanced genetic tools could soon reveal how these organisms evolve to survive in hotter climates or new hosts.



There is growing interest in whether our bodies might also adapt. The interplay between changing fungi and human immune responses is a subject with many questions still to be answered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-are-both-dangerous-and-essential-to-life">Fungi are both dangerous and essential to life</h2>



Fungi are ancient, diverse, and often helpful. Their ability to mutate and jump into new niches is a reminder that we share our planet with organisms we are still learning to understand.



The latest season of “The Last of Us” might spark a fresh wave of curiosity about how fungal spores spread. If that curiosity leads to more research and careful preparation, the lessons could be invaluable.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08419-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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The Last of Us? Fungal diseases that infect humans are becoming more common

The new season of “The Last of Us” arrives on...

Underwater,Closeup,Of,Branching,Acropora,Coral

As oceans continue to warm and coral bleaching events increase across the globe, scientists are taking a close look at the effectiveness of restoration projects aimed at saving some of the planet’s most vibrant and valuable ecosystems.&nbsp;



While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-sounds-the-melodic-key-to-coral-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">restoration</a> has become a common strategy for helping damaged reefs recover, a new international study suggests that many of these efforts may fall short - not because they’re misguided, but because they can’t keep up with the pace of destruction.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-coral-bleaching-event-is-now-underway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bleaching</a> occurs when corals, stressed by unusually high sea temperatures, expel the algae that live in their tissues. These symbiotic algae not only give corals their brilliant colors but also help provide nutrients.&nbsp;



Without them, corals turn white - and if the stress continues, they can die. Marine heatwaves, mostly driven by climate change, are the leading cause of these events, although other factors like pollution and overfishing make reefs more vulnerable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-restoration-on-a-small-scale">Coral restoration on a small scale</h2>



The most widely used method of reef restoration is known as coral gardening. It involves growing coral fragments in underwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-nurseries-need-protection-equal-to-that-of-established-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nurseries</a> and then transplanting them to damaged reef areas. 



Other approaches include removing coral-eating species such as parrotfish, distributing coral spawn to new locations, or even tweaking the microbiomes surrounding the coral in hopes of boosting their survival.



But according to the new study, the scope and scale of these interventions don’t come close to matching the problem. 



The study was led by Giovanni Strona from the European Union Joint Research Center, Clelia Mulà of the University of Western Australia, and Professor Corey Bradshaw from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a> in Australia. The researchers investigated why many reef restoration projects fail to deliver long-term benefits.



“Most restoration projects only operate over several hundred or a few thousand square meters,” said Professor Bradshaw. 



“Compared to the 14% loss and degradation of coral reefs between 2009 and 2018, equating to nearly 12,000 square kilometers, we come nowhere close to the scale of restoration that is needed to offset the losses from climate change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-many-restoration-projects-fail">Why many restoration projects fail</h2>



The analysis revealed several reasons for the high failure rate of coral restoration efforts - which is about one-third of all projects. Among the most common were high costs per hectare, reliance on unproven or poorly monitored methods, and efforts focused on reefs already severely degraded and highly vulnerable to future bleaching events.



According to the experts, there’s also the issue of poor planning. And without consistent methods for collecting and reporting data from these projects, it’s nearly impossible to figure out what works and what doesn’t.



The review encompassed a wide range of factors - including human impact, risk of bleaching before and after intervention, coral diversity, and remoteness - but no consistent correlation between these conditions and the success of restoration efforts was found. In other words, it’s not yet clear what makes a reef restoration project succeed or fail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-restoration-and-climate-change">Coral restoration and climate change </h2>



The stakes couldn’t be higher. Coral reefs support an estimated one billion people worldwide, offering everything from food security to income from tourism, and even natural protection from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/once-in-a-thousand-years-extreme-storms-are-becoming-much-more-frequent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a> and coastal erosion.



“Some estimate that over the past 40 years, the coverage of coral reefs has declined by at least 50%,” said Strona. “As climate change continues, bleaching events and coral deaths will only become more common, with projected losses of total coral cover of more than 90% by the end of the century.”



And while many coral restoration efforts are well-meaning, the researchers argue that relying too heavily on them could create a false sense of hope.



“Although coral restoration has the potential to be a valuable tool in certain circumstances, our research makes it clear it is not yet - and might never be - feasible to scale up sufficiently to have meaningful, long-term, and positive effects on coral <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/underwater-closeup-branching-acropora-coral-2453177503" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef ecosystems</a>,” explained Professor Bradshaw.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-restoration">Looking beyond restoration</h2>



The authors emphasize that this shouldn’t be a reason to give up on coral conservation altogether. Rather, it’s a call to think bigger, and to be more strategic about how and where restoration is attempted. 



For example, focusing on less degraded reefs, or those that are more resilient to heat stress, may yield better long-term results.



Lead author Clelia Mulà suggests that part of the answer lies in complementing restoration with broader conservation strategies.



“Reinforcing complementary strategies could therefore bolster ecosystem resilience, extending the reach and success of coral restoration projects,” she said.



Ultimately, the researchers agree that no amount of coral restoration work will be enough without a serious global effort to slow climate change.



“This reality check should stimulate constructive debate about when and where restoration is most feasible and important," said Professor Bradshaw. 



"But the truth is that without stemming the pace and magnitude of climate change, we have little power to save coral reefs from massive losses over the coming century and beyond."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02667-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Without tackling climate change, coral restoration efforts are insufficient

As oceans continue to warm and coral bleaching events increase...

Scientists continue designing new tools to scan the skies for any sign of life on worlds light-years away. But what if every signal we check comes back empty? Could a complete lack of discoveries teach us about the rarity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-nearby-earth-like-exoplanet-gliese-12b-that-could-support-intelligent-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> another planets and the galaxy?



This question guided the efforts of <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/dananger-me?pli=1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Daniel Angerhausen</a>, a Physicist in <a href="https://quanz-group.ethz.ch/quanz-group/people.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Sascha Quanz</a>’s Exoplanets and Habitability Group at ETH Zurich and a <a href="https://www.seti.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SETI Institute</a> affiliate. 



He and collaborators recently applied a statistical lens to this possibility and uncovered surprising insights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-life-can-still-teach-us-about-life">"No life" can still teach us about life</h2>



Their latest analysis looked at how a full lack of <a href="https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/education/alp/what-is-a-biosignature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biosignature signals</a> could still reveal whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-planet-named-enaiposha-is-unlike-anything-in-our-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> is widespread. 



In a paper using <a href="https://www.quantstart.com/articles/Bayesian-Statistics-A-Beginners-Guide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bayesian statistics</a>, the team explains that checking around 40 to 80 <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanet</a> targets with no detections could indicate if under 10 to 20% of similar planets host living processes.



They highlight that every measurement carries errors, so researchers must handle those uncertainties or risk jumping to the wrong interpretation. 



The group worked through <a href="https://www.redjournal.org/article/S0360-3016(21)03256-9/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frequentist methods</a> too, finding that both approaches can align when enough worlds are investigated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planets-may-hide-life-or-give-false-clues">Planets may hide life or give false clues</h2>



False negatives can creep in if an atmosphere masks signs of life. Improper target selection or gaps in data could also distort results.



“It’s not just about how many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expanding-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> we observe - it’s about asking the right questions and how confident we can be in seeing or not seeing what we’re searching for,” says Angerhausen. He emphasizes the need for prudence. 



“If we’re not careful and are overconfident in our abilities to identify life, even a large survey could lead to misleading results,” says Angerhausen. 



This caution shapes the planning for new instruments that aim to spot subtle atmospheric patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-planets-give-better-answers">More planets give better answers</h2>



Tools like the Large Interferometer for Exoplanets (<a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/abs/2022/08/aa41958-21/aa41958-21.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LIFE</a>) are on the horizon to inspect planetary atmospheres and search for water or oxygen. 



Experts suggest that a robust sample is essential so that random outliers don’t skew the entire picture.



“In applied science, Bayesian and Frequentist statistics are sometimes interpreted as two competing schools of thought,” says <a href="https://quanz-group.ethz.ch/quanz-group/people/person-detail.MjU2OTMw.TGlzdC80OTI0LC02MTUwNjA4NDM=.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emily Garvin</a>, a PhD student in Quanz’s group, underscoring how the choice of statistical model can shift the conclusion.&nbsp;



“Slight variations in a survey’s scientific goals may require different statistical methods to provide a reliable and precise answer,” says Garvin. 



She adds that comparing both methods helps validate assumptions at each step.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-questions-help-find-signs-of-life-on-planets">Clear questions help find signs of life on planets</h2>



One of the key takeaways from the study is that not all questions carry the same weight. Asking “How many planets have life?” is too vague to lead to reliable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-super-earth-hd-20794-found-just-20-light-years-away-is-best-target-yet-for-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">answers</a>.



Instead, the researchers recommend focusing on specific, measurable traits. 



For example, asking how many rocky planets in the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanets/habitable-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable zone</a> show traces of water vapor, oxygen, or methane helps isolate variables and reduce confusion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-assumptions-can-skew-final-results">Early assumptions can skew final results</h2>



The team also explored how assumptions made before data collection - called <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2910452/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">priors</a> in Bayesian terms - can shape final results. 



This matters when earlier studies or models already lean optimistic or pessimistic.



For missions like LIFE and NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/programs/habitable-worlds-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitable Worlds Observatory</a>, the influence of these assumptions is expected to be small when surveying dozens of planets. 



That’s because larger samples can help drown out personal bias and strengthen overall conclusions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-rules-help-future-space-missions">Clear rules help future space missions</h2>



Clear definitions are vital so that researchers limit confusion when they classify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-planets-may-be-the-place-to-look-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a>. Even advanced instruments need rigorous protocols to handle noise or incomplete data.



“A single positive detection would change everything,” says Angerhausen. These discussions also hint at how important it is to plan for rare success.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-this-leaves-us">Where this leaves us</h2>



Questions about life’s scarcity influence how we invest in telescopes and data processing. The team’s work may guide future surveys as they measure water, methane, and more on new targets.



Finding no signals of life on a planet doesn’t mean we learn nothing. It shines a light on how empty data can still sharpen our sense of what else might be out there.



Scientists continue to refine ways to decode faraway environments. They aim to separate misleading noise from real clues, inching closer to answering whether we are alone.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/adb96d" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astronomical Journal</a>.



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What if we don't find alien life in the Universe? That might be OK, too

Scientists continue designing new tools to scan the skies for...

A group of physicists has proposed a new way of thinking about black holes by mapping out intricate “supermazes” - theoretical structures that provide a fresh blueprint for understanding the microscopic complexity of these enigmatic objects.&nbsp;



Their research, published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/JHEP03(2025)120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of High Energy Physics</a>, expands upon the idea of black holes derived from general relativity, offering a nuanced perspective rooted in string theory and M-theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-limits-of-general-relativity">Beyond the limits of general relativity</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monster-in-the-shadows-giant-black-hole-emerges-from-cosmic-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Black holes</a> have been traditionally described through the lens of general relativity, which focuses on large-scale gravitational effects and predicts an event horizon around a featureless mass so dense that not even light can escape.&nbsp;



But this picture leads to tensions with quantum mechanics, which requires that black holes exhibit vast amounts of microstructure to account for the information they contain.



“General relativity is a powerful theory for describing the large-scale structure of black holes, but it is a very, very blunt instrument for describing black-hole microstructure,” said Nicholas Warner, co-author of the study and professor of physics, astronomy, and mathematics at the <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



“In a framework of theories extending beyond Einstein’s equations, supermazes provide a detailed portrait of the microscopic structure of brane black holes.”



By refining earlier ideas, the researchers use supermazes to extend the notion of “fuzzballs,” which arise in string theory as detailed replacements for classical black holes.&nbsp;



Where a classical black hole in general relativity appears as a smooth horizon, the “fuzzball” approach - now supported by this new supermaze formalism - depicts black holes as highly complex, intricate objects composed of branes and geometry at very small scales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-black-holes-with-branes">Building black holes with branes</h2>



String theory has long posited that fundamental particles can be described as vibrating strings in higher-dimensional space, but M-theory goes one step further by suggesting these objects can also exist as “branes,” short for membranes with multiple spatial dimensions. 



This approach reveals that black holes are not simply mass crushing down to a point but can be modeled as extended, interlocking brane structures.



“In this paper, we explore intersecting systems of M2-branes (two-dimensional) and M5-branes (five-dimensional) within the realm of supergravity, which is a low-energy approximation of M-theory,” Warner explained. 



“We think of the maze as the ‘substrate’ upon which all the information about whatever made the black hole, or ever fell into it, can be encoded.”



These maze functions act as dynamic templates dictating how branes intersect and interact, effectively recreating black hole properties while still containing copious internal detail. 



The ultimate effect is to reconcile the vast entropy required by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-gravity-quantum-nature-entanglement-mechanics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum gravity</a> with the geometry expected from general relativity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supermazes-in-action">Supermazes in action</h2>



The authors’ new concept of a “supermaze” rests upon a key mathematical construct they call the “maze function.” 



This function obeys a nonlinear differential equation akin to the Monge-Ampère equation - a well-known and notoriously challenging equation that arises in problems of differential geometry and physics.



Its solutions govern how M2- and M5-branes can interweave to form a black hole-like configuration with all the microstructure demanded by quantum principles.



“Maze functions play a pivotal role in linking the brane configurations to supergravity solutions, which in turn provide a new way to explore black-hole microstates,” Warner said. 



“The maze function is the billion-pixel camera that can give us a deep and detailed picture of the microstructure of black holes.”



The difference between a classical black hole horizon and these newly devised supermazes is one of resolution. Where general relativity might produce a blank silhouette - similar to a one-pixel image - supermazes supply a high-definition rendering that captures the underlying quantum states.&nbsp;



"Suppose you wanted a picture of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment: General relativity, with its horizons, is like using a camera with only one pixel. All you see is a single smear of color. Our earlier work gave us a picture with maybe 1,000 pixels," noted Warner. 



"Supermazes are like having many, many billions of pixels enabling us to admire the masterpiece in detail.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paving-the-way-for-comprehensive-theories">Paving the way for comprehensive theories</h2>



Though supermazes represent a significant step toward reconciling quantum mechanics and general relativity, the researchers view this work as merely the beginning of a larger program.&nbsp;



The next challenge is to refine these geometrical frameworks to see how they might tackle issues such as black hole information paradoxes, the dynamics of high-energy collisions, or the generation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gravitational-waves-dark-matter-big-bang-breakthrough/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational waves</a>. 



Each puzzle demands a microscopic portrait of black holes that reveals both broad relativistic features and the hidden quantum states that define the fabric of spacetime.



In this sense, supermazes may not just improve black hole theory but also guide future experimental and observational approaches to cosmic phenomena. 



By offering an enriched set of predictions about how black holes form and interact with their surroundings, supermazes could shape new directions in gravitational wave astronomy and high-energy physics experiments.



Ultimately, the work showcases a sophisticated leap in theoretical physics, where advanced geometrical and string-theoretic ideas fuse to yield an entirely reimagined black hole. 



As mathematicians and physicists continue to probe the “maze function” and its solutions, they may uncover new layers of complexity underlying the most extreme objects in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-forces-have-made-the-structure-of-the-universe-messier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmos</a>, bringing us closer to a unifying theory that resolves the puzzle of quantum gravity.



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Supermazes: Understanding the structure of black holes on a microscopic level

A group of physicists has proposed a new way of...

Relaxation techniques may help lower high blood pressure - at least in the short term - but the longer term effects are unclear, according to a recent analysis of existing research.&nbsp;



However, the study also concludes that the current body of evidence is at risk of bias, highlighting the need for more rigorously designed and extended follow-up studies to verify whether these methods can play a meaningful role in treating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-from-plastic-bottles-linked-to-high-blood-pressure-and-heart-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high blood pressure</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-blood-pressure-a-global-concern">High blood pressure: A global concern</h2>



High blood pressure affects roughly one-third of people aged 30 to 79 and stands among the top causes of death globally. Although medications exist to manage high blood pressure, many people struggle with consistent use.&nbsp;



This reality has spurred interest in alternative strategies, such as relaxation-based techniques that aim to reduce stress - a major factor contributing to high blood pressure. Yet which approach, from breath control and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-protects-against-work-stress-burnout/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mindfulness</a> to yoga, Tai Chi, or biofeedback, may be most effective is still up for debate.



In an effort to expand the evidence base, the researchers searched for English-language studies published up to February 2024, looking at relaxation’s potential in individuals with high blood pressure (140/90 mm Hg or above) or elevated blood pressure (120/80 mm Hg or above).&nbsp;



The review ultimately included 182 studies, of which 166 involved participants with high blood pressure and 16 involved those with elevated readings. Where applicable, the team used network meta-analysis, a statistical method that allows comparison of multiple treatments at once.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-term-effects-and-relaxation-techniques">Short-term effects and relaxation techniques</h2>



From 54 pooled studies, the analysis found that most relaxation techniques appeared to reduce both systolic and diastolic blood pressure in people with high blood pressure, at least over a span of three months or less.&nbsp;



These short-term interventions ranged from breath control to yoga and meditative movement, as well as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-therapy-reduces-distress-in-people-with-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music therapy</a>, progressive muscle relaxation, and psychotherapy.&nbsp;



Yet after three to twelve months, the data provided no clear evidence that any single relaxation practice continued to exert a significant impact. And in the small number of studies extending beyond a year, autogenic training offered a hint of benefit, but with low certainty.



“The results of our systematic review and network meta-analysis indicate that relaxation or stress management techniques might result in meaningful reductions in blood pressure at up to three months of follow-up,” the researchers wrote.&nbsp;



“Uncertainty exists about this effect, however, because of the risk of bias in the primary studies, the potential for publication bias in this area, and imprecision in the effect estimates, meaning that the observed changes in blood pressure might be too small to affect cardiovascular or cerebrovascular outcomes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vague-data-on-relaxation-techniques">Vague data on relaxation techniques</h2>



Additionally, the data analyzed by the team often lacked detail on costs, cost-effectiveness, and whether or not these interventions decreased the incidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-worsens-cardiovascular-health-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular events</a>. Another point of concern is that many studies’ descriptions of relaxation methods were vague or inconsistent, making it difficult to interpret or replicate their techniques and results.



“Hypertension is a chronic condition, likely to require long term drug treatments or behavioral changes. As such, interventions that are used for a brief period, or provide only short term benefits, are unlikely to be clinically useful,” the authors wrote.&nbsp;



Because the available research seldom tracks participants beyond a few months - and does not always confirm if they maintained their relaxation practice - it remains unclear if any early reductions in blood pressure might last over time.



“Too few studies exist, however, to assess whether the beneficial effects of relaxation are maintained when the techniques are practiced for longer than three months,” noted the experts.&nbsp;



“Future studies must clearly report whether participants were still using relaxation methods at the time of the outcome assessment, with details on adherence to the relaxation schedule. These factors might strongly influence the effectiveness of the different relaxation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> management techniques.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



In short, while the analysis offers cautious optimism that approaches such as mindful breathing, meditation, and yoga may help manage blood pressure in the short run, the current evidence does not confirm significant or lasting benefits beyond that window.&nbsp;



Until more definitive, long-term research is carried out - preferably with rigorous designs and standardized reporting - clinicians and patients may want to view these relaxation methods as potentially supportive, but not standalone, tools for addressing chronic high blood pressure.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/4/1/e001098" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMJ Medicine</a>.



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Relaxation techniques can lower high blood pressure - at least temporarily

Relaxation techniques may help lower high blood pressure - at...

Quantum mechanics has always left people scratching their heads. Tiny particles seem to break usual laws of nature, hinting at puzzling scenarios that have intrigued physicists for decades, often sparking debates on how these subatomic oddities might push the limits of future technology.



One curious area in this field involves charges that behave in fractions, providing glimpses into phenomena that defy classical logic. 



Scientists have spent years studying these strange <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baffling-quantum-entanglement-statistics-puzzle-finally-solved-advanced-technologies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">properties</a>, hoping to uncover new knowledge about how particles might transform the way we store and process information.



Led by <a href="https://vivo.brown.edu/display/jli234" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jia Li</a> at <a href="https://www.brown.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a>, a new investigation has zeroed in on unusual subatomic behavior. 



The group probed <a href="https://quantumatlas.umd.edu/entry/quantum-states/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum states</a> where charge-carrying particles do not align with usual integer values, suggesting that something unprecedented is going on under the hood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fractional-charges-shift-quantum-particles">Fractional charges shift quantum particles</h2>



<a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.48.1559" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have long known that the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature08582" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fractional quantum Hall effect</a> can make electrons adopt surprising charge fractions. This observation shattered the old belief that electric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-theory-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">charge</a> must appear as indivisible units.



Scientists later introduced <a href="https://phas.ubc.ca/~berciu/TEACHING/PHYS502/PROJECTS/20-Anyons-AD2.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anyons</a>, objects that occupy a middle ground between <a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsbosons-and-fermions" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bosons and fermions</a>. 



While some anyons exhibit fractional charges, the team at Brown observed excitons that suggest a hybrid identity, showing traits that do not fit snugly into established categories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-context-of-fractional-charges">Historical context of fractional charges</h2>



Theoretical breakthroughs in the early 1980s offered a fresh perspective on how charged particles might split into fractions, a <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.50.1395" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">concept</a> that earned Robert Laughlin a share of the Nobel Prize in 1998. 



His work showed that strong magnetic fields and low temperatures can drive electrons into peculiar states where fractional charges become possible.



Such fractionalization puzzled many physicists who were accustomed to seeing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microsoft-announces-giant-leap-in-quantum-computing-majorana-1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">charge</a> as a basic, indivisible property. 



Yet growing evidence in layered systems and two-dimensional materials hinted that these phenomena could run much deeper than first assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-excitons-show-partial-charges">Excitons show partial charges</h2>



An exciton is a bound state formed by an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/google-claims-commercial-quantum-computing-is-just-five-years-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron</a> and a positively charged gap called a hole, and it normally acts as a neutral composite.



In typical settings, these <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/exciton" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pairs behave like bosons</a>, meaning many can cluster in the same quantum state without forbidding one another.



In the new study, certain pairs appeared to carry fractional components, an unexpected twist that challenges the usual bosonic picture. 



This shift might change how experts view excitons, especially under extreme conditions where charges get chopped into fractional increments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fractional-excitons-might-be-a-new-particle-type">Fractional excitons might be a new particle type</h2>



According to the research, this unexpected behavior suggests fractional excitons could represent an entirely new class of particles with unique quantum properties. 



Scientists consider this a potential leap in understanding how subatomic entities can merge in ways we never anticipated.



By blending partial charges into a single packet, these excitons step outside the normal boundaries of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-gates-teleported-a-leap-toward-scalable-computing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum</a> behavior. 



They might also point to future research avenues where harnessing these hybrid traits could improve data handling in quantum circuits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quirky-excitons-could-improve-computing">Quirky excitons could improve computing</h2>



<a href="https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/quantum-computation-and-quantum-information/01E10196D0A682A6AEFFEA52D53BE9AE#overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum computing</a> aims to use fragile subatomic states to process data with speeds and efficiencies beyond today’s machines. 



Fractional behavior like this, if controlled, could point to more robust methods of encoding and retrieving information.



Some experts suspect that these quirky excitons might be useful for building architectures that resist errors. 



Stable partial charges could, in principle, help keep quantum information intact for longer stretches of time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-theory-and-experiments">Bridging theory and experiments</h2>



Early <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0001108" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ideas</a> proposed that excitons formed from fractional charges might reveal exotic quantum orders. Yet practical demonstrations remained elusive, so the Brown group’s evidence acts as a strong boost to these predictions.



By uniting state-of-the-art instrumentation with careful tuning, the researchers managed to catch fractional excitons in action. 



This alignment of theory and experiment hints at a deeper puzzle that ties quantum field concepts to everyday electronics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-stable-are-these-quantum-particle-states">How stable are these quantum particle states</h2>



Many questions remain about how long these fractional excitons can stay stable and whether they can appear at milder temperatures. 



Probing these details may offer a clearer roadmap for connecting quantum oddities with future devices.



Observers wonder if these excitons could pair with other anomalies, such as special <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42005-023-01245-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anyonic states</a> seen in two-dimensional materials. If such interactions can be guided, they might reveal a way to shape next-generation electronics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-particles-might-change-tech-and-quantum-physics">New particles might change tech and quantum physics</h2>



Some in the community suspect that strange exciton states might help address roadblocks in high-speed computing and sensor technology. 



As fractional concepts move into real labs, we edge closer to finding practical ways to exploit nature’s quirks at tiny scales.



Outside computing, these phenomena could reshape fundamental physics by suggesting new forms of <a href="https://oxfordqcmt.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum matter</a>. 



Scientists see hints that fractional excitons belong to a bigger family of novelties that challenge simple textbooks on particles and fields.



In the end, these findings raise more puzzles than answers, which is part of the allure of quantum studies. 



Every fresh observation opens new questions about how charges, excitons, and hidden states fit into the broader tapestry of existence.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08274-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Quantum oddity points to entirely new class of subatomic particles

Quantum mechanics has always left people scratching their heads. Tiny...

Skylines keep climbing, roads stretch farther, and forests turn into parking lots. Urbanization is everywhere, sweeping across continents and replacing natural habitats with steel, glass, and asphalt. 



As cities expand, animals and plants must either adapt or disappear. Among these quiet struggles for survival, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> provide one of the most visible signs of how city life changes the natural world.



Urban ecology has emerged to study these impacts. This field focuses on how animals adjust to city life and how their behaviours, appearances, and chances of survival shift. 



While we already know that urban noise affects how birds sing and communicate, questions remain about how cities might also shape something more subtle and striking: their feathers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-colors-matter-for-city-survival">Bird colors matter for city survival</h2>



Birds don’t just wear colors for show. Plumage color plays many roles in survival. It helps regulate body heat, provides camouflage from predators, and signals strength or attractiveness to potential mates.



In natural habitats, colors evolve slowly through generations. But in urban areas, the rules change quickly.



Cities are warmer than rural areas. They have different backgrounds - grey walls, dark roads, and neon lights. They also have fewer predators and more artificial lighting at night. This creates a unique environment that may favour certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> colours over others.



That’s where the question arises: are city birds coloured differently from their countryside counterparts? A group of scientists decided to find out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-data-from-hundreds-of-bird-species">Data from hundreds of bird species</h2>



A research team led by Bart Kempenaers at the <a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a> and the <a href="https://www.ugr.es/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Granada</a> took on this question. 



The researchers used a global dataset that included the abundance of over 1200 bird species across habitats with different urbanization levels. They combined this with detailed information on each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-biofluorescence-glowing-brightly-to-attract-mates-birds-of-paradise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>’ plumage colour.



The goal was simple but powerful: could plumage color predict which birds do well in cities? The results revealed clear patterns.



The researchers discovered that birds that succeed in urban areas tend to be less brown than those that don't.



"Brown shades are more common in natural environments than in cities. We suspect that brown birds are at a disadvantage in a rather grey city. The predominant colors of a city and the lack of suitable habitats can therefore determine which bird species are successful there," explained Kaspar Delhey, one of the lead authors of the study.



Urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> seem to shed their earthy tones and adopt colors that fit - or even stand out - against the urban backdrop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colorful-birds-do-better-in-cities">Colorful birds do better in cities</h2>



The findings went further. Not only do city <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-birds-are-at-great-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> avoid brown, but they often display more elaborate and striking plumage, especially among females. This trend runs counter to what might be expected in the wild, where standing out can attract predators.



Cities, however, are relatively safe. With fewer predators lurking in the shadows, birds no longer need to hide as much. As a result, colors that once would have been risky may now help with recognition, mating, or dominance within species.



This supports a new understanding of urban wildlife: cities don’t just change numbers - they change traits. The environment influences how birds look, and colour becomes more than just decoration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cities-have-fewer-birds-but-more-variety">Cities have fewer birds but more variety</h2>



Earlier studies had suggested that cities reduce the diversity of colors in bird populations. With fewer species around, people assumed the range of colors would also shrink. But this research turned that idea on its head.



"There are fewer species in urban areas than in rural areas. When we take this into account, the bird communities in cities actually have greater color diversity," said Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo, first author of the study.



So, even though there may be fewer types of birds, the ones that remain or thrive in cities bring a wide range of colors with them. This makes the visual landscape of urban birdlife surprisingly rich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-city-life-changes-how-birds-evolve">City life changes how birds evolve</h2>



This study offers more than just colourful observations. It highlights a deeper reality — cities can influence the course of evolution. Traits that were once neutral or even harmful may become beneficial in urban settings.



Birds with more vivid plumage now have an edge in places once considered unsuitable for wildlife. This shift affects not only how birds look but how they behave, reproduce, and interact with one another.



While this research focused on birds, it opens the door to a broader question: do other animals also change their appearance to cope with urban living? That remains to be explored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-more-can-cities-teach-us">What more can cities teach us?</h2>



Urban areas are expanding faster than ever. As we build more, we reshape ecosystems in ways we still don’t fully understand. This study provides one important piece of the puzzle. It shows that city life selects for color in birds, influencing not just which species survive, but how they look while doing so.



Future research will need to explore how widespread this pattern is. Does it apply only to birds? Or will we find similar patterns among insects, reptiles, or mammals?



For now, the message is clear. In the grey world of concrete and steel, color still matters - and in some cases, it matters even more.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.70106" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology Letters</a>.



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Birds living in cities are usually more colorful and less brown

Skylines keep climbing, roads stretch farther, and forests turn into...

Six years after cannabis legalization in Canada, scientists are still mapping its long-term health effects. While social and medical benefits remain under review, emerging neuroscience now highlights a key concern - psychosis linked to dopamine changes in the brain.



A new study led by Canadian researchers has found biological evidence linking frequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medicinal-cannabis-helped-patients-feel-better-for-a-full-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis use</a> to changes in brain chemistry that resemble those seen in early psychosis.



Using a cutting-edge brain scan called neuromelanin-sensitive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), the experts observed elevated dopamine activity in people with cannabis use disorder (CUD).



This increase occurred in the same brain areas previously tied to hallucinations, delusions, and other symptoms of psychotic disorders. The findings appeared in JAMA Psychiatry, in a study titled “Convergence of Cannabis and Psychosis on the Dopamine System.”



The study, spanning five years and several institutions, marks a turning point in how clinicians and researchers understand cannabis’ psychiatric risks. The analysis bridges the gap between clinical symptoms and underlying brain activity - something long sought but rarely demonstrated so clearly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-builds-dopamine-in-key-brain-areas">Cannabis builds dopamine in key brain areas</h2>



Dopamine helps the brain regulate mood, motivation, learning, and motor control. It also plays a central role in psychosis. High dopamine activity, especially in the striatum and midbrain, has been linked to schizophrenia and related disorders. What remained uncertain was how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-reduces-the-unwanted-side-effects-of-thc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a> fit into that picture.



The researchers used neuromelanin-MRI - a non-invasive method that visualizes dopamine activity indirectly by tracking neuromelanin, a vital compound in the brain.



Neuromelanin is a dark pigment that accumulates as dopamine breaks down over time. The more dopamine activity, the more neuromelanin remains behind. In brain scans, this pigment shows up as darkened regions, especially in two key midbrain areas: the substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area.



“In people partaking in excess cannabis use, those spots are blacker than what they should be for their age compared to healthy individuals,” said Lena Palaniyappan, professor at McGill University and senior author of the study. 



“This indicates they have high levels of dopamine, and in some cases are showing pigments someone 10 years older would have.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-use-elevates-dopamine-signals">Cannabis use elevates dopamine signals</h2>



The study was focused on 61 individuals aged 18 to 35 from London, Ontario. Participants included people with CUD, those with early psychosis, some with both conditions, and healthy controls. The researchers tracked changes in neuromelanin-MRI signals across the groups.



They found that those with CUD - regardless of schizophrenia diagnosis - had elevated neuromelanin signals in a subregion of the midbrain tied to psychosis. This was not a temporary spike. Even after one year, the signal remained high, suggesting that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-related-anxiety-may-be-reduced-with-citrus-based-oil-d-limonene/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a>-related dopamine changes may have a lasting effect.



This finding was dose-dependent. Individuals with more severe CUD symptoms showed stronger signal intensity, confirming that frequency and severity of cannabis use matter. 



“We now have evidence that shows a straight line linking cannabis with dopamine and psychosis that has never been shown before, and it's crucial that clinicians, patients, and families work together to break this line," said Palaniyappan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-increases-the-risk-of-psychosis">Cannabis increases the risk of psychosis </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-impacts-working-memory-and-brain-function/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cannabis</a>’ effects on dopamine have long been disputed. Previous PET scans often showed mixed results - some indicating lowered dopamine synthesis, others showing a spike only after THC administration.



Neuromelanin-MRI offers a longer-term view, revealing cumulative dopamine activity, not just momentary shifts.



Participants with CUD had consistently higher neuromelanin signal across multiple scans, even when researchers accounted for nicotine use and other variables. 



Interestingly, participants with first-episode schizophrenia (FES) did not show significant changes unless they also had CUD, which suggests cannabis itself may play a more central role than previously thought.



“This could help explain why cannabis use increases the risk of hallucinations and delusions, key symptoms of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders,” said Jessica Ahrens, a PhD student at McGill University and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-induced-psychosis-is-rising">Cannabis-induced psychosis is rising </h2>



Canadian emergency departments have reported more cases of cannabis-induced psychosis since legalization. Psychiatrists working with young adults are observing troubling patterns. Brief episodes are turning into more severe psychotic breaks over time.



“In the last several years since legalization, we're seeing adolescents who have two or three brief cannabis-induced episodes of psychosis and then have a much more major episode,” said Dr. Julie Richard, psychiatrist and physician lead at PEPP, a specialized early psychosis program. 



“So, we're trying to counsel adolescents within that first episode that they're pushing their brain towards a major episode and show them the areas in the brain that are impacted.”



The new imaging data now offers a visual tool that can support those conversations. Showing young people their own brain scans could help clinicians explain the risks more clearly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dopamine-changes-persist-after-one-year">Dopamine changes persist after one year</h2>



Importantly, the experts found no evidence that continued cannabis use beyond a certain point further increased dopamine activity. This suggests that dopamine-related changes may plateau after repeated exposure.



Yet, this stability does not mean the brain returns to normal. Elevated neuromelanin signals remained even a year later, indicating lasting effects.



“Increased dopamine functioning in the SN/VTA may be associated with the risk of psychosis in people with cannabis use disorder,” the authors wrote. This midbrain region - the source of dopamine projections to other brain areas - appears central to how cannabis affects mental health.



The absence of a “recovery effect” raises new questions: Can these changes be reversed with abstinence? Do they set the stage for future psychiatric illness? Larger, long-term studies will be needed to explore these questions further.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guiding-public-health-and-prevention">Guiding public health and prevention</h2>



The authors emphasized that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-potency-cannabis-use-linked-to-epigenetic-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a> alone does not cause psychosis in every user. But it raises the risk, especially in those with family histories or early symptoms. By linking cannabis use to measurable brain changes, this study helps move the discussion from speculation to science.



“The lack of clear biological evidence linking cannabis to psychosis has made it harder to persuade young people with psychotic symptoms to reduce their use,” said Palaniyappan. 



“Our findings could help doctors and mental health professionals better educate patients about the potential risks of frequent cannabis use.”



“I hope these findings lead patients and health-care providers to better understand the implications and for the health-care providers to give patients resources for options other than cannabis to help them cope,” Jessica Ahrens added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-and-dopamine-help-explain-psychosis">Cannabis and dopamine help explain psychosis</h2>



This study does not aim to demonize cannabis but to understand its effects better. With its use becoming more socially accepted and legally accessible, especially among youth, understanding its neurological footprint is urgent.



Cannabis use disorder is now more than a behavioral diagnosis. It is increasingly linked to real, visible changes in the brain’s dopamine system that may shape vulnerability to psychosis. 



For clinicians, families, and users themselves, this information could lead to more informed decisions and safer outcomes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2832297" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Psychiatry</a>.



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Dopamine changes from cannabis are linked to psychosis

Six years after cannabis legalization in Canada, scientists are still...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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